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IGCSE CHEMISTRY
Digitized Notes
Chemical Energetics

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Textbook

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Compiled By: - Patrick Muswa

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 Chemical Energetics
Energetics is the study of heat energy changes that take place during chemical reactions.
Reactions and temperature changes
Energy is transferred to or from the surroundings when a chemical reaction happens. This often causes
changes in temperature that can be measured using a thermometer.
Reactions can be exothermic or endothermic. The table shows some differences.
Exothermic Endothermic
Energy Given out Taken in
Temperature Increases Decreases
Examples Combustion, acid-alkali neutralisation Electrolysis, thermal decomposition
The slideshow describes an exothermic reaction between dilute sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid,
and an endothermic reaction between sodium carbonate and ethanoic acid.

Sodium hydroxide solution is poured into a beaker of hydrochloric acid which contains a thermometer
showing room temperature
In endothermic reactions, energy enters. In exothermic reactions, energy exits.
Exothermic reactions in solution give out energy and the temperature increases, while endothermic
reactions take in energy and the temperature decreases. Bonds are broken and made in reactions.

Reaction profiles
Breaking and making bonds
Energy is transferred when bonds are broken or are formed. During a chemical reaction:
• energy is taken in to break bonds in the reactants
• energy is released when new bonds are made in the products
The difference in the amounts of energy involved determines the type of reaction. A reaction is:
• exothermic - if more energy is released in forming bonds in the products than is taken in when
breaking bonds in the reactants
• endothermic - if less energy is released in forming bonds in the products than is taken in when
breaking bonds in the reactant
Reaction profile diagrams
A reaction profile shows how the energy in the reactants and products changes during a reaction. It
includes the activation energy, the minimum energy needed for a reaction to start. The activation
energy is shown as a ‘hump’ in the line, which:
• starts at the energy of the reactants
• is equal to the difference in energy between the top of the ‘hump’ and the reactants
The overall change in energy in a reaction is the difference between the energy of the reactants and
products.
Exothermic reactions
The diagram shows a reaction profile for an exothermic reaction.

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 A reaction profile for an exothermic reaction
Question
Describe how you can tell from a reaction profile that a reaction is exothermic.
Endothermic reactions
The diagram shows a reaction profile for an endothermic reaction.

A reaction profile for an endothermic reaction

Question
Describe how you can tell from a reaction profile that a reaction is endothermic.

Calculating energy changes - Higher

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 The energy change in a reaction can be calculated using bond energies. A bond energy is the amount
of energy needed to break one mole of a particular covalent bond. Different bonds have different bond
energies. These are given when they are needed for calculations.
To calculate an energy change for a reaction:
• add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the reactants - this is the ‘energy in’
• add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products - this is the ‘energy out’
• energy change = energy in - energy out
Example
Hydrogen and chlorine react to form hydrogen chloride gas:
H−H + Cl−Cl → 2 × (H−Cl)
Use the bond energies in the table to calculate the energy change for this reaction.
Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)
H−H 436
Cl−Cl 243
H−Cl 432
Energy in = 436 + 243 = 679 kJ/mol
Energy out = (2 × 432) = 864 kJ/mol
Energy change = in - out
= 679 - 864
= -185 kJ/mol
The energy change is negative. This shows that the reaction is exothermic.
Example
Hydrogen bromide decomposes to form hydrogen and bromine:
2 × (H−Br) → H−H + Br−Br
Use the bond energies in the table to calculate the energy change for this reaction.
Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)
H−Br 366
H−H 436
Br−Br 193
Energy in = 2 × 366 = 732 kJ/mol
Energy out = 436 + 193 = 629 kJ/mol
Energy change = in - out
= 732 - 629
= +103 kJ/mol
The energy change is positive. This shows that the reaction is endothermic.
Question
Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water:
2 × (H-H) + O=O → 2 × (H-O-H)
Use the bond energies in the table to calculate the energy change for this reaction.
Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)
H−H 436
O=O 498
O-H 464

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 Energy changes
Breaking and making bonds
During a chemical reaction:
• bonds in the reactants are broken
• new bonds are made in the products
Energy is absorbed to break bonds. Bond-breaking is an endothermic process.
Energy is released when new bonds form. Bond-making is an exothermic process.
Whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic depends on the difference between the energy
needed to break bonds and the energy released when new bonds form.
• If more heat energy is released when making the bonds than was taken in, the reaction is exothermic
• If more heat energy was taken in when making the bonds than was released, the reaction is endothermic
Energy diagrams
Energy diagrams show the level of energy of the reactants and of the products. The bigger the
difference between the energy of the reactants and the energy of the products, the more energy is
given out or taken in. It is easy to see from an energy level diagram whether the reaction is exothermic
or endothermic:
• in exothermic reactions the reactants are higher than the products
• in endothermic reactions the reactants are lower than the products

An energy level diagram for an exothermic reaction

In an exothermic reaction, the products are at a lower energy than the reactants. The difference
between the energy of the reactants and the energy of the products is called the enthalpy
change (∆H) of the reaction. For an exothermic reaction, the enthalpy change is always negative.

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 An energy level diagram for an endothermic reaction
In an endothermic reaction, the products are at a higher energy than the reactants. This means that
the enthalpy change of the reaction (∆H) is positive.

Calculating energy changes

Data from a calorimetry experiment can be used to calculate the molar enthalpy change of a reaction.

You need to know the mass – or volume of the water that was heated, the temperature change of the
water, and the mass or number of moles of the limiting reactant (eg the fuel burned or the solute
added).

Use this equation to work out an energy change:

Energy transferred = mass of water heated × specific heat capacity of water × temperature rise

Question

The energy from burning 0.5 g of propane was transferred to 100 cm3 of water to raise its
temperature by 20°C. Calculate the enthalpy change (in kJ), and then use this to calculate the
molar enthalpy change (in kJ/mol).

(Assume that 1cm3 of water has a mass of 1 g.)

Production of energy
Heat energy can be produced by burning fuels such as hydrogen. However, it can also be produced in
other ways.
Radioactive isotopes
Some isotopes are radioactive, for example 235U. These substances can be used as fuels in nuclear
power stations. They release energy as they turn into other elements through radioactive decay.

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Electrochemical cells
A simple electrochemical cell can be produced by dipping two different metals into an electrolyte and
connecting them via wires and a voltmeter, bulb, motor, etc. The bigger the difference in reactivity
between the two metals, the bigger the voltage produced.
Fuel cells
Fuels such as hydrogen can also be made to react with oxygen in a controlled manner to produce
energy as electricity, not as heat. These fuel cells have the advantage of being more efficient than
engines that burn fuels, they have fewer moving parts, and they are lighter and more sustainable.