INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF AFRICA, KHARTOUM, SUDAN

GRADUATE SCHOOL & SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS

LINGUISTIC CHANGES OF HAUSA LANGUAGE OF ABAKWA DIALECT AND

THE EFFECTS OF SURROUNDING LANGUAGES IN BURUKU LOCAL

GOVERNMENT AREA OF BENUE STATE, NIGERIA

THESIS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PhD) IN

LINGUISTICS

BY

ABOKI MUHAMMAD SANI SUPERVISOR

provided by International University of Africa Repository

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.........................................

Prof. BABIKER HASSAN QADRI MARI

1437 KHARTOUM 2016

1
 DECLARATION

the supervision of Professor Babiker Hassan Qadri Mari and has not been presented and will
not be presented elsewhere for the award of a degree or certificate. All sources have been duly

Sign____________________

Date____________________

Aboki Muhammad Sani

2
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the research work for this thesis and the subsequent preparation of this
thesis by Aboki Muhammad Sani were carried out under my supervision.

Supervisor

Professor Babiker Hassan Qadri Mari

Internal Examiner

Professor Kamal Gahallah

Head of Department

3
 APPROVAL PAGE

The under signed certified that they have read and recommended to the Faculty of Arts for
acceptance of this thesis entitled, Linguistic Changes of Hausa Language of Abakwa Dialect
and the Effects of Surrounding Languages in Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State,
Nigeria.

Prof. Al-Amin Abu-Manga

External Examiner

Prof. Yousif Alkhalifah

Internal Examiner

Professor Kamal Gahallah

Head of Department

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

T i
ii
.............iii
...........iv
TABLE OF CO xii
xiii xiv
xv
xvi
ABBREVIATIONS/SYMBOLS: .xviii
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH): xix
ABSTRACT (ARABIC): xx
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
3
1.0.1 Aim and Objectives of the study: . 3
........4

6
1.0.5 Hypotheses of the 6
7
11
15
1.0.9.0 Historical Background of the Surrounding Languages in Buruku Local Government
16
.. ...17
.18 20
20.......21
21
1.0.9.3.2 ..22
1.0.10. 25
26
27
1.0.13 Non- 28
1.0.1 29
29
32
1.0.15.2 Frequency and Morphological Variation/Frequency and Undertransmission of
34
36
38
1.0.15.5 Semantic 39
..39
41
1.0.17.0 Ways of Classifying Dialects .42
1.0.17.1 Geography: 42
42...........43
5
 43 .44
.44
. 45
.45
.46.........47
.. 48
1.0.18.1 Types and Sources of Data:...........................................................................48
......49
.....49
1.0.18.4 Library Documents
50
50
50
50
......51
. 52
CHAPTER TWO: PREVIOUS STUDIES 53
53
2. 53
53
2.0.1.2 Inter- 55
57
2.0.1.4 59
..59........60
63
65
2.3 Literat .109
109
CHAPTER THREE: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS: 110
110
.....110 111
3.0.1.2 Standard Hausa Consonant Parade Chart 111
112 113
.......113
3.0.1.5 Abakw 113 115
3.0.2.0 115
3.0.2.1 Long Vowels: 115 116
3.0.2.2 Short Vowels:..
3.0.3 Diphthongization:
3.0.4.0 Phonological Processes:..
3.0.4.1 Labialization/Delabialization: ..118 119
3.0.4.2 Palatalization: 119 120
3.0.4.3.0 121
3.0.4.3.1 Simple Assimilation: 122
3.0.4.3.2 Nasal Assimilation; 22
3.0.5 Glottalization: ..12
3.0.6 ..124 125
6
3.0.7.0 125
12 126
126
126 127
3.0.7.4 Trisyllab 127
127
3.0.8 127
3.0.9 28
3.0.10 12 129
3.0.11Vowel Change/Replacement .129........131

2........134
134 135
3.2.3.0 Gender Formati ..135 136
3.2.3.1 Masculine Forms: 136
3.2.3.1.2 Irregular Singular Masculine Forms:.. 136
3.2.3.1.3 Common Gender Masculine Forms: ..
3.2.3.1.4 Feminine Form .....137
3.2.3 137
3.2.3.1.6 137
3.2.3.1.7
3.2.4.0 Numb 138
3.2.4 ..138........141
3.2.4.2 Post- 141 142
3.2.5 .14
3.2.6.0 Comp 143
3.2.6 14
3.2.6. 4........145
3.2.6 .14 146
3.2.6.4 Pronoun Based Co 146
3.2.6 46........147
3.2.6 ....147
................148
.......148
.................149
1
3.3.4 Command or Imperative
151
3.4 ........151
3.4 152
3.4 15
3.4
3.5 155
3.5 155......156
3.5 157 ..158
3.5 .1
3.5 159 ...160
7
3.5 160 ..161
3.6.0. The Idiomatic/Semantic expression of Abakwa:.. 161 ..163
3.7 .163.....164
3.7 168
3.7 68 ..177
3.7.0.3The Effects of Abakwa Dialect on Etulo ..177.....186
1 187
CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION 188
1
191
.19

1
4.2.4 Context- 193
4.2.5
4.2.6 Consonants Strengthening and Vowel Simplificati
4.2.7

4.2.9.1 Dependent and Independent Pronoun .199.....200

4.2.9.2 Interrogative 200
4.2.10 Semantic/Idiom 201 2
202 06
207 18
...........219
220
221
222 25

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My profound gratitude goes to Allah (SWT) the most High whose infinite Mercy and

Blessings showers on His most exalted standard of character, marvelous being, eloquent

speaker, profound philosopher and seal of all Prophets, Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and his

progeny and those who followed his right steps to the day of resurrection; Who also gave me

the zeal, courage and enthusiasm for the successful completion of this research work.

First and foremost, International University of Africa: I would like to express my sincere

appreciation and intellectual indebtedness to my supervisor in person of Professor Babiker

Hassan Qadri Mari who has taken his time upon all his commitments in the Department to go

through the manuscript and make all constructive criticisms, pieces of advice and corrections

up to the final stage of this thesis. My sincere thanks also go to my internal examiner

Professor Yousif Alkhalifah. I would also like to commend the assistance given to me by Dr.

Abdulmageed Alhaj the Musajjil (former Registrar) of the Centre for Research and African

Studies whose unquantifiable assistance cannot be measured. My appreciation also goes to the

Vice Chancellor of Taraba State University, Jalingo Professor Muhammad Sani Yahaya

whose encouragement serves as a morale booster prior and after the completion of this study.

The Deputy Vice Chancellor Academics Professor Yakubu Haruna Aliyara too could not be

dim in this appreciation, the TETFund Office at Abuja cum the TETFund Desk Officer of

TSU-Jl Dr. Mahmood A. Umar, the Bursary Staff, and all other Management Staff who in one

way or the other that assisted in the facilitation of this study to its final completion. Professor

Hafizu Miko Yakasai who mentored me and Professor M.A.Z. Sani, all from Bayero

University, Kano, Nigeria and Professor Nina Pawlak from the University of Poland,

Professor Shettima Bulakarima Umara from the University of Maiduguri whose valuable

intellectual support and useful pieces of advise for restrategiesing, reconstructing and

9
reorganizing the research topic for onward presentation could not be forgotten. May Allah

reward them abundantly.

My special gratitude goes to my family particularly my wife Rukayyat M. Chindo and

my daughters i.e. An-Nadiya, As-

sunny used to be patient with my intermittent travelling to Sudan day-in day-out in order to

ensure that my dream becomes a reality. Equivocally, I most singled out Hajara Garba Atiku

from the Department of Geography a good friend of my family for her immense assistance to

my family while I am away. May Allah bless them. Also, my gratitude goes to the Abakwa

community importantly to mention, the Sangarin Abakwa Malam Yunusa Abubakar and his

entire relatives for their indefatigable corporation in responding to the interview questions

which the researcher posed to them towards the successful completion of this work.

Furthermore, my unquantifiable appreciation goes to Mal. Umar Muhammad who

accommodated me while in Katsina Ala.

Also, I wish to express my unflinching gratitude and appreciations to my colleagues in

the Department of Languages and Linguistics of Taraba State University, Jalingo (TSU-Jl) for

their corporation during my absence. My special thanks also go to English and French Units

and those whose names could not be mentioned due to lack of space and time may Allah

reward them abundantly. I also wish to express my thanks to my junior brothers and finally, I

wish to express my special regard to Alh. Magaji Babayo Azare whom I used to disturbed for

the booking of my air tickets every now and then may Allah blessed him.

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 DEDICATION

I dedicated this Thesis to my Late Father Alhaji Aboki Muhammadu Danpanna.

11
 QUOTATION

aware of the loan and does not consent to it, while the
recipient need not repay it; but since alternative metaphors,
like stealing or adoption, are at least equally absurd, we shall
-31).

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ABBREVIATIONS/SYMBOLS

ABK - Abakwa

SH - Standard Hausa

Etl - Etulo

C - Consonant

V - Vowel

DERG. - Derogatory

Masc. - Masculine

Fem. - Feminine

Nn - Noun

Adj. - Adjective

ADV. - Adverb

ADVM - Adverb of manner

BC - Belize Creole

Vb. - Verb

TRS. VB - Transitive Verb

Nn. Obj. - Noun Object

Ref. - Referential

PSM - Person Singular Masculine

IPPl - Independent Plural

Hau - Hausa

Eng - English

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PrNn. - Pronoun

TM - Tense marker

GTC - General Continuous Tense

Nyf - Nyifon

Lit. - Literary

# - Morpheme Boundary

- To become

* - Sign of unacceptability

- High tone

- Low tone

- Fallen

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 Abstract

This research work looks at the linguistic changes of Hausa language of Abakwa dialect and
the effects of surrounding languages in Buruku local government area of Benue State, Nigeria.
The research X-rays the aim and objectives, scope and limitation of the study, research
questions, hypothesis of the study, background of the study, historical background of Abakwa,
migration and its causes, historical background of the surrounding languages i.e. the
Etulo/Turmawa, Nyifon/Nyonyos, and the Tiv, causes of linguistic change, inter-generation
transmission, variation and prestige, diffusion, teleology in language change, external causes,
contact languages, pidginization, creolization and the theoretical framework anchored on
knowledge versus ignorance -linguistic factors and
dialect versus language issues, speech communities, the role of frequency in language
change/kinds of variation, frequency and phonological erosion/phonological variation,
morphological variation/frequency and the undertransmission of morphosyntax, syntactic
variation/frequency and grammaticalization, semantic variation, language and socioeconomic
status which encompasses: prestige, geography, ethnicity, class, speech style, pronunciation,
syntax and vocabulary. Furthermore, the study was also able to review some of the related
literatures, the methodology used in this research work includes, library documents, tape
recording, interview, and internet sources. The research points and thrashed out the Abakwa
phonetic variations, consonants and vowels chart parade i.e. both long and short ones in
comparison with that of the STH, diphthongization of vowels, the Abakwa orthography,
phonological processes such as labialization/delabialization, palatalization, assimilation viz:
simple, voicing and nasal assimilation, glottalization, tonal polarization, syllabification its
nature and typology, apocope, syncope, epenthesis, morphological variation, affixation,
inflection, gender and number formation, lexical plural suffixes, post-lexical plural suffixes,
exaggerative plural forms, compounding and its types, syntactic variation such as simple
sentence, complex sentence, interrogative sentence, command or imperative sentence, parts of
speech these includes, noun, pronoun, interrogative dependent and independent pronoun, the
Abakwa tenses i.e. habitual tense, general continuous tense, first future tense, second future
tense, and subjunctive tense. The work also highlight on the idiomatic expression of Abakwa
lexical entries, the effects of the surrounding languages like the Tiv, the Nyifons/Nyonyos,
and the Etulo/Turmawa. Finally, the research was able to conclude with some linguistic
findings such as phonological evidence thus they includes: delabialization, deimplosivization,
context-sensitive voicing, resyllabification, consonant strengthening-weakening and vowel
simplification, morphological evidence, syntactic evidence i.e. complex sentence evidence and
interrogative evidence, and idiomatic evidence.

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