6. the values of the ordinates of the points 9.

a curve or locus of a given algebraic

where the curve passes through the y- equation may be drawn by
axis _______________
7. points where a given curve crosses the 10. the region on which the curve lies
coordinate axes

What’s New

Ms. Rina decides to use a 30cm by 24cm cardboard to make a box where she
can store her journal accessories. By cutting out squares of the same size from each
corner and bending the sides up, she wants to form a box that can occupy a space
of 1400cm . How large a square should be cut from each corner?
3

Solution:

What is It
From the given word problem, let x represent the side of the square to be cut in cm . The
volume y = f ( x ) of the box is the product of the height, length, and width.
y = f ( x ) = x ( 30 − 2 x )( 24 − 2 x )
f ( x ) = 720 x − 108 x 2 + 4 x 3
3
The height, x , that will give a volume of 1400 cm is the solution of the equation
1400 = 720 x − 108 x 2 + 4 x3
Solving for x , using the synthetic division, we have x = 5 cm . To check, substitute 5 on the
variable x in 1400 = 720 x − 108 x + 4 x , which is equal to 1400 and making the statement true.
2 3

4
 The volume y is a function of the height x in y = f ( x ) = 720 x − 108 x 2 + 4 x 3 . This is an
example of a polynomial function.

A polynomial function is a variable is defined by an equation of the form

, where
a. The coefficients , , , …, represent real numbers;
b. ; and
c. represents a nonnegative integer.
The algebraic expression is a polynomial in one variable
of degree .

In the previous years of your study of Algebra, you sketched accurate graphs of polynomial
functions of degrees 0 , 1 , and 2 . The table below summarizes these graphs.

Degree Function Graph

0 f ( x) = a

The graph above shows a horizontal line that describes a

constant function.
1 f ( x ) = ax + b

The line above is a line with a slope of a and it describes a

linear function. The line can have a decreasing trend when
the slope is negative.
2 f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c

5
 A second-degree function in one variable, ( x ) , or also known
as quadratic function can be described as a parabola
opening upward or downward.

Example 1: Using the GeoGebra application graph the following pairs of functions.
a. f ( x ) = x3 and g ( x ) = x 5
b. h ( x ) = x 4 and i ( x ) = x 6
Solution: The following are the graphs of the given pairs of functions.
a. f ( x ) = x3 and g ( x ) = x 5 b. h ( x ) = x 4 and i ( x ) = x 6

Using the given graphs, the first pair, f ( x ) = x3 and g ( x ) = x 5 , are both
symmetric with respect to the origin. It can be also proved that the given functions
are symmetric with respect to the origin when solved algebraically by letting x = − x
and f ( x ) = y = − y . Meanwhile, h ( x ) = x 4 and i ( x ) = x 6 are both symmetric with
respect to the y − axis. Also, this can be solved algebraically by letting x = − x and
simplifying the given functions and resulting in the original given.

Additionally, by inspecting the graph, the set of possible values of the

independent variable ( x ) , known as the
domain for the 4 functions is the set of real
numbers, while they differ on the set of
possible values of the dependent variable
( y ) , The range for the first pair of
functions is the set of real numbers while
the second pair has an interval notation of
[0, ) , which means from zero to all
positive real numbers.

Since any real number can replace x in a

polynomial function, the domain is all real numbers. If
the degree of a polynomial is odd, its range is any real
number. However, if the degree is even, its range is the
set of nonnegative real numbers.

6
Example 2: Sketch the graph of the following functions using the GeoGebra application.
a. f ( x ) = − x3
b. g ( x ) = −2 x 3
1 3
c. c. h ( x ) = − x
2

Solution: The graph of the functions is provided on page 6.

1
Notice that the coefficients are −1 , −2 , and − , all negative. Thus, compared
2
1
to the positive coefficients 1 , 2 , and , their graphs are inverted over the x − axis.
2
1 3
Moreover, the graph of h ( x ) = − x , is wider than the graph of f ( x ) = − x3 . While the
2
graph of g ( x ) = −2 x 3 is narrower than the graph of f ( x ) = − x3 .

The graph of g ( x ) = −ax n can be obtained by inverting or reflecting the graph of f ( x ) = ax n

over the x − axis. In addition, when comparing the graphs where the coefficient is given by a , the
graph where a  1 is narrower and the graph where 0  a  1 is wider.

Example 3: Sketch the graph using the GeoGebra. Identify the domain and range.
f ( x ) = 1 − x3 and g ( x ) = − x 3 b. h ( x ) = x 4 and i ( x ) = ( x + 2 ) − 3
4
a.
Solution: The following are the graphs of given pairs of functions.

a. The graph of g ( x ) = − x 3 can be obtained by reflecting y = x over the x − axis.

3

After this, translate y = x one (1) unit upward, for f ( x ) = 1 − x3 . From the given
3

graph, the domain and the range can be determined as the set of real numbers.
b. The graph of y = ( x + 2 ) (
or y = x − ( −2 ) )
4 4
can be obtained by translating

h ( x ) = x 4 , two (2) units to the left. Then translate y = ( x + 2 ) or y = ( x − ( −2 ) ) ,

4 4

three (3) units downward for i ( x ) = ( x + 2 ) − 3 .

4

7
 The values of h and k denotes translation on the graph of f ( x ) = ax n . The graph of
f ( x ) = ax n + k is translated k units up if k  0 and k units down if h  0 . Hence, k denotes the
vertical translation or shifting. Meanwhile, the graph of f ( x ) = a ( x − h ) is translated h units to
n

the right if h  0 and h units to the left if h  0 . Hence, this is called the horizontal translation

or phase shift. Finally, the graph f ( x ) = a ( x − h ) + k shows a combination of these translations.

n

Another property of the polynomial functions is the intercepts. On the previous module,
intercepts are defined as the points where a given curve crosses the coordinate axes.

Example 4: Determine the x − and y − intercepts of f ( x ) = x ( x − 1)( x + 2 ) .

Solution: Since the given function is already in the factored form, it is easy now to determine
the x − intercepts. To identify the x − intercepts, let y = f ( x ) = 0 and equate each
factor to zero (0).
f ( x ) = x ( x − 1)( x + 2 )
0 = x ( x − 1)( x + 2 )
x=0 x −1 = 0 x + 2 = 0
x =1 x = −2
Therefore the x − intercepts are −2 ,
0 , and 1 . On the other hand, to
identify the y − intercept, let x = 0 ,
getting,
f ( x ) = x ( x − 1)( x + 2 )
f ( x ) = 0 ( 0 − 1)( 0 + 2 )
f ( x ) = 0 ( −1)( 2 )
f ( x) = 0
Hence, the y − intercept is 0 .
From the given graph on the right, ( −2, 0 ) , ( 0, 0 ) , and (1, 0 ) are the coordinates of the
x − intercepts and ( 0, 0 ) is also the coordinates of the y − intercept.

Example 5: Sketch the graph using the GeoGebra.

f ( x ) = x 2 ( x − 1) b. g ( x ) = −2 x ( x + 2 ) ( x − 1)
3 4 5
a.
Solution: The tables below summarize the zeros and the multiplicity of each zero.
f ( x ) = x 2 ( x − 1)
3
a.
Factors Zeros Multiplicity
2
x 0 2
( x − 1)
3
1 3

b. g ( x ) = −2 x ( x + 2 ) ( x − 1)
2 3

Factors Zeros Multiplicity

x 0 1
( x + 2)
4
−2 2
( x − 1)
5
1 3

8
 The multiplicity of a root or zero is found in the exponent of the factor containing it.
This indicates how many times the expression is taken as a factor. The following are
the graphs of the functions using the GeoGebra, respectively.

f ( x ) = x 2 ( x − 1) b. g ( x ) = −2 x ( x + 2 ) ( x − 1)
3 4 5
a.
Notice that the graph crosses the x − axis at ( a, 0 ) , when a is a zero of the odd multiplicity
and vice versa.

The graph only touches the x − axis at ( a, 0 ) , if a is a zero of even multiplicity, and vice
versa.

Aside from these, the relative maximum and minimum points are also considered turning
points.

Looking at the provided examples, the polynomials can be grouped with the same end
behaviors. The table below summarizes the polynomial functions in each group that have the same
sign in their leading coefficients and have the same degree form, that is, it can have either all odd
or all even.
Equation End Behavior
Sign of Leading Example
Degree Left Arrow Right Arrow
Coefficient

Odd Positive Down Up

9
 Odd Negative Up Down

Even Positive Up Up

Even Negative Down Down

With all these pieces of information provided by the examples presented, graphing a
polynomial function will be more comprehensive and a comprehensive graph of the polynomial
function has x − intercepts (if any), y − intercept, the multiplicity of zeros, and end behavior.

Example 6: Graph f ( x ) = x 4 − 12 x 2 + 16 x .
Solution: To find the zeros, solve the equation x − 12 x + 16 x = 0 . Find out the factors of the
4 2

(
given function. Factor out x , the common factor, x x 3 − 12 x + 16 = 0 . Using the )
rational root theorem, list the possible rational roots of ( x 3
− 12 x + 16 ) = 0 .
The possible divisors of 16, the constant term, are a = 1,  2,  4,  8,  16 and the
possible divisors of 1, the coefficient of x , are d = 1 .
3

(
Hence, the possible rational roots of the equation x 3 − 12 x + 16 = 0 are )
a
= 1,  2,  4,  8,  16
d
Check these values for a zero of P ( x ) = x 3 − 12 x + 16 .

P (1) = (1) − 12 (1) + 16 = 5

3

P ( −2 ) = ( −2 ) − 12 ( −2 ) + 16 = 32
3

P ( −4 ) = ( −4 ) − 12 ( −4 ) + 16 = 0
3

Since ( −4 ) is a zero, ( x + 4 ) is a factor of the polynomial. Divide the polynomial by

( x + 4) .
−4 1 0 −12 16
−4 16 −16
1 4 4 0
The other factor is x − 4 x + 4 = 0 .
2

Thus, we have

10
 x 4 − 12 x 2 + 16 x = 0
x ( x3 − 12 x + 16 ) = 0
x ( x + 4) ( x2 − 4x + 4) = 0
x ( x + 4 )( x − 2 ) = 0
2

The zeros are 0 , −4 , and 2 of multiplicity 2 .

Complete the table of signs of the given function, f ( x ) = x 4 − 12 x 2 + 16 x .

Location on the
Regions Critical Points Value of the P ( x )
x − axis
A −5 245 above the x − axis

B −2 −64 below the x − axis

C 1 5 above the x − axis

D 3 21 above the x − axis

The leading coefficient is positive,

and the polynomial function is an even
degree. Thus, the left and the right end
behavior is extending upward towards the
positive infinity.

Since the zeros 0 and −4 are of odd

multiplicity (1). The graph crosses over at
these points. While the zero 2 is of even
multiplicity (2), the graph just touches at
( 2, 0 ) , but does not cross over the x − axis.
The graph is found over the x − axis except at −4  x  0 , which is the region B in the
table and the table of signs.

11