A Review of Magnetic Sensors

JAMES E. LENZ, MEMBER, IEEE

Invited Paper

The techniques used to produce magnetic sensors encompass A. Search-Coil Magnetometer

many aspects of physics and electronics. Eleven of the most com-
mon technologies used for magnetic field sensing are described The principle behind the search-coil magnetometer illus-
and compared. These are search coil, flux-gate, optically pumped, trated in Fig. 2 i s Faraday’s law of induction. If the magnetic
nuclear precession, SQUlD, Hall-effect, magnetoresis tive, magne- flux through a coiled conductor changes, a current is
todiode, magnetotransistor, fiber optic, and magneto-optic. The
usage of these sensors in relation to working with or around €arth’s induced in the coil and a voltage proportional to the rate
magnetic field is also presented. of change of the flux is generated between its leads. The
flux through the coil will change if the coil i s in a magnetic
I. MAGNETIC
SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES field that varies with time or if the coil i s moved through
a nonuniform field. Typically, a rod of a ferromagnetic
Magnetic sensors have assisted mankind in analyzing and material with a high magnetic permeability i s inserted inside
controlling thousands of functionsfor many decades. Com- the coil to “gather” the surrounding magnetic field and
puters have unlimited memorythrough theuseof magnetic increase flux density. (The permeability of a material is a
sensors in magnetic storage disks and tape drives. Air- measureof theextent to which it modifies the magnetic flux
planes fly with higher safety standards because of the high through the region it occupies.)
reliability of noncontact switching with magnetic sensors. The sensitivity of the search-coil magnetometer depends
Factories have higher productivity because of the precise on the permeabilityof the core material, the area of the coil,
stability and low cost of magnetic sensors. the number of turns, and the rate of change of the magnetic
There are many ways to sense magnetic fields, most of flux through the coil. The frequency response of the sensor
them based o n the intimate connection between magnetic may be limited by the ratio of the coil’s inductance to its
and electric phenomena. In the first half of this paper, the resistance, which determines the time it takes the induced
more popular sensor technologies will be described with current to dissipate when the external magnetic field i s
examples of products. I n the second half, the major appli- removed. The higher the inductance, the more slowly the
cations of magnetic sensors are discussed in relation to current dissipates, and the lower the resistance, the more
three categories: measuring fields stronger than Earth’s quickly it dissipates. In somecases, the interwindingcapac-
field, measuring perturbations in Earth‘s field, and mea- itance can also limit the frequency response. In practice,
suring gradients in generated or induced magnetic fields. however, the voltage readout electronics can limit both the
A common theme among all applications i s that magnetic sensitivity and the frequency response of the sensor.
sensors provide a more rugged, reliable, and maintenance- Sensors of this type can detect fields as weak as G,
free technology compared t o other sensor technologies. and there i s no upper limit to their sensitivity range. Their
Magnetic sensing techniques exploit a broad range of useful frequency range i s typically from 1 Hz to 1 MHz, the
physics and chemistry disciplines. Eleven of the more com- upper limit being that set by the ratio of the coil’s induc-
mon magnetic sensor technologies are listed in Fig. 1, which tance to its resistance. The sensors can be as short as 2 in.
compares approximate sensitivity ranges. In some cases, or as long as 50 in. They require between 1 and 10 mW of
projected ranges based on further improvements are indi- power, all of which i s consumed in the readout electronics.
cated by dashes. It i s important to note that the sensitivity In addition to this passive use, one can also operate a
range for each concept is influenced by the readout elec- search coil in an active mode. The active-mode method
tronics. There are many other factors, particularly fre- involves incorporating the search coil as an inductive ele-
quency response, size, and power, that affect what sensor ment in an electrical circuit. There are two basic circuit
i s best suited for an application. A description of each of designs. One incorporates a balanced inductive bridge
these concepts follows. where an inductance change in one leg of the bridge pro-
duces an out-of-balance voltage in the circuit. The second
Manuscript received June 16, 1989.
circuit design incorporates a resonant circuit where a
Theauthor iswith Systemsand Research Center, Honeywell, Inc.,
3660 Technology Drive, Minneapolis, MN 55418. change in inductance results in achange in the circuit’s res-
IEEE Log Number 9036163. onant frequency. This circuit is sometimes referred t o as an

0018-9219/90/0600-0973$01.000 1990 IEEE

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 Detectable Field (gauss)*
Magnetic Sensor Technology

1. Search-Coil Magnetometer

2. Flux-Gate Magnetometer

3. Optically Pumped Magnetometer

4.Nuclear-Precession Magnetometer
5. SQUID Magnetometer
6. Hal-Effect Sensor
7. Magnetoresistive Magnetometer
8. Magnetodiode
9. Magnetotransistor
10. Fiber-Optic Magnetometer

11. Magneto-Optical Sensor

*Note: 1T = 10% = IO9 y

Fig. 1. Magnetic sensor comparison.

Magneuc;
Field I \ \ \ \ \ \

-d@
emf,&=-
dt
Fig. 2 . Search-Coil magnetometer based on Faraday’s Law of Induction. The rnagnetom-
eter senses a magnetic field by means of the current it induces in a coil. When the flux
density through the coil changes, a voltage appears between the coil‘s leads. This shows
a passive operation, where no electrical current i s applied to the sensing coil.

eddy-killed oscillator, since conductive materials near the uration magnetization once each half-cycle. Because of hys-
active coil will have eddy currents induced, which will pro- teresis, the magnetic flux through the core will trace a loop
duceamutual inductancechange in thecircuit.An example if it i s plotted against the magnetic field intensity. Changes
of the active search coil is shown in Fig. 3. This product i s in flux density through the core are sensed by the second
primarily used o n aircraft for door checks and for indicating coil. As the core i s driven into saturation, the reluctance of
the position of slats and landing gear. the core t o the external magnetic field being measured
increases, thus making it less attractive for the magnetic
field to pass through the core. As this field i s repelled, its
B. Flux-Gate Magnetometer
change i s sensed by the second coil. When the core comes
The flux-gate magnetometer illustrated in Fig. 4 consists out of saturation by reducing the current in the drive coil,
of aferromagnetic material wound with two coils. It exploits the external magnetic field is again attracted t o the core,
magnetic induction together with the hysteresis exhibited which is again sensed by the second coil. Thus, alternate
by all ferromagnetic materials. Hysteresis is the depen- attraction and repulsion causes the magnetic lines of flux
dence of the state of a physical system o n its previous his- to cut the second coil. The voltage output from the second
tory. coil consists of even-numbered harmonics of the excitation
I n this case, the term refers t o the fact that the magnetic frequency. For readout, the second harmonic i s extracted
flux through the ferromagnetic core lags behind changes and rectified. The voltage associated with this harmonic is
in the magnetic field. proportional t o the external magnetic field.
When a sinusoidal current i s applied t o one of the coils, The sensitivity of this sensor depends o n the shapeof the
the current magnetizes the core, causing it t o reach its sat- hysteresis curve. For maximum sensitivity, the magnetic

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 Oscillator

'LP

coil
Reference 5kTjf Sensing
coil

(b)
Fig. 3. Search-coil magnetometer operating in active mode. (a) An out-of-balance voltage
is generated when the sensing coil has a change in inductance due to the proximity of
a conducting target. (b) Inductively coupled proximity sensor that operates with an optical
fiber interface.

Out of Saturation B

In Sat

&(drive) &(Earth))
Sense coil Output = ( 7+ ____
dt

where =COS (wt)

Fig. 4. Flux-gate magnetometer operation.

LENZ: A REVIEW OF MAGNETIC SENSORS 975

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 field-magnetic induction (B-H) curve should be square,
sincethis produces the highest induced electromotiveforce
(emf) for a given value of Earth’s field. For minimum power
consumption, the core material should have low coercivity
and saturation values. The sensitivity range i s from G
to 100 G. The frequency response of the sensor i s limited
by the excitation field and the response time of the fer-
romagnetic material. The upper limit on the frequency i s
about 10 kHz. Flux-gate magnetometers resemble the
search-coil magnetometers in size, but they consume
roughly five times as much power. The major advantage of
flux-gate magnetometers over search coils i s their ability to
Photodetector
precisely measure direct current (dc) fields.
Many versions of flux-gate magnetometers have been
developed. Most of these result in lower power consump-
Freauencv Control I
tion by operating the sensor o n a minor hysteresis loop, Fig. 6. Optically pumped magnetometer exploits the Zee-
man Effect.
thus not driving the core from saturation to saturation.
These minor-loop flux-gate magnetometers are much more
two lower states that are close together and one state at a
sensitive to the drive and readout electronics than the
much higher energy. The energy difference between the
major-loop versions, which, as described above, are mostly
lower states corresponds t o a radio-frequency spectral line,
dominated bythecore material‘s properties. Figure5 shows
and the transition between one of the lower energy states
a toroidal core minor-loop flux-gate magnetometer
and the higher state corresponds to a spectral line in the
designed for two-axis sensitivity.
optical region.
The difference between the energies of the t w o lower
C. Optically Pumped Magnetometer
states i s due t o a difference in the orientation of the spin
The optically pumped magnetometer illustrated in Fig. axes of the electrons. An electron’s spin axis can have only
6 is based o n theZeeman effect. In 1896 the Dutch physicist one of two orientations with respect to an external mag-
Peter Zeeman showed that some of the characteristic spec- netic field-parallel or antiparallel-and one requires less
tral lines of atoms are split when the atoms are placed in energy than the other. The lower energy states are said to
a magnetic field; one spectral line becomes a group of lines differ in one quantum unit of spin angular momentum. The
with slightly different wavelengths. The splitting i s partic- higher state is a special one chosen because it has the same
ularly pronounced in alkali elements such as cesium. angular momentum as one of the lower states.
The optically pumped magnetometer exploits three Consider a cesium vapor optically pumped with circu-
energy states available t o cesium’s single valence electron: larly polarized light. The amount of light the vapor is

I’OWEH SlJPPLY F I I TEN MAGNETIC AXIS FLYBACK OSCILLATOH

PLAK D I F F E R ENCF * - 1 INCH _ _ - -

I
OCTECTOH

Fig. 5. Toroidal core flux-gate magnetometer.

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 absorbing i s monitored with a photodetector. Initially, some
of the electrons in the vapor will be in one of the lower
energy states and some in the other. When atoms absorb
photons from circularly polarized light, their angular
momentum necessarily changes by one unit. Thus, elec-
trons in the energy state that differs from the higher state
by one unit of angular momentum will absorb photons and C
move to the higher state, but those in the energy state that
has the Same angular as the higher state will Fig. 8. Nuclear-precession magnetometer relies on the
not. Because some photons are absorbed, the beam of light behavior of dipoles in a magnetic field,
i s dimmed. An electron in the higher state drops down to
one of the two lower states almost immediately. Each time
hydrocarbon fluid such as benzene. The protons in the
an electron makes this transition, there is some probability
nucleus of an atom can be thought of as small magnetic
that it will drop back to the state that cannot absorb light.
dipoles; because they are spinning and have an electric
Given enough time, nearly all of the electrons will end u p
charge, they have a small magnetic moment, similar in some
there. The vapor, which i s then said t o be completely
ways to the angular momentum of a spinning gyroscope.
pumped, is relatively transparent to light.
The protons in a fluid can be temporarily aligned by the
If a radio-frequency field i s then applied parallel to the
uniform magnetic field created by a current through a coil.
light path, it will flip the electrons over, changing their spin
When the polarizing current i s switched off, the protons
angular momentum. In effect, the radio-frequency field
will begin to precess about the ambient magnetic field. The
causes electrons to shuttle from one of the lower energy
spin axis of a proton that i s out of alignment with a constant
states to the other, undoing theoptical pumping. As a result,
magnetic field, like the axis of a gyroscope out of alignment
thevapor again absorbs light. The radiofrequencyand opti-
with a gravitational field, traces a circle about a line parallel
cal effects combine to give a particularly sharp resonance,
to the field. The rate at which this circle is traced, called the
and it is this resonance the optically pumped magnetom-
precession frequency, depends o n the strength of the mag-
eter exploits.
netic field. The precessing protons generate a signal in the
The energy required t o flip the electron spins, and thus
coil whose frequency is proportional t o the strength of the
the radio frequency, depends o n the strength of the mag-
magnetic field. LI ke the optically pumped magnetometer,
netic field. In the magnetometer, a feedback loop controls
the nuclear-precession magnetometer measures the total
the radio frequency to maintain the minimum light trans-
magnetic field. These magnetometers have a sensitivity
mission. The frequency thus serves as a measure of the
range of IO-’G to 1 G. Their frequency range i s limited by
magnetic field. The optically pumped magnetometer mea-
the gating frequency of the hydrocarbon fluid.
sures the total magnetic field, whatever its orientation,
An optically pumped magnetometer that relies o n nuclear
unlike most magnetometers, which measure only the com-
precession for readout is under development. A gas of the
ponent of the magnetic field that lies along the sensitive
isotope of helium, He3, is optically pumped, and then the
axis.
precession frequency of the atomic nuclei i s recorded with
The sensitivity and dynamic range of the optically
pickupcoils. This sensor has the potential for very high sen-
pumped magnetometer, like those of most magnetome-
sitivity (10-8G)with modest operating power (less than 0.5
ters, are determined by the readout electronics. Typical
W). A photo of this sensor i s shown in Fig. 9.
sensitivities for cesium and helium, which is sometimes
employed instead of cesium, are 700 kHz/G and 2.8 MHz/
E. SQUID Magnetometer
G, respectively. This translates into a sensitivity range for
the device of G to 1 G. This sensor, however, i s rel- The most sensitive of all instruments for measuring a
atively large, and its power consumption i s high (several magnetic field i s the superconducting quantum interfer-
watts). encedevice(SQU1D) illustrated in Fig. IO. It i s based o n the
An important aspect of this sensor i s that the magnetic remarkable interactions of electric currents and magnetic
signature of the sensor itself can be made to be very low. fields observed when certain materials are cooled below a
One product that exploits this feature i s a diver-held mag- superconducting transition temperature. At this temper-
netometer, shown in Fig. 7, which is used for underwater ature, the materials become superconductors; they lose all
mine field clearing. resistance t o the flow of electricity.
If a line of magnetic flux becomes threaded through a
ring made of a superconducting material, a current i s
induced in the ring; in the absence of any further distur-
bances the current would continue flowing forever. The
magnitudeof the induced current is an exquisitelysensitive
indicator of the flux density. Indeed, the ring can respond
to a change in the field corresponding to fractions of a sin-
gle quantum unit of magnetic flux.
Fig. 7. Diver-held magnetometer.
How i s the current in the superconducting ring to be
measured?The key to the answer was predicted in 1962 by
D. Nuclear-PrecessionMagnetometer Brian D. Josephson,w h o was then agraduate student at the
This magnetometer, illustrated in Fig. 8 , exploits the University of Cambridge. Josephson considered what
response t o a magnetic field of the nuclei of atoms in a would happen in a superconducting ring interrupted by a

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 (b)
Fig. 9. (a) A Hydrocarbon-Based Nuclear-Precession Magnetometer. (b) HE’-free preces-
sion magnetometer uses an optical pumping technique to initialize thedipole precession.

”weak-link,”either a thin layer of insulator or an areawhere increases again and so on. The periodic variations i n the
the superconductor itself narrows t o avery small cross sec- current have the same pattern as the interference fringes
tion. He found that a supercurrent can flow through the produced by the diffraction of light.
weak link, but it i s an oscillating function of the magnetic I n a SQUID, the periodic variations are exploited t o mea-
field intensity. In other words, as the field increases, the surethecurrent in the superconducting ring and hencethe
supercurrent first rises t o a peak, then falls to zero, then ambient magnetic field. Typically, the ring is inductively

Superconducting Superconducting Magnetic

I
Readout

I
S Q m
I
Ring pickup Coil Field

1 f~\
I I

Point-Contact Junction
Fig. 10. Basic componentsof a SQUID magnetometer. Agradiometer i s formed with two
parallel turns in the pickup coil.

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 coupled t o a radio-frequency circuit that both supplies a in any one of nine directions can be sensed (i.e. GBJlix, 6B,l
known bias field and serves as the detector output. Changes 6 y , GB,/6z, GBJlix, etc.) The ability to fabricate a high-sen-
in the ring current alter the resonant frequency of the cir- sitivity gradiometer is a unique feature of this technology
cuit; as a result, the output signal changes periodically as over other magnetic sensor schemes. A photograph of the
the field varies. Changes i n the field can be measured sim- sense loops for a five-axis gradiometer is shown i n Fig. 11.
ply by counting the peaks and valleys much as one would A new family of materials that exhibit superconductive
count fringes in an interference pattern. Alternatively, a properties above liquid-nitrogen (77OK) temperature was
feedback loopcan beemployed t o lockthe radio-frequency discovered i n 1986. The potential for higher temperature
circuit onto a single peak, continually adjusting the bias SQUID magnetometers appears available. The most
field t o compensate for changes in the external field. The obvious benefit of the high-temperature superconductors
feedback current i s then a measure of the ambient field. will be a thinner insulation jacket between the sense loops
Onecanalsoform adcSQUlD byformingtwo Josephson and the magnetic field being mapped. However, the higher
junctions in the ring. When thetwoweak linksare matched temperature operation may also lead t o a reduction i n the
properly through design, the current in the ring has a dc high sensitivityachieved with liquid-helium operation ( 4 O K )
response t o the flux going through it. for the following reasons: 1) higher Johnson noise in the
The superconducting ring i n a SQUID is typically a toroid readout electronics, 2) lower rigidity between gradiometer
a few millimeters in diameter made of a metal such as lead coils, and 3) higher thermal gradients and variations across
or niobium. The weak link i s a narrow construction in the the superconductors.
superconductor or a point-contact junction. Sensitivity is
improved by coupling the ring t o a larger superconducting F. Hall-Effect Sensoi
loop or coil (without a weak link), which effectively serves
The Hall-effect sensor, illustrated i n Fig. 12, exploits a
as a magnetic "antenna" or dc search coil, gathering flux
physical phenomenon discovered by Edwin H. Hall more
over an area of several square centimeters. With super-
than 100 years ago. He found that a voltage difference
conducting properties, one can form a dc transformer
appears across a thin rectangle of gold placed in a strong
between the sense loop and the SQUID readout. The
magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rectangle
SQUID ring essentially serves as a very precise ammeter for
when an electric current is sent along its length. An electron
measuring the current i n the pickup coil. Thus, the device
moving through a magnetic field experiences a force,
has three superconducting components: the SQUID ring
known as the Lorentz force, that i s perpendicular both t o
itself, the radio-frequency coil, and the large antenna loop.
All three must be cooled t o a superconducting state.
Thesensitivityof a SQUIDcan range from 10-"'G to10-4 Magnetic
G. The ability t o set a null level by adjusting the bias field Field
in the radio-frequency circuit makes the device particularly
useful for differential field measurements. For example, if
the null level is set t o the average terrestrial magnetic field,
the instrument will readily detect anomalies in the field.
The SQUID itself can be quite small, but the need for liq-
uid-helium coolant makes the complete instrument rather
Hall
bulky and heavy. The power consumption of several watts Voltage
i s due almost entirely t o the radio-frequency electronics.
The sensing loop can be configured t o be sensitive to a I
gradient i n the measuring field by cross-connecting two
Fig. 12. Hall-Efiect sensor mcasures the voltage that
parallel turns. Because the sense loop i s superconducting, appears across a thin water o i a semiconductor if there is
it hasadc responseto magnetic fields. Byorientingthecoils a magnetic tield p?rpendic-ular t o t h e plane ot the material
properly, the gradient of a component of the external tield and a current is w n t along i t s length.

Fig. 1 1 . Niobium wire sense loops for a five-axis gradiometer

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 its direction of motion and to the direction of the field. It of magnetization of the film. The resistance is highestwhen
i s the response t o this force that creates the Hall voltage. the magnetization i s parallel t o thecurrent and lowest when
The Hall effect i s very small in metallic conductors, but it is perpendicular to thecurrent. The magnetization rotates
a semiconductor gives a much larger effect. Since there are in thedirection of an applied magnetic field, but it generally
fewer conduction electrons in a semiconductor, if the total does not end u p pointing in the same direction as the field
current through it i s the same as that through a metal, the because its direction i s determined by several competing
electrons in the semiconductor must have a much higher factors. One i s the easy axis-the direction along which the
drift velocity than those i n the metal. The faster the elec- magnetization in a circular film prefers to lie-which i s
trons are moving, the stronger the force they experience determined by the magnetic field present during deposi-
and the greater the Hall voltage produced at equilibrium. tion of the film. Another i s the shape of the film, which i n
Inexpensive Hall-effect sensors are generally made of sil- the case of a long, thin film, keeps the magnetization in the
icon. More sensitive sensors can be made of the l l I-V semi- planeof the film and tends to make it point along the length
conductors, which have a higher electron mobility than sil- of the film.
icon. Most commercially available Hall-effect magnetom- Permalloy is the most common material for magneto-
eters have sensing elements made of the Ill-V semicon- resistive sensors because it has a relatively high magne-
ductor indium antimonide. toresistive coefficient and because its characteristics are
The silicon devices have a sensitivity range of 10 G t o 1000 compatible with the fabrication techniques employed to
G, and the indium antimonide sensors extend the lower make silicon integrated circuits such as a zero coefficient
limitto10-3G. Hall-effect sensorscan measureeitheracon- of magnetostriction. An integrated sensor normally con-
stant or a varying flux; the frequency limitation i s about 1 sists of four Permalloy resistors sputter-deposited o n a sil-
MHz. They are light and about 0.1 in.*Their power require- icon substrate. The four resistors form a two-legged current
ment i s between 0.1 and 0.2 W, and they can be operated path called a bridge. A voltage develops between the t w o
over an extremely wide temperature range limited only by legs of the bridge if the resistance of one i s different from
packaging and lead attachment to the semiconductor. that of the other. Fig. 14 shows a microphotograph of the
Devices are available from 2OOOC to near absolute zero four resistors, each consisting of a serpentine path. This
(-273OC). long path design allows for a high bridge resistance, thus
minimizing the power drain by the sensor. The bridge volt-
G. Magnetoresistive Magnetometer age readout electronics are fabricated on the same chip as
the resistors, and temperature-compensating circuitry can
This magnetometer is based on the magnetoresistive
also be included on the chip. Each resistor i s biased-its
effect, a change in resistance caused by an external mag-
direction of magnetization i s rotated to bring it intoa region
netic field. Materials such as Permalloy (an alloy of nickel
where the change in resistance that results from a change
and iron) can be given a preferred magnetic orientation such
in the magnetic field is linear and relatively large. This can
that a current passed through a ribbon of the material mag-
bedone by sputteringathin film of cobaltoverthe resistors
netizes it in a direction parallel to the direction of the cur-
and magnetizing the cobalt.
rent. If a magnetic field is then applied perpendicular t o the
The magnetoresistive sensors have a sensitivity range of
current, the direction of magnetization will rotate toward
IO-’ G to 50 G with open-loop readout electronics. With
the direction of the magnetic field. The angle through which
closed-loop feedback readout electronic methods, the min-
it rotates depends on the amplitude of the external mag-
imum detectable field can be reduced to G for limited
netic field. The resistance of the Permalloy element
bandwidths. With open-loop readout electronics, these
decreases as the direction of magnetization rotates away
sensors have an extremely wide dynamic range from dc to
from the direction in which the current flows because the
nearly 1 GHz. These sensors are light, small, require
conduction electrons moving in the direction of magneti-
between 0.1 and 0.5 m W of power, and can be operated at
zation have a greater tendency to be scattered. The resis-
temperatures between -55OC and 200°C.
tance changes roughly as the square of the cosine of the
angle through which the direction of magnetization i s
rotated. H. Magnetodiode
Figure 13 illustrates the magnetoresistive effect. Resis-
A magnetodiode is essentially a semiconductor diode, or
tance of a ferromagnetic thin film varies with the direction
pn junction as illustrated in Fig. 15. I n a magnetodiode,
however, the p region is separated from the n region by an
area of undoped silicon. O n top of the silicon i s a layer of

PZJ
Magnetization

No External Field
rn With External Field
Normalized Resistance
silicon dioxide and below it is sapphire, the substrate on
which the sensor i s constructed. If a metal contact o n the
p-doped region is given a positive potential and a metal con-
tact o n the n-doped region i s given a negative potential,
holes in the p-type material and electrons in the n-type
material will be injected into the undoped silicon. The cur-
rent is the sum of the hole current and the electron current
because the oppositely charged carriers are moving in
opposite directions.
Some of the carriers, particularly those near the interface
Magnetic Field Intensity between thesilicon and thesilicon dioxideor nearthe inter-
Fig. 13. Magnetoresistive effect in a thin current strip face between the silicon and the sapphire, will recombine.

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 Fig. 14. Permalloy magnetic sensor resistive bridge. The sensor chip measures about 5
mm by 3 mm. Four serpentine Permalloy resistors are laid out horizontally under the ver-
tical cobalt strips, which bias the Permalloy to i t s maximum sensitivity.

Metal Magnetic Metal magnetodiode would be greater if the device could be made
.Contact IField ,Contact with standard silicon technology. Currently, magneto-
diodes require a silicon-on-insulator substrate.

1. Magnetotransistor
This sensor, like the magnetodiode, i s an integrated sil-
icon device. If the magnetodiode i s a version of a pn junc-
tion, the magnetotransistor is aversion of an npn transistor.
Like the transistor, it consists of an n-doped emitter sep-
Sapphire arated from an n-doped collector by a p-doped base. The
difference i s that there are t w o collectors instead of one,
Silicon Dioxiie
/
Undoped Silicon
as illustrated in Fig. 16. In the absence of a magnetic field,
equal numbers of charge carriers arrive at both collectors.
If there is a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction
Fig. 15. Design structure of a magnetodiode. of travel of the charge carriers, they are deflected toward
one collector or the other, depending o n the direction of
The loss of charge carriers increases the resistance of the the field. The two-collector voltages are fed to a difference
material. I n the absence of a field, recombination at both amplifier, whose output is proportional t o the applied mag-
interfaces contributes to the resistance. A magnetic field netic field.
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the charge car- Two different effects are used in magnetotransistors t o
riers deflects them either down or up, depending on the detect magnetic fields. These are the Hall and Suhl effects.
direction of the field. Both holes and electrons are deflected In the Hall effect, as described previously, the Lorentzforce
in the samedirection because they are traveling in opposite is compensated by an opposing electric field, which i s
directions. Charge carriers near the interface between the sensed between the t w o collectors. The Suhl effect takes
silicon and the sapphire have a greater tendency to recom- place when the Lorentz force i s not compensated. An exter-
bine than those near the interface between the silicon and nal magnetic field causes a change in trajectory of the mov-
the silicon dioxide. Thus, if the magnetic field deflects the ing carriers, resulting in a variation in the current distri-
charge carriers down, the resistance of the material is butions that i s detected between the collector outputs.
greater than normal; if it deflects them up, the resistance Although both effects occur simultaneously, it i s possible
is smaller than normal. to design devices in which one effect is dominant. Figure
The response of a magnetodiode to a magnetic field is 17 illustrates a npnp structure that optimizes the Suhl effect.
about ten times larger than the response of a silicon Hall- These devices are now being evaluated. The magneto-
effect device. The number of suitable applications for the transistor i s expected t o be 100 times more sensitive than

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 :tic
A
/ Base A the Hall-effect device and i s based on a more standard fab-
rication technology (i.e., silicon substrates) than the mag-
netodiode.

1. Fiber-optic Magnetometer
The fiber-optic magnetometer i s a relatively new sensor
still under development. It employs t w o glass fibers that are
arranged t o form a Mach-Zender interferometer. As shown
Difference in Fig. 18, light from a laser passes through a beam splitter
Amplifier into the t w o fibers, travels along the length of the fibers,
Left i s recombined in a beam combiner, and arrives at a pho-
Collector r 0 output todetector at the end of each fiber. One of the fibers is either
wrapped around or coated with a magnetostrictive mate-
Right
Base Collector rial, a material whose dimensions depend o n the direction
and extent of its magnetization. When the magnetostrictive
material is magnetized by an external field, the length of
the fiber changes. If the length changes by a fraction of a

‘t
Fig. 16. A Magnetotransistor senses magnetic fields by
wavelength, the light traveling through the fiber arrives at
the beam combiner slightlyout of phasewith the light arriv-
ing from the reference fiber. The interference of the t w o
means of the current flowing through a version of the npn
transistor. light waves causes the light level at the photodetectors to
change by an amount dependent o n the phase difference.
Changes in path length as small as IO-l3m have been
detected with this type of interferometer. The device i s also
uniquely sensitive to the orientation of field lines and could
be employed to measure the curvature of the field lines as
well as the strength of the magnetic field. The feasibility of
electroplating a magnetostrictive material onto the fiber has
been demonstrated. Further work i s needed to address the
issues of noise and packaging.
The fiber-optic magnetometer has a sensitivity range of
IO-’G to 10 G. It can be employed to sense either constant
fields or fields fluctuating with frequencies below 60 kHz.
Its size depends o n the sensitivity required, but a typical
sensor i s roughly 4 in. long and 1 in. wide. Figure 19 shows
one of the first fiber magnetometers produced.

K. Magneto-OpticalSensor

o
...
Fig. 17.
tometer.
d7
Cross section of a vertical carrier-domain magne-
The magneto-optical sensor exploits yet another effect
discovered by Faraday. This effect, shown in Fig. 20, involves
the rotation of the plane of polarized light when traveling
through a magnetic material. The effect is largest in a few
crystals when the propagation directions of the light, the
crystal axis, and the applied magnetic field are all aligned.
To understand this Faraday polarization effect, we should
consider that a plane wave of polarized light i s composed
of two circularly polarized waves-one clockwise (CW) and

Optical Sensing Leg

I fi
\ U m
Photodetectors
=ED

I Reference Leg I
Light Light
Coupler Coupler
Fig. 18. A fiber-optic magnetometer is an interferometer with one of the fibers coated
with or attached to a magnetostrictive material.

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 Fig. 19. Fiber-opticmagnetometer. The sensing fiber, coated with nickel iron, iswrapped
in an oval pattern.

Light Source Polarizer ‘7’Photodetector

Analyzer

Polarization rotation ( 0 ~ )= V* L Ha
V = Verdetconstant
= Applidfield
Fig. 20. Magneto-optical sensor.

one counterclockwise (CCW).A polarization rotation of the mobile, computer, or factory could operate as efficiently
plane wave results from a change in the relative phases of without magnetic sensors.
the CW and CCW waves. This Faraday effect then results However, the many applications can all be sorted into
from a change in the crystal’s index of refraction, depend- three basic categories. The distinction between each cat-
ing on whether the precession of its electrons about the egory i s determined by how the sensor i s used in relation
longitudinal magnetic field i s in the same or the opposite to the ever present Earth’s magnetic field. Table 1 defines
sense as the rotation of the electric field of the circularly the three categories and lists their major applications and
polarized light. Afigure of merit used tocomparethis effect most common sensors.
between materials i s the Verdet constant, which has units The boundary between categories 1 and 2 results from
of angular rotation per unit of applied field per unit of mate- the magnitude of Earth‘s magnetic field, which varies from
rial length. roughly 0.1 G t o 1 G. For category 1, Earth’s magnetic field
There are three major crystalline materials that are used acts as the limiting noise source. The boundary between
to exploit this effect. A common material for field sensing categories2 and 3 i s the level to which Earth’s magnetic field
i s terbium gallium garnet, which has a Verdet constant of i s stable. Because of cosmological (i.e., solar flames) and
0.5 min/(G . cm). Recently, very high Verdet constants geological (i.e., Earth’s molten core) variations, Earth’s mag-
(-200-400 min/G . cm)) are being reported for bismuth- netic field varies from as low as 1 part in 100 000 000 t o as
substituted iron garnet. Along with a relatively high Verdet high as 1 part in 10 000 over a broad frequency range. For
constant, this material also can take on a permanent mag- many applications in category 2, it is these variations in
netization. Because of this uniquecombination of magnetic Earth’s field that provide the performance-limiting noise.
characteristics, this material has more applications in mag- For category 3, an uncontrollable background magnetic
neto-optical memories than in sensors. noise source that limits performance i s not known. I n this
The unique advantage that the magneto-optical senor has category, either a gradiometry or a finite differencing
over other magnetic sensors is its very fast response time. method is employed to cancel sensitivity to Earth’s mag-
Sensors with gigahertz response have been fabricated. netic field. In a gradiometer, the sensor i s designed so that
Unfortunately, the magnetic sensitivity of these sensors i s this cancellation i s done within the transduction mecha-
at best moderate because the Faraday polarization effect i s nism. I n a finite differencing method, t w o separate mag-
a small effect in relation to Earth’s magnetic field. netometers with time-correlated signals are differenced.
For either thegradient measurement o r t h e finite difference
method, Earth’s noise i s considered t o be coherent over the
SENSOR APPLICATIONS
II. MAGNETIC
baseline of measurement. Thus, for this category, the per-
There are a multitude of magnetic sensor applications, formance-limiting issues arise from the sensor itself. Addi-
many of which are encountered everyday. The first non- tional performance-limiting issues for finite differencing
laboratory use of a magnetic sensor i s thought to be fuzing are the time correlation of the sensor outputs and the spa-
of sea mines during World War II. Today, not one auto- tial coherence of Earth‘s field.

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 Table 1. Categorizationof Magnetic Sensor Applications
IO-^ c I C
Category 3 Category 2 Category 1
High Sensitivity Medium Sensitivitv Low Sensitivity
Definition Definition Definition
Measuring field gradients or * Measuring perturbations in the * Measuring fields stronger
differences due to induced (in magnitudes and/or direction of than Earth’s magnetic field
Earth’s field) or permanent Earth‘s field due to induced or
dipole moments permanent dipoles

Major Applications Major Applications Major Applications

* Brain function mapping
* Magnetic anomaly detection
Magnetic compass
* Munitions fuzing
- Noncontact switching

- Mineral prospecting
*
*
Current measurement
Magnetic memory
readout

Most Common Sensors Most Common Sensors Most Common Sensors

* SQUID gradiometer * Search-coil magnetometer Search-coil magnetometer
* Optically pumped magnetometer Flux-gate magnetometer Hall-effect sensor
-
*
Magnetoresistive magnetometer

For each category, specific applications will be further the gear-tooth position. A Hall sensor i s used in this appli-
illustrated. cation for several reasons. It is the lowest-cost magnetic
sensor. Silicon-based Hall sensors with integrated elec-
A. Low-Sensitivity Application: Noncontact Switching tronics cost only a few cents t o produce. The Hall sensor
i s designed to be sensitive to only strong fields so that ori-
Noncontact switching involves sensing the location of
entation within Earth’s field i s not a factor. Also, having the
some object without coming into contact with it. This
sensitivity axis perpendicular t o the integrated circuit chip
method of switching has proved to offer significant
allows for a low-profile package that can be located close
increases in reliability over contact switching because of
to the gear. Most new automotive ignition systems will
the elimination of surface wear. Three applications are
incorporate this sensing technique, coordinating the spark-
described below.
plug firing with the crankshaft location.
Traffic control requires noncontact switching to detect
the presence of an automobile at an intersection. The most
B. Medium-Sensitivity Application: Magnetic Anomaly
popular system for this incorporates a rectangular pattern
Detection a n d Magnetic Compassing
grooved into the road material with a coil laid into it. An
active search-coil circuitry i s used to sense the inductance A heavily researched magnetic sensor application i s mag-
change due to the presence of the metallic vehicle. The cir- netic anomaly detection (MAD). This involves detecting at
cu it (typically a 10-kHz d rive f req uency) mu st detect moving some distance away an uncooperative ferromagnetic object
as well as stationary vehicles. One can see that this sensor (such as a ship or submarine). Magnetic compassing typ-
technique fits this application very well. It can be easily ically involves determining the orientation of a vehicle with
installed (i.e., using a concrete saw), it i s insensitive to respect to Earth’s magnetic field. A discussion of M A D and
weather conditions, it does not obstruct the street surface, t w o applications of magnetic compassing follow.
and it has very high reliability equivalent t o that of the elec- Ferromagnetic objects such as submarines can exhibit
trical cable. The major wearout mechanism i s an acceler- two dipole moments. One is a permanent dipole moment.
ated aging in the cable due t o thermal expansion mis- This acts like a bar magnetic i n which the hard iron i s mag-
matches between the road material and the cable. netized. Typically, ships have ”de-perming” procedures t o
High-density memory storage for computers requires a reducethiseffect.Thesecond isan induced dipole moment
noncontact sensing method. The simplest i s an aerody- in which the soft iron perturbs the ambient magnetic field.
namically designed passive search coil that hovers over a Typically, ships have onboard “de-gaussing” coils to reduce
moving magnetic storage medium. Changes in the mag- this effect. The total magnetic signature from a vessel i s the
netic storage directions with respect t o the motion are superposition of these t w o dipole moments. The induced
sensed by the search coil. A specially designed core allows dipole moment i s usually much larger than the permanent
for sensing very fine detail in the magnetic media. The moment, and thus it i s this effect, illustrated in Fig. 22, that
search coil can also be operated in an active mode for re- dominates magnetic anomalies.
orienting the magnetic structure i n the media. The major advantages for magnetic sensing of objects are
A gear-tooth sensor, illustrated in Fig. 21, detects the that the sensing technique i s covert to the object being
presence or absence of a gear tooth made of a ferrous mate- detected and it i s nearly impossible for uncooperative
rial. This application uses a Hall-effect sensor that is biased objects tocompletelyeliminate their signature. A major fac-
with a permanent magnet. With n o magnetic material tor in M A D i s the detection range. Typical data exhibiting
present over the sensor, it detects a fixed level of magnetic the l / r 3dipole field for a jeep, a tank, and a submarine are
field. When a tooth moves over the sensor, the ferrous plotted in Fig. 23. From these curves, one can estimate the
material acts as afluxconcentrator, increasing the magnetic detection range, given the minimum detectable field of a
field. A linear output sensor i s used to precisely determine sensor. One of the world’s most refined M A D systems i s

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 I DISTANCE

MATERIAL

TOOTH

Fig. 21. Illustration and photo of a gear-tooth sensor.

Uniform Magnetic Field Induced Dipole Disturbance

Magnetic Anomaly
Fig. 22. Magnetic anomaly superposition.

shown in Fig. 24. This system uses an optically pumped a time variation in Earth’s magnetic field. It i s well known
cesium vapor magnetometer for airborne detection of sub- that geomagnetic variations o n the order of 0.1 y to
marines. The feature of this type of magnetometer-sen- hundreds of gammas arise from ionospheric and magne-
sitivity to the total field (not avector magnetometer)-helps tospheric fluctuations. One can see from Fig. 23 that, if
the M A D system be relatively insensitive to the vibrations bounded by these noise levels, the detection range of the
and rotations of the aircraft. object is limited. The technique for reducing this noise
An important consideration in M A D i s the stability and background i s to bound the bandwidth of the sensor t o the
uniformity of Earth’s magnetic field. If time-tracking a mag- object’s possible signature frequencies.
netic anomaly, it may not be possible to distinguish it from M A D is almost entirely based o n the presence of Earth’s

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 -
eJeep
--o.--
Tank
Submarine

The dipole moments

for the above objects
are general
approximationsand
do not represent
specific versions of
that object.

101 102 10’

Detection Range (ft)
Fig. 23. Magnetic signature for various magnetic anomalies (1 y = IO-’ C).

Control Amp1if ier alies such as mineral deposits and bridges. However, by
linking a magnetic compass with a computerized map, very
precise navigation can be obtained. A typical system for air-
craft heading, shown in Fig. 25, offers as good as O.lo-accur-
acies. A unique three-spider flux-gate magnetometer has
been the primary design for this sensor for more than 30
years. By appropriately ratioing the sensed field in each of
the three spiders, the angle of Earth’s magnetic field with
respect to the spider is determined without ambiguity. This
three-spider flux gate i s gimbaled so that the sensor’s sen-
sitivity plane is always horizontal.
Magnetic compasses are also being exploited for low-cost
satellite torquing systems. By generating a current per-
pendicular to Earth‘s field, a torque is generated. Three per-
Magnetic Detector pendicular current paths are used as torquers. A magnetic
compass then senses the relative orientation of these three
torquers to Earth‘s field and allows for adjusting the three
currents to produce the desired rotation. Compared to
other spacecraft torquing systems, such as reaction wheels
or gas jets, this magnetic compass system offers greater reli-
Fig. 24. ASQ-81 MAD system components ability and longer life.

C. High-Sensitivity Application: Brain Function Mapping

magnetic field. It i s well established that Earth’s dynamo,
which is producing the magnetic field, i s not entirely stable The medical industry continues to strive for noninvasive
and exhibits periods of reversals. M A D would be quite dif- methods for diagnosing human illness. Because of the elec-
ficult when Earth’s field is zero. However, this i s not of trical nature of brain and neuron activity, magnetic sensing
immediate concern, with reversals appearing chaotically methods are being researched to investigate brain disor-
roughly every400 000 years. Over the past 100 years, Earth’s ders. M u c h work has concentrated o n identifying neuron
dynamo has seemed to exhibit a relatively smooth winding misfiring, a major contributor to epilepsy. An illustration
down, resulting in a reduction of Earth‘s magnetic field of of this application for a SQUID gradiometer is shown in Fig.
roughly 0.1 y per day. 26.
Magnetic compassing i s similar to M A D except, instead The magnetic signals associated with electrical activity in
of sensing the magnitude of Earth‘s magnetic field, a sensor the body are very small (typically less than G ) and dis-
i s designed to determine the vector direction of the field. tributed, making controlled measurements difficult to per-
Aircraft and spacecraft incorporate magnetic compass sys- form. For example, the magnetic field resulting from the
tems for pointing and navigation needs. For land naviga- electrical signal for blinking an eye i s manytimes largerthan
tion, pointing accuracies are affected by magnetic anom- the brain signals associated with epilepsy. However, a major

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 AircraH Flying at AircraH Changes Heading
a Constant Heading (go" to right) Spider
(northerly) Rotates in Azimuth 90"

Collector -
Horn

%der
(lop view)

Fig. 25. Magnetic compass system for aircraft. (a).Three-arm flux-gate design. (b). Photo
ofrnagnetic;ompass system.'

To electronics advantage of monitoring body function through magnetic

Dewar fields as opposed to electrical fields i s that the position of
the field lines i s uninfluenced by tissue surrounding the
Liquid helium
current source. Hence, a more precise localization of the
stimulus origin can be obtained for diagnosis.

\x$
SQUID Much of the effort expended in this application i s design-
ing and fabricating a magnetic sensor that i s optimized for
Detection coil. /A d brain function mapping.The major sensortechnology used

JJ
i s a SQUID because of the ability to build precise gradi-
Magnetic field ometers. Gradiometers not only provide excellent back-
ground cancellation of ambient magnetic fields, but also
Field map, n A provide information for localizing current sources. Various
orders of gradiometry, as shown in Fig. 27, can be used to
subtract the background noise. When the background
noise i s spatially uniform, a single coil pair is used. If the
noise field i s not spatially uniform, additional coils for dou-
ble-differencing or even third-differencing must be used.
This field of magnetoencephalography i s the latest appli-
cation of magnetic sensors and may ultimately provide a
Fig. 26. Method for magnetoencephalography. great benefit to mankind.

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 Neuromagnetic
plus noise signal I I Noise field II

(a)
plus noise

Fig. 27. Receivercoil configurations for different ordergradiometers used to help reduce
the effects of ambient magnetic field noise. (a) Single-coil magnetometer. (b) First-order
gradiometer. (c) Second-order gradiometer. (d) Third-order gradiometer.

Ill. FUTURE TRENDS SQUID magnetometers may become more practical with
less stringent cooling requirements.
In this paper, 11 o f the more common magnetic sensing
There are more approaches to measuring magnetic fields
methods have been described, highlighting their under-
than any other sensed parameter. Many of theseapproaches
tying physics principles. A varied set of applications that
have gone through extensive engineering to t h e point
exploit specific characteristics of these sensors was also
where they are pushing t h e limits of physics. Thus,
described.
improvements in material properties will be t h e pacing fac-
The future trends in magnetic sensors should b e dis-
tor for magnetic sensor improvements. Which materialswill
cussed from these same two perspectives-physics and
have t h e most significant improvement is hard to predict,
applications. If a new physics phenomenon were to be dis-
and most likely, these improvements will come in minor
covered, this w o u l d lead to a new sensor technology. How-
steps.
ever, such a discovery seems remote. Most o f t h e phenom-
ena exploited by sensors were discovered in t h e 1800s and REFERENCES
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conductivity, etc.). The most recent major discovery, which
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size, power, and cost is in t h e materials critical to the mag- gratable Carrier-Domain Magnetometers,” Ph.D. Disserta-
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temperature superconductors: with this technology, linear Magnetostrictive Properties in a Fiber-optic Mag-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 78, NO. 6, JUNE 1990

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 netometer," in Proc. Optical Fiber Sensors Conf., Stuttgart, James E. Lenz (Member, IEEE) received the
Germany, Sept. 5, 1984. M.S. degree in physics from the University
- J. E. Lenz, G. Mitchell, and C. D. Anderson, "Fiber-optic of Wisconsin, Madison, Wf, in 1976.
Magnetometer Design," in SPlE Technical Symposium Pro- JoiningMcDonnell Douglas Corp. in St.
ceedings, Arlington, VA, May 2, 1984. Louis, M O upon graduation, he continued
-A. Metze, L. Strandjord, and 1. Lenz, "A Prototype Fiber-optic thework in magneticswhich he had begun
Magnetometer," in Fiber Optics Conference 7988 Proceed- while an undergraduate, when he served as
ings, Washington, DC, March 1988. a co-pilotlnavigator and data analyst for an
-A. H. Morrish, The Physical Principles o f Magnetism, Chap- aeromagnetic surveying project sponsored
ter 7. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965. bytheUSGeological Survey(USGS). In 1981
-I.F. Scarzello, R. H. Lundsten, C. W. Purves, A. M. Syeles, he joined the Honeywell Corp. in Minne-
and W. R. Grine, Development of a Brown Magnetometer apolis, MN, where he currently holds the position of section chief
with Solenoidal Sense Windings, Research and Technology for the Systems and Research Center. He has designed and oper-
Department, Naval Surface Weapons Center, Nov. 1,1981. ated various test apparatus for measuring magnetic and electro-
- H. Sernat and J. R. Albright, lntroduction to Atomic and magnetic field effects on test objects varying in size from sensors
Nuclear Physics, Fifth Edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and components to missiles, to entire aircraft, includlng the light-
and Winston, Inc., 1972. ning qualification test of the space shuttle. His most recent work
- E . P. Wohlforth, FerromagneticMaterials, vol. 1and 2. New has been in the development of magnetic sensors, specifically a
York: North Holland Publishing Co., 1980. fiber optic magnetometer and a solid state magnetoresistive sen-
-A Yariv and H. Windsor, "Proposal for Detection of Mag- sor. He i s the author of 33 published articles and reports, and of
netic Fields through Magnetostrictive Perturbation of Opti- 4 patents.
cal Fibers," Optics Letters, vol. 5, p. 87, Mar. 1980. Mr. Lenz i s a member of the American Physical Society.

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