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Copyright © 2018 by
Printed in USA
ISBN: 978-1-62595-0796
First Edition
First Printing
Updates
There is often additional information regarding
the Hands-On Radio experiments — you can find it
on the Hands-On Radio Web page at
www.arrl.org/hands-on-radio. The contents
include links to reference articles and sources of
supplies and equipment. There is also a Frequently
Asked Questions section that provides explanations
about many of the experiments. Readers have
contributed their observations and sometimes tools
and links that relate to the topic in the experiment.
You may find the information helpful as you perform
the experiments in this anthology.
Contents
Electronic Circuits
Experiment #125 The Schmitt Trigger
Experiment #129 Wye-Delta and Pi-T Circuits
Experiment #132 Resistor Networks
Experiment #141 Window Comparators and Null Detectors
Experiment #143 Delay Circuits
Experiment #155 Negative-Voltage Circuits
Experiment #156 Designing a Broadcast Reject Filter
Experiment #164 Dividers
Experiment #167 Clean Audio for Comfortable Listening
Experiment #174 Switching Amplifiers
Electronic Fundamentals
Experiments #126, 127, 128 Phasors, Parts 1, 2, and 3
Experiment #134 Effects of Junction Temperature
Experiment #138 E versus V
Experiment #139 Digital Code Basics
Experiment #154 Power Factor and Phase Angle
Experiment #170 Noise Figure
Experiment #175 Dissimilar Metals
Experiments #178-179 Maxwell’s Equations
Electronic Components
Experiments #122, 123 Battery Characteristics, Parts 1 and 2
Experiment #142 Inductors at RF
Experiment #147 Capacitors at RF
Experiment #160 Transistors at High Frequencies
Experiment #161 Transistor Subtleties
Experiment #169 Gas Discharge Tubes
Experiment #172 Wire Characteristics at RF
Experiment #173 The PC Trace at RF
RF Techniques
Experiment #135 Crimp Connectors
Experiment #144 The Myth of RF Ground
Experiment #145 Grounding and Bonding Systems
Experiment #146 Notes on Bonding and Shielding
Experiment #149 Accidental Mixers
Electronic Circuits
Experiment #125 — The Schmitt Trigger
Once you start building radio gear, you learn that a great deal of
“radio” has little to do with RF. This month we’re going to work with
one of the non-radio building blocks you’ll encounter when an analog
signal and a digital function come together — the Schmitt trigger.
Long-time readers may recall the Schmitt trigger making an
appearance in Experiment #11 about op-amp comparators.1, 2
Adding positive feedback to the basic comparator circuit creates
hysteresis — a switching threshold that changes depending on
whether the circuit’s output is on or off. This turns out to be
desirable in certain applications.
If you’re not familiar with op-amp comparators, download and read
Experiment #11 from the “Hands-On Radio” web page. Page two
covers hysteresis and how to design the comparator-based Schmitt
trigger with discrete components. If you have an LM311 (or one of
the equivalents listed) build a Schmitt trigger circuit and perform the
experiment.
Switch Debouncing
A switch may feel quite solid to you, leaving little doubt that when
you close a switch, it instantly closes and stays closed. In truth, the
contacts of almost all mechanical switches and relays literally bounce
for a few milliseconds before settling down to stay closed. Because
digital devices are so fast, software can react to those bounces as
multiple switch closings and openings. While it’s possible to
“debounce” a switch signal in software, it can be done with
hardware, too.
Reconfigure your circuit as shown in Figure 2; only one inverter
section is needed here. That wire you just used to simulate a power
dropout can also simulate the noisy signal from a switch, or you can
use a real momentary switch. The two time delays, tCL and tOP
depend on the values of R1 and R2, respectively:
tCL ≈ R2 × C1 and tOP ≈ R1 × C1
Start with R1 = 1 MΩ, R2 = 10 kΩ, and C1 = 1 µF. You’ll need an
oscilloscope to see the bounces of the switch contacts and the short
delay, tCL.
If you swap R1 and R2, you’ll find that R1 has to be much larger
than R2 for SW_CLOSE to go high. If R1 is too small, closing the
switch does not discharge C1 below the VN threshold for the inverter
because R1 “overpowers” R2 and keeps the capacitor charged to
higher than VN. Experiment with different values; you’ll find that R1
has to be about three times larger than R2 to get reliable results.
The squelch function in your radio also requires a continuously
changing signal to cause switching at a threshold. If the input signal
to R2 is the rectified and filtered output of a receiver’s audio
amplifier, the output of the inverter indicates whether a signal is
present.
Edge Detectors
In many cases you want to be able to tell when the input signal
changes state without having to monitor it continuously. This
requires an elementary form of memory that will allow a circuit that
can compare “then” to “now.” The circuit in Figure 3 uses a two-
input XOR gate to make the comparison and an R-C circuit to create
the time delay that acts as memory. The Schmitt trigger input is
required because of the slowly changing R-C circuit output.
VA is the “now” state of VIN while VB is the “then” state. An XOR
gate’s output is high only when just one of its inputs is high. If both
inputs are in the same state — high or low — the output, CHANGE, is
also low. During the delay period while C1 is charging or discharging
(approximately equal to the time constant R1 × C1), one input lags
behind the other so that the XOR function is true and CHANGE is high
— but only during the charge/discharge period. The Schmitt trigger
action insures that the slowly-changing voltage VB causes only one
pulse with every transition of VIN.
You can build the circuit in Figure 3 using one section of a 74HC86
quad exclusive-OR gate with Schmitt trigger inputs. R1 and C1
values of 100 kΩ and 0.01 µF will provide output pulses about 1
msec long. Use a 50% duty- cycle, 5 V pulse output from a function
generator or a 555 timer circuit as VIN (don’t use a square wave with
a negative voltage) with a repetition rate of about 100 Hz. Vary the
time constant of R1-C1 to see the effect on the output pulse width,
viewed on an oscilloscope.
Another name for this circuit is a frequency doubler. Two output
pulses occur for every input pulse — one at each edge of the input
pulse. If you insert a Schmitt trigger inverter at point B, the CHANGE
pulses change from positive pulses at each edge to negative pulses.
Shopping List
74HC14 hex inverter
74HC86 quad XOR gate
1N4148 diode
1⁄4-watt resistors: 1 kΩ, 10 kΩ 100 kΩ, 1 MΩ
Why a Delta?
When studying three-phase power systems, you’ll soon encounter
the terms wye (pronounced “why”) and delta. These refer to how the
three individual phases are connected with respect to a neutral
reference. Figure 1 illustrates the basic idea. The coils shown here —
typical of motor or transformer windings — could also be voltage or
current sources, resistors, capacitors, or generic impedances. The
origin of the names for each type of system is clear — the schematics
for each system take the shape of a Y or a Δ.
In a wye system, the three phases (a, b and c) all share a common
neutral point, so there are four connections: Phase A, B and C (also
commonly labeled Line 1, 2 and 3) and neutral. In a delta system,
there is no common neutral connection because the sources or loads
are connected together in a loop. That means there are only three
connections and the voltages between them. (A neutral reference
point can be created in a delta network through various techniques
discussed in the reference articles.)
The angle between the phase voltages is always 120°, but whether
the angle is positive or negative depends on the phase sequence
which can be a-b-c or a-c-b in order of increasing angle. In Figure 1A,
the phase sequence is a-b-c, which is positive rotation.
Say — how can three voltages be connected together in a loop that
doesn’t contain any resistance and not have the current go to
infinity? If the voltages were dc, we would indeed have a problem!
Instead, these are ac sine waves with the same voltage magnitude
(V) but different phase angles. Adding up the voltages around the
circuit gives us V∠0° + V∠120° + V∠240°. Changing the phasors to
rectangular coordinates allows us to calculate the sum: (V + j0) + (–
0.5V + j0.866V) + (–0.5V – j0.866V) = 0. So the net voltage around
the loop is zero and no circulating current flows at all!
In both wye and delta systems the loads can be connected between
phase or line voltages. In a wye system, a load can also be
connected between a phase voltage and neutral. Imbalanced loads in
either type of system can cause substantial error currents to flow.
Non-linear loads such as switchmode supplies and loads controlled by
SCRs and TRIACs create harmonic currents. Both of these cause
problems, too. Obviously, generating, transferring, and using multi-
phase power is a complex subject. You can learn more about it in the
references mentioned earlier and at
www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_10/1.html.
But what do wye and delta power systems have to do with radio?
From the standpoint of ac power, not much — unless you happen to
need a really big power supply. How- ever, we use wye and delta all
the time in our circuits — we just refer to them as Pi and T!
Having T with Pi
Figure 2 shows two circuits made of generic impedances — one is a
Pi network like you’ll find in nearly every tube-type amplifier and the
other takes the shape of a T network that you’ll find in most antenna
tuners. Figure 2 also shows how a Pi network is the same as a delta
network and a T network is a wye network. Who knew?
That’s handy to know, but there is another neat trick to apply. You
can turn a circuit of one type (Pi or T) into its exact equivalent circuit
of the other type (T or Pi) by using some math called the wye-delta
transformation. From the perspective of the input and output
connections, the equivalent circuit will behave exactly the same (with
a caveat explained later). The following equations show the math,
although you can use an online calculator such as this one at
www.elektro-energetika.cz/calculations/transfigurace.php?
language=english2
Pi (Delta) to T (Wye)
ZA = Z1Z2 / ΣZ; ZB = Z1Z3 / ΣZ; ZC = Z2Z3 / ΣZ
Where ΣZ = Z1 + Z2 + Z3
T (Wye) to Pi (Delta)
Z 1 = ZP / Z C , Z 2 = ZP / Z B , Z 3 = ZP / Z A
Where ZP = ZAZB + ZAZC + ZBZC
References
1All previous Hands-On Radio experiments are available to ARRL members at
www.arrl.org/hands-on-radio.
2Step 1 of the calculator asks for the “Shape of the complex numbers,” meaning that you
should select either rectangular (R + jX) or phasor (Z∠θ) form for the impedances. Use a
comma for the decimal in the European convention. i.e. 1.0 becomes 1,0.
3See the Component Data and References chapter of the ARRL Handbook, available from
your ARRL dealer, or from the ARRL Store, ARRL order no. 6948. Telephone toll-free in the
US 888-277-5289, or 860-594-0355; fax 860-594-0303; www.arrl.org/shop/;
pubsales@arrl.org.
4The calculator can switch between series-C (block dc current) and series-L (pass dc
current) forms of the network.
Experiment #132 — Resistor Networks
Resistors may seem to be the lowliest of components, but they are
by far the most common. This month’s column discusses several
different types of useful resistor circuits that are handy designs to
have in your toolbox. Dig in and try a few on your own.
Power Dissipation
Power dissipation for a single resistor is equal to V2/R or I2R, but
what happens when you have more than one resistor in series or
parallel? It sounds complicated, until you realize that in a series
circuit the same current flows through all of the resistors — use I2R.
Similarly, the same voltage appears across all of the resistors in a
parallel circuit — use V2/R.
Voltage Dividers
If you are given both resistor values in the voltage divider shown in
Figure 1 and for a moment ignore the load resistor, RL, it is
straightforward to figure the output voltage: VOUT = VIN R2 / (R1 +
R2). But what if you need a specific division ratio (VOUT / VIN) and
want to know what resistor values to use? Start by choosing the
total resistance of the divider, RTOT = R1 + R2, then
Kees wou niet meer dan één borrel. Ouë Gerrit dronk
zoetjes, in vadsige lekkerheid. Maar Dirk alleen
genoot, roerde z’n brandewijntje met suiker, een na
een, kneep half dicht z’n oogen van pure lekkerigheid.
Vijf na elkaar had ie ’r ingeslagen, dat z’n lobbeskijk al
zachtjes-an in guitig spel van licht verfonkelen ging.
Hij lolde met de kerels aan ’t biljard, zei hoe ze stooten
nemen moesten en waar ze heenrobbelen zouden.—
—Nou.. waa’ a ’t? ikke.. ik.. ke bin.. bin d’r ook feur..
feu.. ffeur.. ffeur.. den donder.. feur! feu.. feur de
koning Fillim Drie! Laife.… lai.. fe Fillum dr.. drie.…
daa’s.. daa’s main weut!.… hee?.… enne.. bi.… bi.…
jai.… d’r.… nooit.… nie.… nie iet.… in.… in de wind
weust.… hee?
Kees stapte ’t eerst uit. Hij had ’t benauwd; hij kon die
kroeglucht niet langer inademen, omdat ie ’r nooit
kwam. Ouë Gerrit was lichtelijk draaierig van z’n
dronkje, voelde zich blij weer op straat te staan. Alleen
Dirk was weer teruggestrompeld, bleef plakken bij de
biljarters.
[Inhoud]
II.
—Wà’ nou? hai je je aige weer prikt? paa’s d’r dan òp!
jai ken vast gain bloed misse.… zei Kees norsch.
[Inhoud]
III.
Volgenden dag scheen de zon weer fèl. Ouë Gerrit
was aan ’t frambozen plukken, met Piet en twee
helpertjes. Tusschen de nauwe struiken hurkte de
Ouë, stram en ingebukt vóór de frambozen, één voor
één de vruchten in de mandjes stapelend.—Boven z’n
zilverbaard, die in kronkelig zijïge karteltjes, tusschen
takkengewirwar òpschemerde, bloeiden de
frambozen, rozepurperend, bedauwd met ’n adem van
dof paarsrood, vochtig en donzig. Achter Ouë’s hielen,
rijden mandjes in zonnevlam, wonderteer doorglansd
van licht. Zoeter dan aardbei geurden ze rond, als
rozendroom van sprookjes-prinsesje. Rondom, in de
lucht vervloeide ’n teere geur van rozenzoet, wáár de
mandjes stonden.
—Heé Ouë, je ben d’r in màin regel, nou soek jai d’r
de mooie uit, en ikke hou ’t kriel!
—Brom jai teuge sint Jan! blai da’ tie d’r weust is! de
sjèlotjes binne d’r krek uit! Ook nie te bestig! Is
aldegoar ’n rooi noa niks!… en de rooie kool f’rvloekt!
En nou.. hai je d’r nog spruitkool loate sette tusschen
vaif regels boone! Sel main d’r ’n stelletje worre.—
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