Measurement and Instrumentation

(Course Code: BEL04002)

Gyan Ranjan Biswal

PhD (IITR), FIE, SMIEEE, LMISTE
HOD and Associate Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering (EEE)
VSS University of Technology (VSSUT), Burla
PIN – 768018, Sambalpur (Odisha), India

E-mail: gyanbiswal@vssut.ac.in
URL: http://www.vssut.ac.in
Google Scholar: Gyan Biswal
Home Page: http://in.linkedin.com/pub/gyan-biswal/14/458/a8
ORCID id: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7730-1985

Contact Hours: Friday, 04:30 PM to 05:30 PM at E-106

VSSUT, Burla Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 Gyan Ranjan Biswal received his B.E. in Electronics Engineering from the Pt. Ravishankar Shukla
University, India in 1999 and M. Tech. (Honors) in Instrumentation & Control Engineering from the
Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekananda Technical University, India in 2009 followed by Ph.D. in Electrical
Engineering, specialized in the area of Power System Instrumentation (Power Generation Automation) from
the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India in 2012.
He is expertise in Design and Development of cooling systems for large size electrical generators, and the
C&I of process industries. He has been in academia for about twelve years. Presently, he is with VSS
University of Technology, Burla, India at the capacity of Head and Associate Professor, EEE from Dec.
2016. He has more than 70 publications in various Journals and Conferences of Internationally repute to his
credit. He also holds a patent and filed for two more as well. He also adapted one international edition book
published by Pearson India. He received research grants of US$90,000 (INR 53 lakhs). He has been
supervised 01 PhD, 09 Masters’ theses, and ongoing 04 PhD theses. He has also been recognized with many
national and international awards by elite bodies. He has been awarded with CICS award under the head of
Indian National Science Academy for travel support to USA, MHRD Fellowship by Govt. of India, and
Gopabandhu Das Scholarship in his career. His major areas of interests are Power System Instrumentation,
Industrial Automation, the Smart Sensors, IoT enabled Smart Sensors, the Smart Grid, and Fuel Cell backed
Sustainable Sources of Energy.
Dr. Biswal is a Fellow IE (India), Senior Member of IEEE, USA, and Life Member of ISTE, India. He is
actively involved in review panels of different societies of international repute viz. IEEE, IFAC, and the
ISA. Currently, he is also actively involved as a Member of IEEE–SA (Standards Association) working
groups; IEEE P1876 WG, IEEE P21451-001 WG, and IEEE P1415. He has also been invited for delivering
guest lectures at World Congress on Sustainable Technologies (WCST) Conf. 2012, London, UK,
INDICON 2015, New Delhi, India, National Power Training Institute (NPTI), Nangal, India, and G.B. Pant
Engineering College, Pauri, Gharwal, India, VSS University of Technology (VSSUT), Burla, and as a guest
expert in 2016 IEEE PES General Meeting Boston, MA, USA.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Syllabus
MODULE-I (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 6 HOURS + 1 Test]
Measuring Instruments: Classification, Absolute and secondary instruments, indicating instruments, deflecting, control and
damping torques, Ammeters and Voltmeters, PMMC, Moving Iron (MI) type, expression for the deflecting torque and control
torque, extension of range using shunts and series resistance. Electrostatic Voltmeters-electrometer type and attracted disc
type, extension of range of E.S. Voltmeters.
MODULE-II (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 4 HOURS + 1 Test]
Electrodynamometer type wattmeter – Theory & its errors – Methods of correction – LPF wattmeter – Phantom loading –
Induction type KWH meter – Calibration of wattmeter, energy meter. Measurement of active and reactive powers in balanced
and unbalanced systems.
Galvanometers: General principle and performance equations of D'Arsonval Galvanometers, Vibration Galvanometer and
Ballistic Galvanometer.
MODULE-III (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 6 HOURS + 1 Test]
DC/AC Bridges: General equations for bridge balance, measurement of self-inductance by Maxwell’s bridge (with variable
inductance & variable capacitance), Hay’s bridge, Owen’s bridge, measurement of capacitance by Schearing bridge, errors,
Wagner’s earthing device.
Method of measuring low, medium and high resistance: Kelvin’s double bridge for measuring low resistance, Wheat-stone’s
bridge, measurement of high resistance – loss of charge method.
MODULE-IV (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 4 HOURS + 1 Test]
Instrument Transformers: Potential and current transformers, ratio and phase angle errors, phasor diagram, methods of
minimizing errors.
Potentiometers: DC Potentiometer, Crompton potentiometer, construction, standardization, application. AC Potentiometer,
Drysdale polar potentiometer; standardization, application.
MODULE-V (7 HOURS) [Online mode: 5 HOURS + 1 Test]
Digital Multi-meter: Block diagram, principle of operation, Accuracy of measurement, Electronic Voltmeter: Transistor
Voltmeter, Block diagram, principle of operation, various types of electronic voltmeter, Digital Frequency meter: Block diagram,
principle of operation.
Definition of transducers, Classification of transducers, Advantages of Electrical transducers, Characteristics and choice of
transducers; Principle operation of LVDT and capacitor transducers; LVDT Applications, Strain gauge and its principle
of operation, gauge factor.
VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 Text and Reference Books

Recommended Text Books:

1. Helfrick & Cooper, “Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques”, PHI Publishers.

Reference Books:
* Golding & Waddis, “Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments”, Reem
Publishers.
* David A. Bell, “Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements”, 3rd ed., Oxford
University Press.
* P. Purkait, B. Biswas, S. Das and C. Koley, “Electrical and Electronics Measurement
and Measuring Instruments”, McGraw Hills.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Other Important References

The National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning

(NPTEL) https://nptel.ac.in/

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Course Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, you (students) will be able to

CO1 Understand the principles of basic electrical measuring instruments.

CO2 Understand the operation of wattmeter, energy meter and galvanometers.

CO3 Understand and analyze the working of different ac and dc bridges.

CO4 Understand the operation of instrument transformers and potentiometers.

CO5 Understand the operation of electronic measuring instruments and

transducers.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Digital meters
and
Transducers

MODULE-V (7 HOURS) [Online mode: 5 HOURS + 1 Test]

Digital Multi-meter: Block diagram, principle of operation, Accuracy of measurement, Electronic Voltmeter: Transistor
Voltmeter, Block diagram, principle of operation, various types of electronic voltmeter, Digital Frequency meter: Block
diagram, principle of operation.
Definition of transducers, Classification of transducers, Advantages of Electrical transducers, Characteristics and choice
of transducers; Principle operation of LVDT and capacitor transducers; LVDT Applications, Strain gauge and its principle
of operation, gauge factor.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Digital Meters

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 What is a multimeter?
• A multimeter is a devise used to measure voltage, resistance and current
in electronics & electrical equipment

• It is also used to test continuity between to 2 points to verify if there is

any breaks in circuit or line

• There are two types of multimeter Analog & Digital

– Analog has a needle style gauge
– Digital has a LCD display (Referenced during this PPT)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 There are 2 styles of multimeters

Switched Auto Range

Manually switch between Switches between ranges
ranges to get most accurate automatically for best
reading. reading.

Both of these styles

work the same

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS

❖ Digital multimeter (DMM) and digital volt-ohmmilliammeter

(DVOM) are terms commonly used for electronic high-impedance
test meters.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS

FIGURE: Typical digital multimeter.

The black meter lead always is placed
in the COM terminal. Except when
measuring the current in amperes, the
red meter test lead remains in the V
terminal.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HOW TO READ DIGITAL METERS

FIGURE: Always look at the meter display when a measurement is being made, especially if using an
autoranging meter. (Courtesy of Fluke Corporation)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HOW TO READ DIGITAL METERS

▪ Alternating current voltage waveforms can be true sinusoidal or

nonsinusoidal.
– A true sine wave pattern measurement will be the same for
both root-mean-square (RMS) and average reading meters.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HOW TO READ DIGITAL METERS

FIGURE: When reading AC voltage signals, a true RMS meter (such as a Fluke 87) provides a different reading than an
average responding meter (such as Fluke 88).The only place this difference is important is when a reading is to be
compared with a specification. (Courtesy of Fluke Corporation)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HOW TO READ DIGITAL METERS

• Meter resolution refers to how small or fine a measurement

the meter can make.
• The terms digits and counts are used to describe a meter’s
resolution.
– DMMs are grouped by the number of counts or digits they
display.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HOW TO READ DIGITAL METERS

FIGURE: This meter display shows 052.2 AC volts. Notice that the zero beside the 5 indicates that the meter can
read over 100 volts AC with a resolution of 0.1 volt.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HOW TO READ DIGITAL METERS

• Meter accuracy is the largest allowable error that will occur

under specific operating conditions.
• Accuracy for a DMM is usually expressed as a percent of
reading.
– An accuracy of 1% of reading means that for a displayed
reading of 100.0 V, the actual value of the voltage could be
anywhere between 99.0 V to 101.0 V.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HOW TO READ DIGITAL METERS

✓ Unacceptable 1.00%
✓ Okay 0.50% (1/2%)
✓ Good 0.25% (1/4%)
✓ Excellent 0.10% (1/10%)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Voltage

FIGURE: A typical autoranging digital multimeter automatically selects the proper scale to read the voltage being
tested. The scale selected is usually displayed on the meter face. (a) Note that the display indicates “4,” meaning that
this range can read up to 4 volts. (b) The range is now set to the 40 volt scale, meaning that the meter can read up to
40 volts on the scale. Any reading above this level will cause the meter to reset to a higher scale. If not set on
autoranging, the meter display would indicate OL if a reading exceeds the limit of the scale selected. (Courtesy of Fluke
Corporation)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL VOLTMETER

• Digital voltmeters display the value of AC or DC voltage being

measured directly as discrete numerical instead of a pointer
deflection on a continuous scale as in analog instruments.
• Digital voltmeters offers many advantages over analog meters,
such as speed in reading, increased accuracy, batter resolution and
the capability of automatic operation.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Voltage

•Voltage (V) is the unit of electrical pressure; one volt is the potential
difference needed to cause one amp of current to pass through one ohm of
resistance

•Voltage is broke up into 2 sections AC & DC

Alternating Current (AC) is house voltage (110 V ac)
Direct Current (DC) is battery voltage (12 V dc)

•On switched meters use one value higher than your expected value

•Be very careful to not touch any other electronic components within the
equipment and do not touch the tips to each other while connected to
anything else

•To measure voltage connect the leads in parallel between the two points
where the measurement is to be made. The multimeter provides a parallel
pathway so it needs to be of a high resistance to allow as little current flow
through it as possible

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Voltage

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Voltage

9.3vdc

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Block diagram of Digital Voltmeter

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Principle of Operation
• The working principle of a Digital Voltmeter can be categorized into five
functional sections. They are:
– Pulse Generator
– Voltage Control and Gating
– Counting Clock Pulses
– Analog to Digital Conversion
– Latching and Display Section
• Pulse Generator: In electronics, it is called a ‘Clock’ which generates
pulses.
• Voltage Control and Gating: This section of control and gating is based on
an integrated circuit called the Comparator.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 The IC compares the two voltages and signals for which of the two
voltages is larger. One of the voltage is the input voltage (Vin) and the
other will be the voltage across the capacitor.
• Voltage is monitored across the capacitor and signals are generated
when the voltage becomes equal to the voltage to be measured
(Vin) and the charging starts at zero volts. The comparator does not
draw any appreciable current, otherwise it will interfere with the
constant-current charging. To achieve near-zero input current, an
Op-Amp is used as a comparator.
• The Op-Amp is a IC with two inputs called the non-inverting and
inverting input V+ and V- respectively. It has only one output. If the
voltage at the + input of Op-amp is greater (more positive) than the
voltage at the – input (V+ > V-), then the output is high.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Counting Clock Pulses:
– The number of clock pulses that occur between the start and
stop charging signals is counted.
– The voltmeter will work by counting the pulses from the time
the capacitor starts charging.
– To achieve this a simple NAND gate is used in the circuit
• ADC (Analog to Digital Converter):
– An A/D converter or ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) converts
an analog voltage sample and returns a binary number that
describes the sample.
• Latching and Display Section:
– The number of pulses counted is displayed in a numerical
format using a seven segment LED display. The latch is used to
statically display the final result of one capacitor charging cycle
operation.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Resistance and Continuity

▪ Resistance (W) is the opposition to current

▪ Resistance is measured in Ohm's

▪ Disconnect power source before testing

▪ Remove component or part from system before testing

▪ Measure using lowest value, if OL move to next level

▪ Testing for continuity is used to test to verify if a circuit, wire or fuse is

complete with no open

▪ Audible continuity allows an alarm if circuit is complete

▪ If there is no audible alarm resistance of 1ohm to .1ohm should be present

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Resistance

❖ An ohmmeter measures the resistance in ohms of a component or

circuit section when no current is flowing through the circuit.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Resistance

FIGURE: Typical digital multimeter showing OL (over

FIGURE: Using a digital multimeter set to read ohms () limit) on the readout with the ohms () unit selected. This
to test this light bulb. The meter reads the resistance usually means that the unit being measured is open
of the filament. (infinity resistance) and has no continuity.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Resistance

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Resistance

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Resistance

FIGURE: Many digital multimeters can have the display indicate zero to compensate for test lead resistance.(1) Connect
leads in the Vand COM meter terminals.(2) Select the scale.(3) Touch the two meter leads together.(4) Push the “zero”
or “relative” button on the meter.(5) The meter display will now indicate zero ohms of resistance. (Courtesy of Fluke
Corporation)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring or Testing Continuity

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Resistance

100W

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Continuity

.5W

Fuse
5 amp

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Current

▪ Current (amps) is the flow of electrical charge though a component or

conductor

▪ Current is measured in amps or amperes

▪ Disconnect power source before testing

▪ Disconnect completed circuit at end of circuit

▪ Place multimeter in series with circuit

▪ Reconnect power source and turn ON

▪ Select highest current setting and work your way down.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Amperes

❖ An ammeter measures the flow of current through a complete

circuit in units of amperes.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Amperes

FIGURE: In this digital multimeter set to read DC amperes, note that the red lead is placed in the far left-hand
socket of the meter. The meter is displaying the current flow (4.18A) through the electric fuel pump on this
General Motors 3800 V6 engine.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Measuring Amperes

FIGURE: An inductive ammeter clamp is used with all starting and

charging testers to measure the current flow through the battery cables.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Current

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Current

1.1amps

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Review
➢ A meter capable of checking for voltage, current, and resistance is called a
multimeter,

➢ When measuring Voltage the multimeter must be connected to two

points in a circuit in order to obtain a good reading. Be careful not to
touch the bare probe tips together while measuring voltage, as this will
create a short-circuit!

➢ Never read Resistance or test for Continuity with a multimeter on a circuit

that is energized.

➢ When measuring Current the multimeter must be connected in a circuit

so the electrons have to flow through the meter

➢ Multimeters have practically no resistance between their leads. This is

intended to allow electrons to flow through the meter with the least
possible difficulty. If this were not the case, the meter would add extra
resistance in the circuit, thereby affecting the current

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 AC/DC CLAMP-ON DIGITAL MULTIMETER

❖ An AC/DC clamp-on digital multimeter (DMM) is a useful

meter for automotive diagnostic work and uses a Hall-effect
sensor to measure current.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 AC/DC CLAMP-ON DIGITAL MULTIMETER

FIGURE: A typical mini clamp-on-type digital multimeter.

This meter is capable of measuring alternating current (AC)
and direct current (DC) without requiring that the circuit be FIGURE: An AC and DC current clamp such as the one
disconnected to install the meter in series. The jaws are shown can be used with a regular digital multimeter.
simply placed over the wire and current flow through the The amp probe contains a separate battery and
circuit is displayed. electronic circuit that converts the amperage reading
into a millivolt (mV) signal.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 AC/DC CLAMP-ON DIGITAL MULTIMETER

FIGURE: Note the blade-type fuse holder soldered in series with one of the meter leads. A 10 amp fuse
helps protect the internal meter fuse (if equipped) and the meter itself from damage that might result
from excessive current flow if accidentally used incorrectly.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCERS

▪ The hall effect element is a type of transducer used for measuring

the magnetic field by converting it into an emf.
▪ The direct measurement of the magnetic field is not possible. Thus
the Hall Effect Transducer is used.
▪ The transducer converts the magnetic field into an electric
quantity which is easily measured by the analog and digital meters.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PRINCIPLE

• The principle of hall effect transducer is that:

– If the current carrying strip of the conductor is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, then the EMF develops on the edge
of the conductor.
– The magnitude of the develop voltage depends on the density
of flux, and this property of a conductor is called the Hall effect.
– The Hall effect element is mainly used for magnetic
measurement and for sensing the current.
– The metal and the semiconductor has the property of hall effect
which depends on the densities and the mobility of the
electrons.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Consider the hall effect element shown in the figure below. The
current supply through the lead 1 and 2 and the output is obtained
from the strip 3 and 4. The lead 3 and 4 are at same potential when
no field is applied across the strip.

• When the magnetic field is applied to the strip, the output voltage
develops across the output leads 3 and 4. The develops voltage is
directly proportional to the strength of the material.
VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 • The output voltage is,

• Where

I is the current in ampere and the B is the flux densities in Wb/m2

• The current and magnetic field strength both can be measured with
the help of the output voltages. The hall effect EMF is very small in
conductors because of which it is difficult to measure. But
semiconductors like germanium produces large EMF which is easily
measured by the moving coil instrument.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 APPLICATIONS

❖ Magnetic to Electric Transducer – The Hall effect element is used for

converting the magnetic flux into an electric transducer.

❖ Measurement of Displacement – The Hall effect element measures the

displacement of the structural element.

❖ Measurement of Current – The hall effect transducer is also used for

measuring the current without any physical connection between the
conductor circuit and meter.

❖ Measurement of Power – The hall effect transducer is used for measuring

the power of the conductor.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER

❖ Digital frequency meter is a general purpose instrument that

displays the frequency of a periodic electrical signal to an accuracy
of three decimal places. It counts the number events occurring
within the oscillations during a given interval of time.
• For measuring low frequencies, we usually use deflection type
meters
• The deflection type instruments are of two types:
– electrically resonant circuits,
– ratio meter.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 BLOCK DIAGRAM

• The signal whose frequency we have to be measured is first to be

amplified through amplifier.
• The output of amplifier is applied to the Schmitt trigger. The
Schmitt trigger is convert input signal into a square wave which has
a fast rise and fall time.
• The square wave is then differentiated and clipped. Each pulse is
proportional to each cycle of unknown signal.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Now the output from Schmitt trigger is applied to a start and stop gate.
• The input pulses are allowed to pass through it, when the gate is open.
• The counter starts to count these pulses.
• The gate is closed the output pulses are not allowed to pass through the
gate. The counter stops the counting.
• When the gate is open the number of pulse are counted by the counter.
The interval between start and stop condition is the frequency of
unknown signal which has to be mean.
F=N/t
Where, F = Unknown frequency.
N = Number of counts.
t = Time interval between start and stop
condition of the gate.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Operating Principle

• The Principle of Operation of Digital Frequency Meter is given by

• The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied
continuously to an AND gate, as shown in Fig. 6.4. A pulse of 1 s is
applied to the other terminal, and the number of pulses counted
during this period indicates the frequency.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a
train of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal.
• The number of pulses occurring in a definite interval of time is then
counted by an electronic counter.
• Since each pulse represents the cycle of the unknown signal, the
number of counts is a direct indication of the frequency of the
signal (unknown).
• Since electronic counters have a high speed of operation, high
frequency signals can be measured.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Applications

▪ For testing radio equipment.

▪ Measuring the temperature, pressure, and other physical values.
▪ Measuring vibration, strain.
▪ Measuring transducers.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Transducers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Sensor / Transducer (Instrument Society of America): A device which
provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.
• Output: defined as an Electrical Quantity (finally).
• Measurand: as a Physical quantity / property / condition which is
measured.

▪ Physical quantity – pressure, heat, flow rate, liquid level, flow,

position, humidity etc.
▪ Output - measured in terms of parametric change or electrical signal.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Transducer: device which converts one form of energy into
another form for the purpose of measurement / control.

• Sensor : Transducer (physical into electrical) + electrodes and I/O

mechanisms.

• Sensor I/P Transducer

• Actuator O/P Transducer

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Classification of Transducers

1. Based on principle of transduction

2. Primary and secondary

3. Active & passive

4. Analog & digital

5. Transducer and Inverse transducer

6. Smart / Intelligent (latest one)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Based on principle used

❖ Thermo electric

❖ Magneto resistive

❖ Electro kinetic

❖ Optical

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Based on Applications

❖ Industry Automation / Process Control

❖ Embedded Control: Automobiles; Medical; Aircraft; Consumer

Electronics

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Passive Transducer

▪ Device which derive power reqd. for transduction from

auxiliary power source

▪ externally powered

▪ Examples : resistive, inductive, capacitive

▪ Without power they will not work

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Active Transducer

▪ No extra power reqd. to produce I/P

▪ Self generating

▪ Draw power from input applied

▪ Examples: Smart accelerometer or vibration sensor ; Piezo-resistive

Si-type Diaphragm Pressure sensor (with the strain gauge and a thin
film resistor network) ; Piezo-electric type accelerometer

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Analog Transducer

▪ Convert I/P quantity into an analog O/P

▪ Analog O/P - a continuous function of ‘amplitude and time’

▪ Examples: Strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouple, manometer

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Digital Transducer

▪ Converts I/P into an electrical O/P in the form of pulses (quasi-

digital O/P) or a discrete function of ‘amplitude and time’

▪ Examples: Smart and Intelligent transducers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Inverse Transducer

▪ Converts electrical signal to physical quantity, typically, known as

Actuator’.

▪ Accepts a data sample (samples) and converts them into physical

action.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Smart Sensor

• Smart Sensor: A module containing sensor element(s) suitably

integrated with necessary electronics such that the O/P is truly or
easily compatible with the intended end device, and the module is
usually takes the form of a single IC chip.

• Intelligent Sensor: Smart sensor + Digital Processor (DPU)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Topics covered
Motion and Vibration Measurement

❖ Translational and Rotational Displacement using: Potentiometer;

Strain gauges; Differential transformer (LVDT); Synchros and
induction potentiometer; Capacitance (capacitive type transducer);
Techometers
❖ Accelerometers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Displacement Measurement

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT):

❖ A very basic transducer which is always useful in the field of

instrumentation. Also recognized as Linear Variable Differential
Transducer, is a kind of variable inductance transducer.

Principle of LVDT:

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and

the displacement which is a non-electrical energy is converted into an
electrical energy.

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 Construction of LVDT:

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 • LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one
primary winding in the centre of the former and the two secondary
windings at the sides.

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 • The number of turns in both
the secondary windings are
equal, but they are opposite to
each other.

That is, if the left secondary windings is in the clockwise direction,

the right secondary windings will be in the anti-clockwise direction,
and hence, the net output voltages will be the difference in
voltages between the two secondary coil.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and S2. Esteem
iron core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical former which,
can move in to and fro motion as shown in the figure.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Working of LVDT: Case 1:

On applying an external force, which is the displacement, if the core

reminds in the null position itself without providing any movement
then the voltage induced in both the secondary windings are equal
which results in net output is equal to zero.

Esec1-Esec2=0

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Case 2:
When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core tends to
move in the left hand side direction then the EMF voltage induced
in the secondary coil is greater when compared to the EMF induced
in the secondary coil 2.
Thus, the net output will be Esec1-Esec2

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Case 3:
When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core moves in the right
hand side direction then the EMF induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater
when compared to the EMF voltage induced in the secondary coil 1.

The net output voltage will be

Esec2-Esec1

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Benefits of LVDT:
1) Infinite resolution is present in LVDT
2) High output
3) LVDT gives High sensitivity
4) Very good linearity
5) Ruggedness
6) LVDT Provides Less friction
7) Low hysteresis
8) LVDT gives Low power consumption.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Applications of LVDT:

1) LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction

millimeter to centimeter.
2) Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device
to measure force, weight and pressure, etc..

Limitations

▪ Not sensitive.
▪ Excited with A.C. only; 50 Hz to 20KHz

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 Characteristics of LVDT:

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 Strain Gauges

CONTENTS

▪Introduction
▪Electrical Resistance Strain Gages
▪Types of Strain Gages
▪Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
▪Calibration

The electrical resistance strain is a metal wire or metal foil

strip, which is wafer-like and can be stuck onto surfaces like a
postage stamp.

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 Strain Gauges

WHAT IS STRAIN?

lateral

axial

▪ Strain is the amount of deformation of a body to an applied force

▪ For axial direction from the figure above L
a = ;usually multiple of (ex10-6)
L
▪ Because of Poisson strain phenomena, D will be contracted in lateral direction,
with magnitude depends on Poisson ratio (n)  = −  L
a
▪ ‘n’ is the property of material, for example, steel has 0.25≤n≤0.3

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 When strain gauges measure the changing dimensions of an object, they are
measuring strain. Strain is the ratio of the change in dimension of an object to
the original dimension

Mechanical strain ε = ΔL / L

When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change in

resistance ΔR/R being proportional to the mechanical strain i.e.

Electrical strain ΔR/R= G . ΔL/L

where G is the gauge factor (1.8 – 2.2)

R varies between 50 Ω and 2KΩ

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 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages
▪ The most common method for measuring strain is using strain gauge.

▪ Strain gage is a device whose electrical resistance

varies in the proportion of the amount of strain A
in the device.
▪ The most widely used strain gages
is the bonded metallic strain gage

▪ The resistance of the conductor of the strain gage

L where ρ = resistivity of conductor material
R=
A L =conductor length
A = cross-sectional area of conductor
If, differentiated this equation become:
dR d dL dA
A D 2 = + −
R  L A
dA dD
2
dR d
+  a (1+ 2 )
A D Then the equation : =
R 
Lateral strain

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 Gauge Factor


R=
A

log R = log  + log(  A)

Taking the differential

dR d d ( A) Change in resistance is from
= + change in shape as well as
R   A
change in resistivity

Gauge factor: (2-6 for metals

and 40 – 200 for semiconductor)

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 Gauge Factor

Strain gage factor, S (GF) is defined

dR d
+  a (1+ 2 )
dR
= S= R
R  a
d

S = (1 + 2 ) +
a
If, the surface of a structure is in the biaxial stress condition there will
be a transverse strain that will affect the strain gage output
dR
can be described with transverse gage factor, St R
St =
t
and
St
Transverse sensitivity Kt =
Sa
Usually small (less than 0.01)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Q1: Derive the express of strain gauge factor? Also, comment over gauge factor,
In case of semiconductor type and mechanical type of strain gauges?

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Applications

▪ The change in resistance is measured using an electrical circuit.

▪ Many variables can be measured – displacement, acceleration, pressure,
temperature, liquid level, stress, force and torque.
▪ Some variables (stress, force, torque) can be determined by measuring
the strain directly.
▪ Other variables can be measured by converting the measurand (M) into
stress using a front-end device. Housing

Output
vo Strain
Gage
m
Direction of
Sensitivity
Strain Member Seismic
(Acceleration)
Cantilever Mass

Base Mounting
Threads

Strain gauge accelerometer

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 Types of Strain Gauges

TYPICAL METALLIC FOIL STRAIN GAGE

single element strain gage

two element rossete

used in pressured
three-element rossete
diaphragms

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 Strain gages are manufactured as metallic foil (copper-nickel alloy
– constantan) Direction of
Sensitivity

Foil
Grid Single Element
Two-Element Rosette
Backing
Film

Solder Tabs
(For Leads)

Three-Element Rosettes

Semiconductor (silicon with

impurity)Doped Silicon
Crystal Welded Nickle-Plated
(P or N Type) Gold Leads Copper Ribbons

Phenolic
Glass
Backing
Plate

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Types of Strain Gauges

❖ Bonded type: (metallic type) grid wire spread over the area to provide
uniform stress distribution.

❖ Unboned type: (semiconductor type and some metallic type) non-uniform

distributed stress.

Semiconductor type σ α 1/ρ ; Δ ρ α ΔT α ΔR α 1/σ α 1/μ

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Bonded Strain Gauges

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 Semiconductor Strain Gauges

Conductor
Ribbons

Single Crystal of
Semiconductor

Gold Leads

Phenolic Glass
Backing Plate

• Gage factor – 40 – 200

• Resitivity is higher – reduced power consumption
• Resistance – 5kΩ
• Smaller and lighter
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 CALIBRATION METHOD
▪ Introducing, a small change in resistance at the gauge, and calculating
equivalent ‘Strain’ in the gauge using shunt resistor in parallel with gauge .

▪ Mounting a strain gauge on a cantilever beam into one arm of the Wheatstone
bridge, and observing deflection as known strain is applied to the gauge, then,
using deflection formula for cantilever beam deflected a distance ‘d’ .

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Potentiometer or Ballast Circuit

Strain Gage vo
Output
vref R
(Supply) -
R
vo = vref
Rc (R + Rc )
Issues
▪ Ambient temperature changes introduce error.
▪ Variations in supply voltage may affect the output.
▪ Electrical loading effect can be significant
▪ Change in voltage due to strain is a very small percentage of the output

Q3.: Show that errors due to ambient temperature changes will cancel if the
temperature coefficients of R and Rc are the same .
VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 Wheatstone Bridge A Small i
R1 + vo
R2
RL Load
(High)
R4
R3 -
B
- +
vref
(Constant Voltage)

R1vref (R1 R4 − R2 R3 )
R3vref
vo = − = vref
(R1 + R2 ) (R3 + R4 ) (R1 + R2 )(R3 + R4 )

When the bridge is balanced

R1 R3 True for
=
R2 R4 any RL

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 Null Balance Method
▪ When the stain gage in the bridge deforms, the balance is upset.
▪ Balance is restored by changing a variable resistor
▪ The amount of change corresponds to the change in stain

Direct Measurement of Output Voltage

▪ Measure the output voltage resulting from the imbalance
▪ Determine the calibration constant
▪ Bridge sensitivity

vo ( R2 R1 − R1R2 ) ( R4 R3 − R3 R4 )

= −
v ref ( R1 + R2 ) 2
( R3 + R4 ) 2
To compensate for temperature changes, temperature coefficients of adjacent
pairs should be the same

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 The Bridge Constant

• More than one resistor in the bridge can be active

• If all four resistors are active, best sensitivity can be obtained
• R1 and R4 in tension and R2 and R3 in compression gives the maximum
sensitivity
• The bridge sensitivity can be expressed as
 vo R
=k
vref 4R

bridge output in the general case

Bridge Constant k =
bridge output if only one strain gage is active

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Case Study
Q3: A strain gage load cell (force sensor) consists of four identical strain gages,
forming a Wheatstone bridge, that are mounted on a rod that has square cross-
section. One opposite pair of strain gages is mounted axially and the other pair is
mounted in the transverse direction, as shown below. To maximize the bridge
sensitivity, the strain gages are connected to the bridge as shown in
below. Determine the bridge constant k in terms of Poisson’s ratio ‘v’ of the rod
material.
Axial
Gage
1 2
1 +

vo
3 2 Transverse
Gage −
Cross Section 3 4
of Sensing 4
Member

− +
vref

Transverse strain = (-v) x longitudinal strain

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 Calibration Constant

v o R
= C = Ss 
v ref R

 vo R
k
C = Ss =k
4 vref 4R

k – Bridge Constant
Ss – Sensitivity or gage factor

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 Topics covered

TYPES OF SENSORS

Inductive Proximity

Capacitive Proximity

Photoelectric

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 ❖ Proximity sensors (to measure displacement) and
accelerometers, are the two most common types of measuring
devices used in machine protection systems for condition
monitoring, fault detection, control of large machinery.

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 What is a Proximity Sensor?

▪ A device that uses various

methods to measure a
relative distance.

▪ Outputs the distance as an

electrical signal.

http://www.omron-ap.com/product_info/E2EM/e2em_proximity_sensor

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 Why Use Proximity Sensors?

▪ Can detect objects with or without making direct contact

▪ Extremely accurate measurements
▪ Very fast measurements (responses)
▪ Interface with Programmable Logic Controller
▪ Robust
• Long lifetime due to absence of mechanical parts
• Large temperature range
• Operate in contaminated environments
 Common Proximity Sensors

❖ Inductive

❖ Capacitive

❖ Resistive

❖ Infrared

❖ Sonar

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 Capacitive Proximity Sensors

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 Capacitive Proximity Sensors

▪ Three basic components

▪ Probe that uses capacitance to sense
changes in distance to the target
▪ Driver electronics to convert capacitance
changes into voltage changes
▪ Device to indicate and/or record the
resulting voltage change

▪ How capacitance relates to distance http://www.automationdirect.com/adc/Overv

▪
iew/Catalog/Sensors_-z-
Size of plates _Encoders/Capacitive_Proximity_Sensors

▪ Gap Size
▪ Dielectric material (material between plates)
▪ For ordinary sensing, only gap size is variable

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▪ Internal Circuit
▪ Oscillator that causes a pulsating electric field from the sensor head. Voltage
change observed when target present.
▪ Demodulator that acts as a positive peak detector to obtain a steady DC voltage
from a sine wave input.
▪ Schmidt Trigger that forces rapid transitions between low and high voltage
inputs
▪ Output that provides 0-V to load when low, or a specific voltage correlating to
gap distance when high

http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=IAU5207
Contd…

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 ▪ Advantages
▪ Unaffected by dust or opaque containers
▪ Higher resolutions (often sub-nanometer)
▪ Inexpensive
▪ Not sensitive to material changes
▪ Responds to all conductors equally
▪ Can measure non-conductors as well
▪ Disadvantages
▪ Slower than other sensors (100 µsec)
▪ Not good in dirty or wet environments
▪ Challenging output conditioning
▪ Applications
▪ Displacement measurement and related applications
▪ Bulk-handling machines, level detectors, package detection

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Capacitance

• Capacitance: the ratio between charge and potential

Q C
of a body C=
V V
• Measured in coulombs/volt. This unit is called the
farad [F].
• Capacitance is only defined for two conducting
bodies, across which the potential difference is
connected.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Body B is charged by the battery
to a positive charge Q and body A
to an equal but negative charge –
Q.

• Any two conducting bodies,

regardless of size and distance
between them have a
capacitance.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Parallel plate capacitor

• Parallel plate capacitor:

– Assumes d is small, C=
0rS F
– 0 is the permittivity of vacuum, d
– r the relative permittivity (dielectric
constant) of the medium between plates,
– S the area of the plates and
– d the distance between the plates.
– 0 is a constant equal to 8.854x10− F/m
– r is the ratio between the permittivity of
the medium to that of free space.
– available as part of the electrical properties
of materials.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 ❖ A Capacitive Proximity sensor is similar to an inductive sensor
in that it has a Oscillator, Detector and Output circuit. It differs in
that it uses a plate shaped Electrode instead of a wire-wound
core. In operation, it forms an electrostatic capacitive field
formed between it and the sensors ground. (In practice the
supply line is in effect the ground.)

SENSOR

Oscillator Circuit Detector Circuit Output

Circuit

Electrode Plate Sensing Circuit

Ground
Referred from BRASS Company

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 ❖ When there is no target object in the area of the sensor, the field,
that is formed, will be stable.

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 ❖ When a target object nears the sensor its positive and negative charges
(normally neutralized) separate. The negative charges in the target are
attracted towards the electrode, and its positive charges towards ground. This
“influence” increases the electrostatic capacitance of the electrode which
increases its coupling with ground. This provides increased amplitude in the
oscillator circuit, which is in turn used to switch the output in the detection
circuit.

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 Capacitive Method of Detection

Configuration Requires clearance around sensing end

to prevent false signals from
surrounding mounting materials.
Available in cylindrical and flat
rectangular sensor shapes.
Advantages Detects plastic, glass, liquids, leather
and wood as well as metals. Can be
used to detect materials inside non-
metallic containers.
Disadvantages Sensor is not protected from accidental
impact damage. Usable to 0.9inch
maximum.

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 Application:

High Water Limits

Low Water Limits

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 Position and displacement sensing

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 Position sensing relative to a fixed conductor

– A schematic position sensor is shown in below

– One plate is fixed while the other is pushed by the moving device.
– The position of the moving device causes a change in position of the
dielectric and this changes the capacitance. C
– Capacitance is inversely proportional to the motion and
– As long as the distances sensed are small, the output is linear.

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 Position sensor

Q7: ΔC = ?

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 Rotary position sensor

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 Other configurations for linear displacement sensors

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 Capacitive fluid level sensors

• Fluid level:
– may be sensed by any of the position or proximity sensors discussed in
the previous paragraph
– by sensing the position of the fluid surface directly
– or through a float which then can change the capacitance of a linear
capacitor or a rotary capacitor.

• There is however another method which is linear but can have a very
large range. The method is shown next:

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Co-axial fluid level sensor

20 L
C0 = F
ln(b/a)

20
C0 = hr + L − h F
ln(b/a)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • A coaxial capacitor is made of two concentric cylinders establishing a
capacitance C0.
• Capacitance of a coaxial capacitor of length L, inner radius a and outer
radius b is: 20L
C0 = F
ln(b/a)

• If the fluid fills the capacitor to a height h, capacitance is:

20
C0 = hr + L − h F
ln(b/a)

• Capacitance is linear with respect to h from h=0 to h=L

• Capacitive fuel gauges are of this type but the idea can be used for any
fluid that is nonconductive such as oils.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Capacitive sensors - Features

▪ Simple and rugged sensors

▪ Useful in many other applications (pressure, acoustic
sensors, etc.)
▪ Capacitances are small and changes in capacitance even
smaller.
– Require special methods of transduction.
– Often part of LC oscillator (measure freq.)
– Others use an ac source (measure impedances)
 Capacitive actuators

Capacitive actuation is simple:

▪ Potential is connected across the two plates of a capacitor
▪ Plates acquire opposite charges.
▪ These charges attract each other based on Coulomb’s law
▪ Force tends to pull the plates together.

Contd…

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 ▪ Mechanical motion of the plates is possible - constitutes actuation
▪ In a parallel plate capacitor the force is:
▪ For other configurations: no exact relation but:
▪ Same general behavior
CV 2 0rSV 2
F= =
d d2

Force developed is proportional to: F = CV 2 = 0rSV

2
▪
▪ Capacitance: d d2
▪ Distance between plates:
▪ Potential across plates
▪ Forces are typically small (e is very small)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Basic capacitive actuator

▪ An electrostatic actuator (electrostatic speaker):

▪ Upper plate is attracted or repelled by lower, fixed plate.
▪ Motion may be used for positioning or for voice reproduction.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Angular capacitive actuator

▪ Upper plate moves relative to lower plate

▪ Force proportional to position (capacitance changes)
▪ Useful for small, low force motion.

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 Tachometers – An Overview

• Referred from Utah State University

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Tachometer is used for measuring rotational speed

✓ to measure speed of a rotating shaft

✓ to measure flow of liquid by attaching a wheel with inclined vanes

❖An electrical instrument used to measure the speed of

a rotating object, in general with out any physical contact.
❖ Limit: distance of 1meter.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Types of Tachometer

1. Can be classified on the basis of data acquisition – contact or non

contact types

2. Can also be classified on the basis of the measurement technique used

that is – time based or frequency based technique of measurement

3. Can also be classified on the basis of type of signal – analog or digital

type

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 Analog Tachometer Digital Tachometer

▪ Indicator: Has a needle and ▪ Indicator: Has a LCD or

dial type of interface. LED readout.
▪ Storage: No provision for ▪ Storage: Memory is
storage of readings provided for storage
▪ Processing: Cannot ▪ Processing: Can perform
compute average, statistical functions like
deviation, etc averaging, etc

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 Digital Tachometers

Classification Based on Data Acquisition Technique

▪ Contact type – The wheel of the tachometer needs to be brought into

contact with the rotating object.

▪ Non Contact type – The measurement can be made without having to

attach the tachometer to the rotating object.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Classification based on Measurement Technique

▪ Time Measurement – The tachometer calculates speed by measuring

the time interval between the incoming pulses. (Pulse Time
Modulation / PTM)

▪ Frequency Measurement – The tachometer calculates speed by

measuring the frequency of the incoming pulses. (Pulse Frequency
Modulation / PFM)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Comparison Between Contact and Non Contact Tachometers

Contact Type Non Contact Type

▪ The tachometer has to be in ▪ The tachometer does not need

physical contact with the to be in physical contact with
rotating shaft. the rotating shaft.
▪ Preferred where the ▪ Preferred where the
tachometer is generally fixed tachometer needs to be
to the machine. mobile.
▪ Generally, optical encoder / ▪ Generally, laser is used or an
magnetic sensor is attached optical disk ID attached to
to shaft of tachometer. rotating shaft and read by an
‘IR’ beam or laser.

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 Comparison Between Time and Frequency based Measurement

Time based Frequency based

▪ The tachometer calculates • The tachometer calculates

speed by measuring the time speed by measuring the
interval between pulses. frequency of pulses.
▪ More accurate for low speed • More accurate for high speed
measurement. measurement.
▪ ‘Time to take a reading’ is • ‘Time to take a reading’ is
dependant on the speed and independent of speed of
increases with decrease in rotation.
speed.
▪ The resolution of the • The resolution of the
tachometer is independent of tachometer depends on the
the speed of the measurement. speed of the rotating shaft.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Typical Specifications of a Non Contact Type Tachometer
▪ Display 5 digits large LCD
▪ Range: 2.5 - 99,999 RPM
▪ Distance: 50 to 1,000 mm; 12 to 40 inches.
▪ Resolution: 0.1 RPM<1000 RPM (2.5 to 9,999 RPM)
1.0RPM >1000 RPM
▪ Measurement angle: at less than 120 degrees.
▪ Range selection: Auto
▪ Laser Output Power: <1mW class II
▪ Sampling Time: 1.0 seconds (over 60 RPM)
▪ Memory: Last value, Max Value, Min. Value
▪ Time base: Quartz crystal
▪ Circuit: Exclusive one-chip LSI circuit
▪ Battery: 4 X 1.5V AA
▪ Weight: 300g/0.65lb
▪ Size: 190 X 72 X 37 mm

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Typical Specifications of a Contact Type Tachometer

▪ Display 5-digit LCD Display

▪ Range selection Automatic range selection
▪ Time Base 4MHz Quartz Crystal
▪ Sampling Time 1 second (>60 rpm); >1 second (10 to 60 rpm)
▪ Accuracy ± (0.1% of reading + 2 digits)
▪ Photo Tachometer Distance 2 to 12” (5 to 30cm)
▪ Operating Temperature 32 to 1220F (0 to 500C)
▪ Operating Humidity 80% RH Max.
▪ Power supply 9V Battery
▪ Battery Life 40 hours (approx.)
▪ Applicable standards EN 50081-1/1992 (EN 55022) EN 50082-1/1997 (EN 55024)
▪ Dimensions 461700: 4.9 x 2.0 x 1.3” (124 x 51 x 33mm)
▪ Weight 461700: 4.0 oz. (114g)

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 Working Circuit / Model
PROXIMITY TYPE SENSOR

• A sensor which detects some things near by with out any physical
contact is called proximity sensor.
• IR sensor is nothing but an diode in which the diode produces a small
current when the light falls on it.
• These currents are very small to detect so we use operation amplifier
to detect the small voltage changes.
• Transistor amplifies the current.

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 Working Circuit / Model

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Principle of counter

• Referred from IITH

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Block Diagram of a Digital Tachometer

Display

Optical / External
Magnetic Signal Processor (μC) Port (to
Conditioning controller)
Sensor

Memory

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Optical Sensing

▪ It is used to generate pulses proportional to the speed of the rotating

shaft.

▪ Can be achieved by the following ways:

– Attaching a disk, which has an alternate black and white pattern, to the shaft
and reading the pulses by an ‘IR’ module pointed towards it.
– Using a slotted disk and a U shaped IR emitter detector pair to generate
waveforms.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Magnetic Sensing

▪ Hall effect sensors – These make use of the Hall effect to generate pulses
proportional to the speed of the shaft.

▪ Passive magnetic sensors – These make use of variable reluctance to

generate pulses.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Signal Conditioning

1. The output of the sensors may be noisy.

2. The output may have to be amplified.

3. It has to be digitized. It is done using a Schmitt trigger so as to bring

voltage to TTL levels.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Signal Processing Unit

▪ Not essential, but is generally the norm to have a microcontroller.

▪ Compute the speed.

▪ Store / memorize the readings.

▪ Transmit / propagate the values to a display unit.

▪ Generate warning signal when speed reduces / increases beyond

set margins (SP).

▪ Transfer data to the master processing unit (MPU) / the external

controller.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Display Unit

▪ Used to output the values to the operator.

▪ Can be used to observe the stored values.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Analog Tachometers

▪ These are generally the ones that display the speed of your car.

▪ The interface is needle and dial arrangement.

▪ Generally, the speed is converted to voltage through the use of an

external frequency to voltage converter.

▪ The tachometer can also act as a generator, and produce a voltage

that is, proportional to the speed of the shaft.

▪ This voltage is then displayed by an analog voltmeter.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 How to Choose a Tachometer?

▪ Accuracy
▪ Precision
▪ Range
▪ Acquisition Time
▪ Contact type / Non Contact type
▪ Portable / Fixed
▪ Digital / Analog
▪ Cost

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Calibration

▪ Why calibrate?
➢ Incorrect calibration = Incorrect readings.
➢ Calibration compensates for ageing, wear and tear, and other
degrading effects.

▪ How to calibrate?
➢ Calibration is done by comparing the reading from tachometer
to a standard speed (reference value(s)).
➢ Necessary changes are made so that the actual reading matches
the desired reading.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Thanking You

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 OPTICAL TRANSDUCER
▪ An optical transducer converts light rays into an electronic signal.
The purpose of an optical transducer is to measure a physical
quantity of light and, depending on the type of transducer, then
translates it into a form that is readable by an integrated measuring
device.
▪ They are also called as photoelectric transducers.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 ❖ The optical transducer can be classified as
– photo emissive
• The photo emissive devices operate on the principle that
radiation falling on a cathode causes electrons to be emitted
from the cathode surface.
– photoconductive
• The photoconductive devices operate on the principle that
whenever a material is illuminated, its resistance changes.
– photovoltaic transducers.
• The photovoltaic cells generate an output voltage that is
proportional to the radiation intensity. The radiation that is
incident may be x-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet, infrared or
visible light

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PRINICIPLE

▪ The operating principle is the transmitting and receiving of light in

an optical sensor, the object to be detected reflects or interrupts
a light beam sent out by an emitting diode.
▪ Depending on the type of device, the interruption or reflection of
the light beam is evaluated.
▪ This makes it possible to detect objects independently of the
material they are constructed from (wood, metal, plastic or other).
▪ Special devices even allow for a detection of transparent objects or
those with different colors or variations in contrast.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Interruption and reflection of light depends on type of devices used.
• According to this optical transducers or sensors are of three types as given
below :-

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Through-Beam Sensors:
– The system consists of two separate components the transmitter and
the receiver are placed opposite to each other.
– The transmitter projects a light beam onto the receiver.
– An interruption of the light beam is interpreted as a switch signal by
the receiver. It is irrelevant where the interruption occurs.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Retro-Reflective Sensors:
– Transmitter and receiver are both in the same house, through a
reflector the emitted light beam is directed back to the receiver.
– An interruption of the light beam initiates a switching operation.
Where the interruption occurs is of no importance.

• Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with switching

points, which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

• Diffuse Reflection Sensors
– Both transmitter and receiver are in one housing.
– The transmitted light is reflected by the object to be detected
 APPLICATIONS

• Electro-optical sensors are used whenever light needs to be

converted to energy.
– Smart phones, where sensors are used to adjust screen
brightness
– Smart watches, in which sensors are used to measure the
wearer's heartbeat.
– Optical sensor is to measure the concentration of different
compounds by both visible and infrared spectroscopy.
– Optical sensors can be found in the energy field to monitor
structures that generate, produce, distribute, and convert
electrical power

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 TORQUE METERS

• A torque transducer or torque meter is a device for measuring and

recording the torque on a rotating system, such as
an engine, crankshaft, gearbox, transmission, rotor, a bicycle crank.
• A torque transducer or meter converts torque into an electrical
signal.
• Static torque: easy to measure.
• Dynamic torque: not easy to measure.
– since it generally requires transfer of some effect (electric,
hydraulic or magnetic) from the shaft being measured to a static
system.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • The need for torque measurements has led to several methods of
acquiring reliable data from objects moving.
– Two common ways to obtain torque measurements are by strain-
gauging the shaft and by using in-line torque cells.
• The most common transducer is a strain gauge that converts torque into a
change in electrical resistance.
• The strain gauge is bonded to a beam or structural member that deforms
when a torque or force is applied. Deflection induces a stress that changes
its resistance.
• A Wheatstone bridge converts the resistance change into a calibrated
output signal.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • The methods to Getting power to the gauges over the stationary/rotating
gap are:
– Contact method: Slip rings are used in contact-type torque sensors to
apply power to and retrieve the signal from strain gauges mounted on
the rotating shaft.
– Non-contact method: Radio telemetry of the signal coupled with
wireless induced power for the strain gauge excitation offers an easy
solution for bridging the stationary-rotating gap. A stationary antenna
induces power in a loop antenna on the rotating shaft. The power
from the rotating shaft antenna is conditioned and excites the strain
gauges. A shaft-mounted radio transmitter sends the measurement
signal back to the stationary antenna. The telemetry antennas need to
be somewhat flexible for ease of mechanical installation, and
receivers should have adjustments for peak coupling of the antenna
for maximum induced power and received signal strength.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 INDUCTIVE TORQUE TRANSDUCER

• Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance

change due to any appreciable change in the quantity to be
measured i.e. measurand.
• Usually the measurand could be a rotary or linear displace,
force, pressure, torque ,velocity, acceleration and vibration.
• Inductive transducers work on one of the following principles:
– Change of self inductance
– Change of mutual inductance
– Production of eddy current

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • TORQUE TRANSDUCER WITH INDUCTIVE ANGULAR POSITION
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:-

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • The transducer consists of a stator through which a bearing-
mounted shaft passes.
• A certain length of the shaft is utilized to convert the torque into a
proportional torsional angle.
• This torsional angle or angle of twist is measured between the two
ends of this shaft length by an inductive (wave-form) angular
position measurement system.
• The inductive angular position measurement system converts the
angle of twist into a proportional electrical signal.
• The electrical power for operation of the inductive angular position
measurement system, which rotates along with the shaft, is
provided by means of a rotary transformer.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • The electrical output signal, which is proportional to the torque, is
transferred to the stator by a second rotary transformer.
• The connection box on the stator contains the electronics, the
power supply unit, and the instrument amplifier.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Thanking You

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal