Fundamentals of Mixed Signals

and Sensors

Module 1

Prof. Adelino T. Racusa

Signal - "A detectable (or measurable)
physical quantity or impulse (as voltage,
current, or magnetic field strength) by
which messages or information can be
transmitted."
Analog signals represent real-world variables,
such as temperature or pressure, which are
often transformed into electrical signals by
sensors.
Signal conditioning is the process of
preparing these signals for further processing
and involves components like sensors and
amplifiers.
Real-Life Examples
• Temperature Measurement: A thermocouple converts
temperature changes into an electrical voltage, which can be
processed to monitor heating systems.
• Pressure Sensors: Pressure transducers convert physical pressure
into an electrical signal, used in applications like weather
forecasting or automotive systems.
• Audio Signals: Microphones capture sound waves (analog signals)
and convert them into electrical signals for amplification or
recording.
• Signal Conditioning in Medical Devices: ECG machines use
amplifiers to process electrical signals from the heart, allowing for
accurate diagnostics.
Signals can generate responses based on other
signals, like how radar or ultrasound systems work
by sending a signal and measuring the return.

There are two main types of signals:

• Analog and
• Digital.
Analog signals are continuous and represent real-world
measurements, while digital signals are formatted into
binary numbers and can come from various sources.
There are two main types of signals:
• Analog
• Digital.
Signal Process

Analog to Digital to
Digital Analog
Digital
Signal Converter
Converter
Processor
(ADC) (DAC)
• To process these signals, we often use devices
like the analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which
turns analog signals into digital form.
• A digital signal processor (DSP) then
manipulates this data.
• Once processing is complete, another device
called a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) can
convert the digital information back into an
analog format if needed.
The main goal of processing
these signals is to extract
useful information related to
their amplitude, frequency, and
timing.

This information can be reformatted

for different uses, such as in
telecommunication systems, where
voice signals are converted and
transmitted efficiently over
networks.
Real-Life Examples
Ultrasound Imaging: An ultrasound machine sends sound waves into the
body, and the returning echoes create images of internal organs. This is a
direct response to the original signal.
Wi-Fi Networks: Data transmitted over Wi-Fi is a digital signal. Information is
converted from analog (like voice) to digital using an ADC, processed, and
then sent over the network.
Voice Compression: When you talk on the phone, your voice is converted into
digital data, compressed to save bandwidth, and transmitted. The receiving
end reconstructs the voice using a DAC.
High Definition Television (HDTV): When you watch TV, the video and audio
signals are processed and compressed to fit into the available bandwidth,
ensuring high quality without interruption.
Radar Systems: Radar sends out a signal and measures how long it takes for
the echo to return. This helps determine the distance and speed of objects,
like in air traffic control.
Industrial data acquisition and control systems use information from
sensors to create feedback signals that control various processes.
These systems rely on components like analog-to-digital converters
(ADCs), digital-to-analog converters (DACs), sensors, signal
conditioners, and digital signal processors (DSPs) or microcontrollers.

For example, Analog Devices has Micro Converters that integrate all
these components into a single chip. Sometimes, useful signals are
mixed with noise, and techniques like filtering and convolution are
used to recover the desired information. Processing can be analog,
digital, or a mix of both. DSP is particularly fast and efficient for real-
time tasks like filtering and data compression.
Layman’s Explanation
Imagine you're trying to listen to your favorite song on the
radio, but there's a lot of static noise.

The radio’s system (like an industrial control system) picks

up the music (the useful signal) and filters out the static
(the noise) so you can enjoy the song clearly.

This is similar to how sensors in industrial systems work—

they detect important information and send it to a
computer for processing.
Real-Life Examples
Temperature Control in Manufacturing: In a factory, sensors measure the
temperature of machines. The system uses this data to adjust heating or cooling
automatically, ensuring optimal operation.
Smart Home Systems: In a smart thermostat, sensors detect room temperature,
and the system adjusts the heating or cooling based on user preferences. It uses
ADCs to read the analog signals from sensors and DACs to control heating/cooling
devices.
Automated Traffic Lights: Traffic light systems use sensors to detect vehicle flow.
They process this data to adjust light changes in real-time, improving traffic flow.
Medical Devices: In an ECG machine, sensors monitor heart activity. The analog
signals are converted to digital, processed to filter out noise, and used to create
clear heart rhythm graphs for doctors.
Audio Processing: In music production, sounds are often recorded as analog
signals, converted to digital for editing, and then converted back to analog for
playback, ensuring high-quality sound.
Two main types of
signals:
Continuous-time signals and
Discrete-time signals.

Continuous-time signals have a

variable that changes smoothly over
time. An example is a speech signal,
where sound varies continuously.

Discrete-time signals, on the other

hand, change at specific intervals.
Example : a clock signal in a
microprocessor.
To differentiate between them, we use:

• The symbol t for continuous-time signals, which are written as x(t).

• The symbol n for discrete-time signals, which are written as
x[n].

Continuous signals can be sampled to create discrete signals.

For instance, when processing speech digitally, the continuous sound
wave is captured at specific time intervals, resulting in a discrete-time
representation.
Real-Life Applications

Digital Telephony: In a phone call, your

voice (a continuous signal) is sampled
and converted into a series of discrete
signals, allowing it to be transmitted
over digital networks.

Weather Monitoring: Weather stations

often record temperature readings at
specific times (discrete-time), even
though temperature itself is a
continuous phenomenon that changes
constantly.
Transformations of the independent variable involve modifying the
way we look at signals. This can result in three main effects:

Reflection: Flipping the signal over a specific axis.

Scaling: Changing the size or amplitude of the signal, either

stretching or compressing it.

Shift: Moving the signal along the time axis, which can change when
the signal occurs.
Periodic signals are a crucial
concept in signal processing, and
they relate to both discrete and
continuous signals in important
ways.
Periodic continuous-time signal
A periodic continuous-time signal is a signal that repeats itself
at regular intervals over time.
In mathematical terms, a continuous-time signal x(t) is periodic if
there exists a positive constant T (the period) such that:

x(t)=x(t+T) for all values of t.

Characteristics:
•Period T: The duration over which the signal repeats.
•Frequency f: The number of cycles that occur in one second, given by f=1/T.
•Continuous: The signal is defined for all values of t, not just at discrete intervals
The fundamental period T0 is the smallest such interval for which
this repetition occurs.

•Examples: Sine and cosine functions are classic examples of continuous

periodic signals.
Real-Life Examples

Music: A song that has a chorus that repeats every 30 seconds is a

periodic signal. The fundamental period is 30 seconds, meaning
every 30 seconds, the same music pattern plays.
Traffic Lights: A traffic light that cycles through red, yellow, and
green every 60 seconds is periodic. Every 60 seconds, the light
returns to red, making 60 seconds the fundamental period.
Seasons: The changing of seasons (spring, summer, fall, winter)
occurs in a regular cycle each year, making one year the
fundamental period.
Clock Ticking: A clock that ticks every second is another example. It
repeats its cycle every 60 seconds, making 60 seconds a periodic
signal.
Discrete-time signal
A discrete-time signal x[n] is considered periodic with period N if it
remains unchanged after a shift of N for all n.

If this condition is met, the signal is also periodic with

periods 2N,3N,2N,3N, and so on. The fundamental period N0​ is
defined as the smallest positive integer N for which this periodicity
condition holds.

•Examples: A sequence of numbers that repeats every N samples.

Applications of Periodic Continuous Time Signals
Communication Systems
Modulated Signals: Continuous periodic signals are used in amplitude modulation
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM) for broadcasting radio and television.
Carrier Waves: They serve as carrier waves for transmitting information over long
distances.
Signal Processing
Fourier Series Analysis: Used to analyze and synthesize periodic signals in audio and
image processing.
Filtering: Design of filters for continuous signals often relies on their periodic
properties.
Control Systems
Feedback Loops: Periodic signals are used in control systems to maintain stable
operation and system response.
Electrical Engineering
AC Circuits: Alternating current (AC) voltage and current waveforms are periodic
continuous signals, essential for power distribution.
Audio Engineering
Sound Waves: Musical tones and sound waves are often modeled as periodic signals
to analyze pitch and harmonics.
1. Which mathematical notation specifies the condition of
periodicity for a continuous time signal?

a. x(t) = x( t +T0)
b. b. x(n) = x( n+ N)
c. x(t) = e - αt
d. None of the above
Answer : A
Which of the following statements best defines noise in signal
processing?

A) A signal that carries useful information but is distorted during

transmission
B) Random or deterministic interference that degrades the quality of a
desired signal
C) A periodic signal that enhances the fidelity of a transmission
D) Any signal that is not classified as a desired output

Answer : B
This is the varying of carrier signal to transmit information.

A. Modulation
B. Sampling
C. Phasing
D. None of the above

Answer : A
What is amplification in the context of signal processing?

A) The process of increasing the frequency of a signal

B) The process of increasing the power, voltage, or current
of a signal
C) The process of encoding information onto a carrier signal
D) The process of filtering unwanted frequencies from a
signal

Answer : B
Which type of amplifier is commonly used to
amplify audio signals?

A) Operational Amplifier
B) Class D Amplifier
C) Voltage Amplifier
D) All of the above

Answer : D
What does the term "gain" refer to in
amplification?

A) The amount of distortion introduced by

the amplifier
B) The ratio of output power to input power
C) The frequency response of the amplifier
D) The bandwidth of the amplified signal
Answer : B
Which of the following is a common application
of amplification?
A) Digital signal processing
B) Audio playback systems
C) Data compression
D) Signal modulation

Answer : B
What does the arrows indicate?

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Answer : Amplitude
What does the arrows indicate?