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ROCKS AND WEATHERING

PLATE TECTONICS
THE INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Barysphere

Comprises inner and outer cores. Inner core is solid while the outer core is liquid. The
mineral composition is mainly iron and nickel

Mesosphere

● Comprises the lower and upper mantle. The lower mantle is solid while the upper mantle
is liquid.
● It is made up of iron(FE) and magnesium(MA)---FEMA. It makes up 82% of the earth’s
interior. The upper mantle is called esthenosphere
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Lithosphere

● Made up of the continental crust and the oceanic crust.

● The continental crust is solid and comprises silica and aluminium (SIAL). The main
rock is granite. It is thicker but less dense than oceanic.
● The oceanic crust is also solid and comprises silica and magnesium(SIMA). The most
common rock is basalt which is denser and darker than granite. It is denser but thinner
than continental.

Where does the evidence of the earth’s interior come from ? It comes from:

● Volcanic activity- this exposes materials from the earth’s mantle.

● Earthquake activity- earthquakes generate two types of waves i.e. “P” and ”S” waves.
“S” waves do not pass through fluids so their absence on the seismograph shows
presence of fluid materials. “P” waves pass through all materials.
● Mining and drilling-this brings out information about rock materials, pressure and
temperatures being experienced in the interior of the earth.
● Laboratory experiments: carried out by geo-physists.

Plate tectonics theory

● It is a set of theories namely: the continental drift theory and the convection current
theory.
● The continental drift theory describes and explains the distribution of earthquake
activity, volcanic activity, formation of fold mountains, trenches, island arcs and
mid-oceanic ridges.
● The theory states that the earth’s core consists of semi-molten magma (super-heated,
semi-liquid rock) .
● Radio- active decay in the core generates huge convection currents in the molten
magma, which are a mechanism of distributing heat. The currents rise towards the
earth’s crust tearing the lithosphere apart into rigid blocks called tectonic plates.
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The Global Pattern and distribution of Plates

● The independent plates are dragged apart (divergence), move towards each other
(convergence) or move past each other (shearing).
● They move relative to each other. The force/mechanism which drives the plates are the
convection currents in the mantle.
● The edge of each plate is called a boundary or margin. There are two types of plates
namely continental plate and oceanic plate.
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MID-OCEANIC RIDGE AND PALEOMAGNETISM

● The theory was supported by paleo-magnetism where rocks on the Mid-Atlantic Oceanic
Ridge were magnetised in alternate directions in a series of identifiable bands on both
sides of the ridge.(they are called magnetic strips)
● This suggested that fresh magma had come through the centre of the ridge and forced
rocks apart. Rocks got older with increasing distance from the centre of the ridge
indicating that new rocks were being formed at the centre of the ridge while the older
ones were being pushed apart. This became the accepted mechanism for continental
drift
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Types of plate margins

● They are called plate boundaries or margins because they are found along the edges of
the plates.
● Plate margins are zones that separate two adjacent plates. They are narrow zones/belts.

Type of margins Processes Examples

Constructive margin Two oceanic plates move away from each The Mid-Atlantic ridge
(divergent margin/sea Other. Magma wells up(volcanic activity) where
floor spreading) at the margin forming new oceanic crust. the South American
Mid oceanic ridges are formed. and the
African plates are
moving away from
each other
Destructive/convergent Plates move towards each other: Fold mountains:
margin. This is found at a i)Oceanic/ oceanic, Andes, Atlas
Subduction zone ii)oceanic/ continental Trenches: Peru/Chile,
The denser oceanic plates sink beneath Aleutian ,
the lighter continental and oceanic plates. Tonga
Landforms produced include trenches and Island arcs:
volcanic activity produces island arcs, fold Archipelagos- Japan,
mountains are produced by the crumpling
or accretionary and continental sediments
.

Collision zone/margin Two continental plates collide. Plates The Indo-Australian

are of the same density so there is no plate and the
subduction. The continental plates are Eurasian plate collide
folded up creating fold mountain ranges. creating the
Himalayas Fold
Mountain Ranges
Conservative/ Passive Two plates slide past each other, land San Andreas Fault,
margin is neither destroyed or created. As the California , USA.
plates are rough edged, they often
jam/lock and pressure builds up. When
the pressure is so immense the plates
unlock and the pressure is released. This
leads to jolting, jerking and the generation
of sudden vibrations and shockwaves are
released: earthquake activity
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Characteristics of oceanic and continental plates

Aspect /Feature Oceanic Plates( oceanic rocks Continental Plates (form

found beneath the oceans) landmasses)
THICKNESS 6-10 km(thinner) 35-70 km(thicker)
AGE Younger rocks Older rocks
DENSITY Denser Less dense

COLOUR Darker Lighter

ROCK TYPE Basalt Granite

MINERAL silica, iron and magnesium [SIMA] silica, aluminium and oxygen
COMPOSTION [SIAL]

Types of plate boundaries

1. Divergent /constructive plate margins

They are tectonic plate margins where oceanic plates move away from each other in the middle
of oceans. Divergence is caused by diverging convection currents in the lower mantle. Plates
move away from each other creating a gap in between. Magma rises from the upper mantle
filling up the gap. The magma solidifies forming a submarine mountain. This process is known
as sea floor spreading. The feature is called a Mid-Oceanic Ridge

Structure of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge

● They are up to 1000 km wide.

● They have a height of 3000m
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● They are symmetrical in shape

● Rocks making up the ridge have alternate magnetic stripes
● The axis of the ridge has transform faults
● The top of the ridge has a depression and is shaped like a rift valley.

Formation of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge at a divergent/constructive margin

● Feature/landform A is a mid-oceanic ridge

● Feature/landform B is an oceanic trench
● Plates shown at D are oceanic plates
● Process C is subduction
● Process D is seafloor spreading

A mid oceanic ridge (A) is formed at constructive plate margin where two oceanic plates
diverge/separate due to convectional currents in the mantle. When they diverge, they leave
a gap. Then there is a process of upwelling of magma from the mantle through the gap.
This magma is then cooled upon meeting sea water to form a submerged elongated Mid
Oceanic Ridge. An example is the Mid Atlantic Ridge that stretches more than 1500km long
with magnetic strips on the sides. At the top of the oceanic ridge, there is a large
depression called the rift valley. If magma continues to rise, it gets exposed above the
ocean surface forming a volcanic island e.g. Iceland on the Mid –Atlantic Ridge.
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CONSTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGIN [MID ATLANTIC RIDGE]

Qn. Explain how the mid-oceanic ridge is formed. [4]

Destructive / Convergent plate margins

Major landforms produced on this margin include:

● fold mountains
● oceanic trenches
● island arcs
● volcanic islands

Destructive plate margins occur in two forms namely:

● Oceanic and Oceanic convergence- two oceanic plates converge e.g. Indo-Australian
and Eurasian plates; Phillipines and Eurasian
● Oceanic and Continental convergence- an oceanic and a continental plate converge e.g.
Nazca(oceanic) and the South American (continental) to the SW coast of South
America.

Processes involved include:

● convergence due to convection currents and compressional forces

● subduction of the denser plate
● faulting of the less dense plate to create fault lines
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● upwelling of magma
● earthquake activity
● volcanic activity
● folding and faulting of folded sediments

Formation of fold mountains at a destructive plate margin.

Deep Ocean trenches are huge deep sea depressions found at the point of subduction.
Oceanic trenches are formed either along oceanic and continental margin or oceanic and
oceanic convergent plate margins. Convection currents in the mantle cause an oceanic plate
and continental plate to move towards each other. They converge. The oceanic plate is denser
so it is subducted below the lighter continental plate. As the denser plate subducts, it drags
along the less dense continental plate creating huge depressions called oceanic trench.
Examples of oceanic trenches include Peru/Chile trench, Mariana trench.

As the oceanic plate sinks beneath the continental plate, sediments are scrapped off the sea
bed and deposited into the trench forming accretionary wedges. As the plates continue to
move towards each other, these sediments are compressed, crushed and crumpled then folded
up to form a chain of mountains or fold mountains.

● NB: Explanation of how a fold mountain is formed when a continental and oceanic
plate converge should necessarily include the formation of the deep oceanic
trench.
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Qstn: Explain the formation of fold mountains at a destructive plate boundary. [5]

Formation of Fold mountains

● Feature/landform Q is the oceanic trench

● Feature P is the Mid oceanic Ridge.
● Process R is subduction
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Formation of Island arcs at a Convergent plate margin

● Volcanic Island arcs (labelled as W in the fig below) are formed when two oceanic
plates move towards each other and converge at a convergent plate margin.
Convection currents in the mantle cause oceanic plates to move towards each other.
The denser of the two plates is subducted (subduction) beneath/under the lighter plate.
As it subducts, it drags the lighter plate down with it to form the deep ocean trench. At
the subduction zone, the denser plate is forced into the mantle. There is a lot of friction
and upon reaching the hot mantle, there is partial re-melting to form magma. The
magma is pressurised and so develops cracks/lines of weaknesses on the side of the
lighter oceanic plate. The magma then rises through cracks or fissures on the lighter
oceanic rocks and emerges above the sea level as volcanoes. A curved linear chain of
volcanic mountains is formed called volcanic island arcs e.g. Japan.

Label A to D, show convection currents and the Benioff zone [4]

The islands are distributed in an arc shape at a distance from the point of subduction e.g.
Ryukyu islands to the south of Japan
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Qstn: Label the features labelled W, X and processes Y, Z. [4]

● Feature X is the oceanic trench

● Feature W is the volcanic island arch
● Process Z is subduction
● Process Y is Convection currents

Fold Mountains on a Continental / Continental Collision Margin

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Two continental plates move towards each other converge due to convection currents in the
mantle. Since both are light and of the same density, neither of the plates is subducted. They
compress and crush their sediments resulting in them being folded and uplifted. Young fold
mountains are formed e.g. the Himalayas formed from the collision of the Eurasian and the
Indo-Australian plates.

Activity at a Conservative Margin/Passive Margin.

This is when plates slide past each other or they bypass each other in the same direction at
different velocities. The margin is said to be conservative as there is no destruction nor creation
of the crust.

As plates shear, friction builds up a lot of pressure and due to their rough edges, they often
lock or jam increasing heat and pressure. When pressure is unsurmountable, it is released and
the plates jerk forward leading to sudden vibrations and release of shockwaves thus earthquake
shakes the ground.

Transform faults are found along conservative plate margins e.g. the San Andreas Fault in
California where the Pacific and North American plates slide past each other.

Plate tectonics summary : Points to note

⮚ the Lithosphere is not a continuous layer but is broken into rigid blocks called plates (
oceanic and continental)
⮚ the plates move relative to each other i.e. away from each other(divergence), towards
each other (convergence) and past each other (shearing ).
⮚ The plates are driven by convectional currents generated in the mantle by radio active
decay.
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⮚ Plate margin types: convergent, divergent, collision and conservative.

⮚ The theory helps us to understand the occurrence of volcanic and earth quake activities
as these take place on active plate margins.
⮚ The theory assists us in understanding occurrence of hazardous events such as
earthquakes and volcanoes.
⮚ The study of plate tectonics is relevant in that it:
● accounts for the distribution of plate boundaries
● explains the formation of large scale landforms i.e. fold mountains, island arcs,
deep sea trenches, volcanoes, mid-oceanic ridges and rift valleys.
● assists us understand the occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes
● is an eye opener in the understanding of structural landforms.

Explanations of the distribution of ocean trenches, oceanic ridges, fold mountains, island
arcs, earthquake and volcanic activity using the Plate tectonics theory.

Distribution of ocean trenches

⮚ ocean trenches are deep sections of the ocean that are more than 5000m deep.
⮚ They are found along destructive plate margins in the subduction zone where: two
oceanic plates and or an oceanic and a continental plate converge.
⮚ They are found on the ocean side of the plate boundary.
⮚ The distribution of the ocean trenches agrees with what was suggested by the theory,
that trenches always occur on the seaward side of the destructive plate margin e.g. the
Peru / Chile trench where the South American plate and the Nazca plate converge.

Distribution of Mid –Oceanic Ridges

⮚ Theory states that the mid-oceanic ridges are located in the middle of oceans along
constructive margins. Their formation is linked to sea floor spreading.
⮚ A famous example is the Mid – Atlantic Ridge found along the constructive margin
between South and North America and Africa as well as Europe
⮚ The ridge is very extensive covering 60 000 km

Global distribution of fold mountains

⮚ Can be linked to convergent plate margins where sediments are compressed, crushed,
deformed and later uplifted to form fold mountains e.g. Andes on the Nazca/South
American convergent plate margin, the Rockies on the Juan de fuca / North American
convergent plate margin

Global distribution of island arcs

⮚ These are chains of fold islands (Archipelagos ) . They form where oceanic plates
converge such that the subducted plate remelts partially providing magma which rises
through cracks above the ocean to create a chain of islands in an arc form.
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Subduction zones

● Found on convergent plate margins where the denser oceanic plates are subducted.
Subduction is evidenced by:
● deep sea trenches
● folded sediments
● volcanic activity
● earthquake activity
● the benioff zone

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

❖ To what extent can the theory of plate tectonics be used to explain the global distribution
of large scale landforms at plate boundaries[15]
❖ With the aid of diagrams, how can the theory of plate tectonics be used to explain the
formation and distribution of volcanoes, oceanic trenches and mid-oceanic ridges. [15]
❖ To what extent are landforms at plate boundaries a result of subduction. [15]
❖ Briefly explain the process of sea floor spreading. [3]
❖ With the aid of diagrams explain how fold mountains and island arcs are formed at
tectonic margins. [8]
❖ Briefly explain the process of subduction . [3]
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WEATHERING

● Weathering is the breakdown and disintegration of rocks into small particles in situ. by
chemical, physical and biological means. It can also be referred to as the physical
disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks in situ.

Types of weathering

Chemical Physical Biological

Carbonation Freeze-thaw Plant action

Hydrolysis Salt crystallisation Animal action
Hydration Pressure release Human action
Oxidation Thermal shattering
Wetting and drying

Physical weathering/ Mechanical weathering

This is defined as breakdown of rock in situ that does not involve any chemical reactions in the
rock. As a result only the size of the rock is altered. The resultant weathered material remains
coarse and its colour does not change at all. Mechanical weathering is usually a result of
temperature changes and crystallization therefore it is usually operative on the earth’s surface.
Physical weathering occurs in different ways which are known as Physical weathering
processes. These are Freeze thaw/ frost shattering, salt crystallization weathering, insolation
weathering/ thermal expansion, pressure release and root action.

The Difference between mechanical and chemical weathering

Now that both mechanical weathering/ physical and chemical weathering have been defined the
candidate should be able to identify the main differences between these weathering types.
These are ;

● In chemical weathering the rock breaks down as a result of chemical reactions between
the rock minerals and water that is charged with gases such as oxygen and hydrogen
yet there is no chemical reaction in the rock when mechanical weathering occurs.
● In chemical weathering the rock breaks down into finer regolith due to decomposition
whilst it breaks into coarse regolith ranging from grains(granular disintegration), blocks
(block disintegration)to boulders (boulder disintegration) in mechanical weathering.
● Chemical weathering mainly relies on the presence of water which can penetrate into the
rocks deep underground hence this type of weathering can occur deep in the ground yet
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physical weathering is very active on the ground surface due to its main agents which
cannot penetrate the ground. These are temperature changes.

Physical weathering/Mechanical weathering

Freeze-thaw action (frost action)

Conditions necessary for freeze-thaw

● Rocks must contain lines of weaknesses such as joints, cracks and bedding planes
● Temperatures should fluctuate around the freezing point: below freezing point (00C) to
allow freezing and to allow thawing.
● Precipitation should be moderate.
● In mountainous areas
● The periglacial areas ( these are high latitude areas that are far away from the equator,
temperatures are low.)

Process of freeze –thaw/frost action

● Water in liquid form enters the rock cracks during a rainfall event. When night comes, the
temperature falls below freezing point , water in the cracks freezes into ice.
● When water freezes, it increases in volume by about 10%. This exerts pressure of up to
2100 kg/cm2 whereas rocks can only withstand a pressure of about 500 kg/cm2. The
freezing water therefore exerts pressure on the rock forcing the crack to deepen and
widen.
● When temperature rises during the day, the ice thaws and the pressure stress on the
rock is released. Where many cycles of freezing and thawing will result in the rock
eventually breaking down into large angular blocks.

Qn. State the circumstances under which freeze –thaw occurs. [3]
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Thermal shattering / Alternate heating and cooling / Exfoliation

● This weathering process is caused by changes in temperature. Common in arid and

semi-arid climates.
● During the day, it is hot and the exposed rock is heated and expands.
● At night, temperatures fall and rocks are cooled and contract. There is alternate
heating and cooling of the rock.
● This repeated expansion and contraction of the rock will result in formation of
powerful stresses in the rock.
● Curvilinear joints are formed. The outside part of the rock will peel off like an onion. It is
a form of exfoliation.

Pressure release (dilatation )

● This is a physical weathering process which operates on rocks which were originally
buried underground.
● The buried rocks are in a state of compression due to the weight of overlying material
(overburden). As erosion takes place the overburden is stripped off.
● This reduces the weight over the rock thereby easing the pressure on the rock.
● The rock adjusts to the pressure release and by expanding upwards and outwards. It
recoils creating curvilinear cracks and vertical joints. Upon exposure the rock is taken
advantage of by exfoliation and the top layer peels. It is a form of exfoliation.

Salt crystallisation

● It is common in hot deserts. It occurs in porous rocks like sandstone.

● The rock absorbs salty/saline water from underground. When temperature is high
during the day, pure water evaporates from the rock leaving behind the salt crystals.
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● With continued evaporation taking place salt crystals continue to grow and accumulate
exerting pressure on the rock pores or cracks resulting in the rock eventually breaking
down into small grains.
● This is called granular disintegration. This process is effective in hot deserts. Also
takes place in cold coastal areas.

Hydration (wetting and drying)

● It occurs when minerals in a rock absorb water.

● The rock swells and expands putting pressure on the rock particles. When the water
evaporates, the rock shrinks.
● When repeated swelling and shrinking continues it causes rock to decay producing fine
particles. Chemically, a rock that contains calcium sulphate (anhydrite) absorbs water
to form gypsum which is hydrous (contains water). Hydration can be both physical and
chemical.

The equation : Anhydrite + water = gypsum

Ca SO4 + 2H2 = Ca CO4 + 2H2O.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

● This is the chemical decomposition/ decay of rocks in situ. This results in the rotting of
rocks to produce new and weaker products comprising very small/fine particles.
● This type of weathering involves chemical reactions between rock minerals, water, air
and humic acids.
● Chemical weathering is usually caused by water that enters the rock hence it may occur
even deep underground upto 60m.
● It is dominant in areas that are hot and wet with water acting as a solvent. The heat
speeds up chemical reactions.
● For every 100C rise in temperature, the rate of chemical reaction doubles or
trebles.

Chemical weathering processes

Carbonation

● Carbonation is where rainwater combines with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This
forms form a weak carbonic acid.
● The acid reacts with calcium carbonate in limestone rock.
● This forms calcium bicarbonate. This is soluble in water and is removed in solution.

Equation for the process

Rainwater + carbon dioxide = carbonic acid.[H2O +CO2 = H2CO3]

Carbonic acid + calcium carbonate = calcium bi-carbonate.[CaCO3 + Ca (HCO3)2]

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Carbonation is effective in areas with limestone rock (karst topography ) where the rocks have a
high percentage of calcium carbonate. Weathering of karst topography gives a variety of
landforms e.g. caves, grikes and clints.

Hydrolysis

● Hydrolysis is where hydrogen ions in rainwater combine with the particular ions in a
rock.
● Hydrogen ions in water react with feldspar in granite.
● This produces potassium hydroxide and alumino-silicic. Potassium hydroxide is removed
in solution and alumino- silicic breaks down into clay minerals
● The silicates formed are chemically unstable and decompose to form Kaolin clay
(China clay).

The equation : Hydrogen ions (in water) + (ions in) feldspar = clay (kaolinite)

Oxidation

● A process whereby oxygen atoms in water react with rock minerals that contain iron.
This forms a weak oxide called iron oxide (rust).
● This reaction weakens the rock causing it to crumple and disintegrate.
● This weaker product is rust and is reddish brown in colour.

The equation : Iron + oxygen = Ferric/Iron oxide

[4FeO + O2 = 2 Fe2O3]

Biological weathering

It is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks by the effect of living organisms. It can be
split into three groups namely: plant action, animal action and human action.

Biomechanical

Plant action

● It occurs when seeds are dropped in rock cracks by wind. They germinate and grow into
trees.
● Roots develop and grow in the rock joints.
● As the roots grow bigger and bigger they increase pressure on the rock joints widening
the cracks. Eventually the rock prises apart/breaks down into large blocks

PLANT ROOT ACTION

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Biochemical weathering

Chelation/Humification

When organic matter decays or rots humus is formed. Water mixes with humus to form humic
acid. The acids react with rock minerals such as calcium, iron and with water acting as a
solvent. This weakens the rock chemically and the rock crumples down. It is an active process
in areas with dense vegetation, high rainfall and high temperatures such as the tropical
rainforest.

Animal action

● Hard hooved animals such as cattle, donkeys, buffaloes, break rocks as they move
physically.
● Animals that burrow holes into the soil (moles, mice, jackals) detach fragments from
rocks weakening the rock structure causing them to disintegrate slowly.
● Certain animals can excrete urine on rocks which contains acids the acids react with
rock minerals causing them to decompose and eventually they crumple down e.g. rock
rabbits, baboons, squirrels.

Human action

Human activities give rise to both physical and chemical weathering processes.

Physical processes

Mining activities

⮚ quarrying: rocks are broken down for the construction industry

⮚ rock blasting in mines

Road construction
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⮚ Use of heavy vehicles such as caterpillars, graders, dump trucks results in rocks being
crushed into smaller particles
⮚ It also involves rock blasting which further breaks down rocks into smaller particles

Chemical processes/Acid rain

⮚ Industrial activities emit gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen into the atmosphere. These gases readily mix with rainwater to form
acid rain (carbonic acid). The acid rain reacts with rock minerals like calcium carbonate
in limestone to form calcium bi-carbonate which dissolves in water and is removed in
solution.

⮚ Chemical wastes dumped into the soil by industry also react with rock minerals causing
them to decay

Factors which influence weathering

● There are two main aspects of weathering that are important.

● The two are rate and type of weathering.
● Rate refers to the speed at which the rock is broken down; it can be fast or slow.
● Type of weathering refers to whether it is physical, chemical and biological and the
specific weathering processes like hydrolysis, freeze thaw etc.

Factors

⮚ Climate
⮚ Rock chemical composition
⮚ Rock jointing and bedding planes
⮚ Rock type and hardness
⮚ Vegetation type and density
⮚ Relief/Topography
⮚ Human activities like mining and quarrying, road construction etc

1. CLIMATE

Question: Explain how climate influences the rate and type of weathering. [8]

Chemical weathering is rapid where temperature is high between 21–300 C and also rainfall is
high between above 1500 mm per year. High rainfall promotes rapid chemical weathering
processes because water acts as a solvent and catalyst that enables chemical reactions to
occur. High temperatures promote high rates of chemical decay of rocks. According to Van’t
Hoff’s rule for every 100C rise in temperature, chemical reactions double or treble hence high
rate of processes like hydrolysis, oxidation in the Tropical Rainforest. Physical weathering is
very low due to lack of significant temperature changes as rocks are not exposed but always
under shade of trees. Chelation is moderate due to a lot of humus in the rainforest.
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There is rapid physical weathering in the peri-glacial climate. This occurs where rainfall is low
below 250mm per year and where temperature is also low and fluctuating above and below
0⁰C. The main processes here is physical weathering namely freeze thaw weathering. The low
temperatures allow fluctuation around the freezing point of water causing water trapped in joints
to freeze. When water freezes it increases in volume thereby exerting pressure on the rock
joints. The rock eventually breaks down after the process occurs repeatedly. The rate is high.
Chemical weathering is slow in cold dry areas due to limited availability of water and when
available it is in frozen state. Also low temperatures reduce rate of chemical reactions in
peri-glacial areas

In desert climates, physical weathering is fairly rapid/moderate. The high daytime temperature
and cool night temperature allow high rates of temperature changes and exfoliation. Also, in
mountainous uplands, freezing and thawing can take place in the cold deserts to give some
freeze thaw weathering. High evaporation of water from rocks helps to increase rate of salt
crystallisation. Chemical weathering is generally very low/slight in deserts due to the very low
rainfall even though the temperatures are very high. However, where water is made available at
oasis, from fog or during storms, chemical wesathering may take place at high rates. Rainfall is
below 300mm per year and temperature is between 10⁰C - 30⁰C.

In the seasonally humid climate (Savanna climate) the rainfall is moderate around 800mm
and the summers are wet and warm while winters are cool and dry. There is moderate
chemical weathering in summer due to moderate rainfall and high temperatures while
physical weathering is dorminant in winter due to low temperatures which fluctuate below and
above 0⁰C. Frost action will be high.
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The Peltier curve for weathering regions.

Finally Peltier produced a general graph (shown below), where he combined his works as
discussed above and illustrated the overall impact of climate on weathering.

The graph shows that temperate areas experience moderate chemical weathering with frost
action. Colder regions will not experience any chemical weathering. As conditions become
wetter and hotter, the amount of chemical weathering increases at the expense of physical
weathering. Hot and dry areas on the other hand experience very slight weathering; both
physical and chemical.
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Humid tropical

⮚ The deepest regoliths are found in the humid tropics up to 60m because of high
temperatures and rainfall throughout the year facilitating high speed chemical
weathering .

Seasonally humid tropics

⮚ have moderate depths of regolith from because of seasonality of rainfall and high rates
of stripping
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Semi-arid areas

⮚ Very shallow regoliths in semi-arid areas are because of limited rainfall and therefore low
chemical weathering.

The humid mid-latitude areas

⮚ Moderately deep with a high proportion of moderately weathered material which are a
result of low temperatures that discourage most chemical weathering processes except
for carbonation which occurs when moisture is available.

Peri-glacial areas

⮚ They have insignificant chemical weathering because of cold temperatures and water
which is mostly in solid state. Glaciers cover the landscape thereby hindering physical
weathering.

Factors affecting the rate and type of weathering (other local factors)

2. ROCK CHARACTERISTICS

(a) Rock mineral Composition

Chemical composition/Rock Minerallogy

This refers to the individual minerals that make the rock. Minerals vary in their susceptibility to
weathering hence the rate and process of weathering on each rock can depend on the minerals
in the rock. Sedimentary rock is cemented by calcium carbonate hence it is susceptible to
carbonation which attacks this mineral and change it to calcium bi-carbonate which can be
weathered through solution. So, rocks like limestone with more than 60% calcium carbonate
are weathered at high rates by chemical weathering process of carbonation.

A rock that contains feldspar such as the granite rock is susceptible to hydrolysis which
decomposes it into china clay. Granite comprises mainly feldspar with more stable quartz and
mica. So, it is weathered at high rates through hydrolysis which attacks feldspar, but the mineral
can never be weathered completely since elements like quartz are resistant to chemical
decomposition and hence remain as coarse regolith. If the rock has a dark mineral like mica in
the granite it can easily absorb insolation and emit it well. This results in high susceptibility to
high rates of thermal shattering leading to exfoliation which is mechanical weathering.

If a rock has a combination of different minerals like granite, the minerals absorb water and so
swell and contract at different rates. The minerals have different coefficients of expansion.
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This causes powerful internal stress leading to the development of joints and high rates of
granular disintegration by hydration. From the above discussion, it can be safely conclude
that the extent to which weathering can occur is to a greater extent reliant upon the rock
mineralogy/mineral composition though not in isolation.

(b) Rock jointing and Bedding planes

Joints are minute cracks or fractures found on a rock. Rock joints have an effect of aiding both
physical and chemical weathering. They have the effect of increasing the surface area of the
rock which is available to attack by weathering processes. Joints allow the ingress of
acidulated water which can alter or decompose rock minerals. When acidulated water enters
joins of granite rock, it is collected and then reacts with the felspar resulting in high rates of
chemical reactions to give china clay through hydrolysis.

Not only is chemical weathering facilitated by the joints can also be exploited by freeze thaw
action in cold mountainous areas (high latitude high altitude areas). Joints allow water to
collect in, allowing alternate freezing and thawing which results in block disintegration of the
rock at high rates. Germination, growth of vegetation in these cracks also facilitates plat root
action to mechanically weather the rock.

In sedimentary rocks like limestone with horizontal bedding planes like limestone and chalk,
acidulated water is concentrated along the bedding planes. This chemically decomposes the
rock in solution by carbonation to give karst scenery. These features like limestone caves,
grikes and clints testify the importance of joints and bedding planes along joints.

In massive rocks (rocks that are not jointed) both chemical weathering and mechanical are
ineffective since the area available to the penetration of water is not available.

(c) Rock texture

● This refers to how fine or course the mineral making the rock is.
● Coarse textured rocks are made up of large crystals e.g. granite while fine textured rocks
are made up of small, smooth and fine particles e.g. chalk.
● Coarse textured rocks such as granite are usually hard and resistant due to solidification
of magma which cooled slowly and has few lines of weakness.
● Fine textured rocks on the other hand can be weathered faster because they possess
more lines of weakness e.g. chalk and clay stone due to the surface area available for
weathering.

(d) Rock strength and hardness and its influence on rate of weathering
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● This refers to the sheer strength of the rock. Hardness is determined by the rock
minerals that make up the rock. Below is the Moh’s Scale of Rock Hardness

Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rock talc gypsum calcite elurite apatile felspar Quartz topaz corundum Diamond
type

● From the above classification it is clear that rocks are easily weathered e.g. talc while
those composed of hard minerals e.g. quartz and felspar made up of resistant minerals
ranked at 6 & 7 in the Moh’s scale are resistant to weathering.

3. Relief

● Refers to slope steepness. Slopes can be steep, gently sloping or moderately sloping.
The gradient of the slope has an influence on the rate and type of weathering.
● Steep slopes on high mountains reduce infiltration generating high runoff which
promotes unloading/ pressure release (dilatation).
● Removal of the overlying material causes the underlying rock to recoil, expanding
upwards and outwards. Curvilinear cracks develop and exfoliatition will take place.
● On gentle slopes there is high rate of infiltration of acidulated water which attacks jointed
rocks causing even deeper chemical weathering
● Strong freeze –thaw is experienced on high altitude areas due to very low temperatures.

4. Vegetation type and density

Dense vegetation increases the rate of chemical weathering by:

● Increasing rate of evapo-transpiration which increases the amount of precipitation

thereby speeding up chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, hydration and carbonation.
● Providing organic matter which decomposes providing humic acids. These promote
chelation.
● Promoting root action.
● Promoting infiltration which increases the amount of moisture in the soil thereby
promoting chemical reactions.

Sparsely vegetated areas such as deserts have low rainfall and high temperatures which
promote physical weathering processes such as freeze-thaw, temperature changes. But soil
erosion can be increased which exposes rocks to further exfoliation.
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Human activities

Mining activities

Open cast mining, is when overburden is removed to expose the mineral ore seams. Pressure
release occurs leading to dilatation and exfoliation. The blasting that occurs results in a lot of
fractures which eventually leads to rock breakdown. Quarrying also involves rock blasting and
excavation, processes which disintegrate rocks.

Road construction

Use of graders and bulldozers, crushes rocks and breaks them apart. In some cases overlying
materials are stripped off causing pressure release.

Industrial activity

Industrial activities like coal fired powerstations emit gases such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxide. These form weak acids as precipitation falls which attack rocks such as limestone where
calcium carbonate is changed to calcium bi-carbonate. The calcium bi-carbonate is soluble and
is removed in solution.

Fertilisers and pesticides also add chemicals into the soil promoting more reactions with rock
minerals hence the acceleration of chemical weathering

Briefly explain how human activity can increase acid rain. [3]

One named form of human activity i.e. emissions from power stations, industry, vehicles etc. (1
mark).
Explanation of how pH is lowered through the increase of hydrogen ions.
Sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide dissolved in rain water to produce sulphuric
acid and nitric acid. When the acid gets in contact with rocks, the rocks are weathered.
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MASS MOVEMENTS

Definition : downhill movement of surface material under the influence of gravity. Movement is
assisted by added buoyancy provided by water from snowmelt and precipitation.

Distribution and reasons why they occur there (causes of slope instability);

Physical cause

⮚ Climate:
● In areas where torrential rainfall is experienced on steep slopes e.g.Himalayas
Mountains, causing sufficient lubrication for mudflows / since wet regolith moves
easily after lubrication
● heavy excess rain can lubricate the soil leading to slope failure e.g. the
mudslides and land slides in Chimanimani during cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe 2018.
● In hot humid areas there is deep weathered material (regolith), these absorb a lot
of water, they get lubricated resulting in mudslides. Slopes are rounded.
● In hot desert areas, bare rock surfaces are attacked by insolation weathering and
freeze thaw action. This leads to block disintegration and rock falls creating free
faces
⮚ On steeply sloping hillsides e.g. Alps due to unstable nature of regolith
⮚ In areas where torrential rainfall is experienced on steep slopes e.g. Himalaya
Mountains, causing sufficient lubrication for mudflows / since wet regolith moves easily
after lubrication
⮚ Where volcanic eruptions are common e.g. Colombia , the Phillipines because the
heat, vibrations, incoherent volcanic materials and the torrential rainfall that
accompany eruptions trigger off landslides.
⮚ In periglacial areas ( Rockies –Northern Canada) where snowmelt and glacial
outbursts due to sudden temperature changes, causes avalanches
⮚ Where earthquakes are common ( Andes Mountains) rapid mass movements such as
rockfalls and landslides are triggered by the violent vibrations.
⮚ Rock type : weak, unconsolidated, saturated, shattered rock is more likely to move than
solid rock,
⮚ Bedrock: solid rock below weak rock : the junction forms the likely slide plane
⮚ Rock structure: rocks that dip down slope are likely to fail

Human causes:

⮚ Mining and quarrying: areas such as Zvishavane -Zimbabwe ,creating steep slopes
and unconsolidated overburden materials that can slip off easily upon lubrication.
Explosives used to break up rocks destabilize slopes.
⮚ Construction on steep slopes ( Hong Kong ) , due to dense population, settlements
have been built on steep slopes, digging up foundations, weight addition from buildings
all destabilise slopes triggering mass movements like landslides
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⮚ Road construction along steep slopes –involves rock blasting, cutting off flat areas
e. g. Boterekwa Shurugwi, coupled with vibrations from heavy vehicles causes slope
failure
⮚ Dumping of waste on slopes (Aberfan-UK ) adds weight on slopes , creates steep
slopes with high infiltration rates- moisture adds further weight and lubricates the
material causing slope failure
⮚ Deforestation: No more trees to bind soil, less trees to absorb water from the soil this
increases runoff triggering lots of erosion to occur. Mudflows and landslides can be
triggered by high runoff on de-vegetated slopes
⮚ Poor methods of farming on steep slopes such as: monoculture, ploughing up and
down the slope, stream bank cultivation destabilises slopes causing slope failure.

Qn: Explain the extent to which human activities can affect the weathering of rocks and
the shape of slopes. [15]

Human activities can affect the weathering of rocks by exposing them to sub-aerial
processes by removal of vegetation and top soil and by the action of acid rain (pollutants
leading to increased acidulated rainwater).

Slopes can be affected through destabilisation due to quarrying, mining, undercutting etc. The
addition of burden, through reservoir construction or the dumping of material can also have
localised but sometimes catastrophic impacts.

The extent is limited, however, as most of the factors leading to rock weathering
(climate, rock type and structure etc.) are only affected by humans in a very limited manner.

Similarly in terms of slope stability, natural events (rainfall, tectonic activity) are likely to have
more profound impacts upon slope shape.
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Classification of Mass Movements

a)Carson and Kirby Classification

b)Varnes Classification

Mass Primary Moisture Rate of Materials Causes of Movement

Movement Movement Content Movement Involved
Soil Creep Lateral Low very slow deformable Wetting and drying (expansion
rock and contraction); freezing and
and soil thawing (heaving lifting
particles up and down
movement as particles melt )
Effects on slopes: forms
terracets
Solifluction lateral flow High Slow Soil Downhill movement of soil that
has become saturated.
Common in periglacial areas.
Here saturation is promoted by
snowmelt and the impermeable
nature of the permafrost layer
Mudflow Lateral very high Slow 80% clay Take place when the slope
materials are at its wettest
reducing its internal cohesion.
There are two types of flows
viz: mudflows(faster
movements) and earthflows (
slower movements)
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Mass Primary Moisture Rate of Material s Causes of movement

movement movement content movement involved

Debris Lateral High very rapid coarse Occur on steep mountain

avalanche debris slopes where the surface is
often made of unconsolidated
rocks, snow and ice-. Material
is mobilised to flow by
snowmelt, heavy rain or skiing.
Material is in the form of slurry
(cement like)
Slide Lateral Low Variable rock mass A dry mass movement caused
or by a weakness already present
debris in the slope. A slide occurs
moving along a shear plane along
parallel to which the failure occurs.
slope Shearing occurs when two
parts of a slope slide past each
other. There could be weak
layers supporting heavy rocks.
A trigger mechanism is needed
(an earthquake, undercutting of
slopes due to human action )

Slump Lateral Low Variables soil or rock Have a curved concave shear
moving in a plane. The curved plane
rotation causes rotational movement of
along a material from higher to the
concave lower parts of the slope.
failure Rotational slides can have
plain multiple layers. When materials
move down a scar is left at the
top of the slide.
Fall Vertical Low Rapid rock or Falls are generated on the
debris steepest slopes. Debris flow
through the air and accumulate
at the base of the cliff. Blocks of
rocks from deeply weathered
regolith are detached and fall
under gravity. Debris that
accumulates at the base of the
cliff is referred to as talus
cones.
Subsidence Vertical Low Variable all The surface is lowered
materials, following the removal of some
(cavity part of the structure that
collapse previously supported it.
very rapid)
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Factors that influence rate of mass movement on slopes

1. Slope steepness
● The steeper the slope the faster the rate of mass movement since the force of
gravity is greater on steeper slopes than gentle
2. Volume of water
● Water content is supplied mainly by rainfall or melting of ice/snow. This has an
effect of adding weight to the soil as well as lubricating it to reduce friction and
reduce slope strength. So, the greater the water content, the higher the chances
of slope failure and rate of movement and vice versa.
3. Vegetation
● Vegetation helps to bind the soil together stabilising the slope. Vegetation also
absorbs water from the soil and so reduce weight and saturation so reduces rate
of mass movement.
4. Human activity
● Construction of roads and railway lines on slopes undercuts slopes hence
steepening them thus increasing chances of slope failure and rate of movement.
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Mass movements are generally classified according to speed/rate of mass movement which is
usually determined by water content. They are either slow or fast movements.

1. Slow mass movements

● Soil creep
● Heave
● Solifluction

2. Fast mass movements

● Mudflow or earthflow or debris flow

● Landslide or rotational slumping
● Rock fall /Rockslide
● Avalanche

Explain how Mass Movements Occur

Soil Creep

Soil creep is the slow movement of soil particles down the slope due to gravity. It is caused by
alternate wetting and drying or freezing and thawing of soil particles. When the soil is wet, the
particle is lifted perpendicular to the slope (at 90⁰ to the surface). On drying, the particle falls
vertically downwards to the surface. This gives the resultant slow downslope movement of the
particle called soil creep.

SOIL CREEP
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Heave is the lifting of soil particles out of the slope at 90⁰ to the slope when wet followed by a
vertical drop to the surface upon drying. The resultant slow downslope movement is called soil
creep.

Question: Explain how heave might contribute to soil creep. [3]

Heave is the lifting of soil particles perpendicular to the slope, due to wetting or freezing.
When dry or unfrozen, the particle falls back vertically under the influence of gravity leading to
a slow downslope movement that is known as soil creep.

Solifluction

Solifluction is the slow downslope movement of materials under the influence of gravity. It is
usually due to the soil having high water content, usually derived from seasonal thawing in cold
climates. This results in the soil particles slowly moving downwards due to lubrication that
overcomes friction. It is almost similar to soil creep.

Slide is the movement of material downhill along a slide (shear) plane en masse (as a large
unit). Rain falls and lubricates the sliding plane. It also increases weight on the mass on top.
This causes material on top to slide down the plane. There is no internal deformation.

Flow is the fast downslope movement of material due to high water content. When rain falls,
the soil particles are lubricated creating internal deformation. Particles then flow downslope
like a fluid.

Question: Distinguish between slide and flow. [3]

Mudflow

It is the fast flow of mud down the slope due to gravity. There is high rainfall or snowmelt. The
water needs to mix thoroughly with clay (mud) in an upper accumulation zone. The water
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lubricates the soil. The water adds weight. This then causes the internal cohesion to be reduced
as a result of increased pore water pressures. This reduces the strength of the material. Shear
stress exceeds sheer strength making mud capable of flowing down even gentle slopes. The
increased weight of saturated material may also be sufficient to initiate instability. Vibrations by
earth tremors or traffic may trigger mudflow. Volcanic eruption also results in mudflows called
lahars.

A Rockfall

B Mudflow

C Rotational slip/slumping/rotational slide D—Back scar/free face/cliff face

Question: Explain how a rotational slide occurs and describe its effect upon slope shape. [5]

Landside/Slumping/Rotational slide

A rotational slide occurs along a curved slip plane due to gravity. Rotational slides mainly
occur in homogeneous clay overlying impermeable rock and in slope material which is
unconsolidated. When rain falls it adds weight to the slope and pore water pressure also
increases. The slip plane is heavily lubricated by the heavy rainfall. Vibrations from earthquakes
or traffic together with undercutting by rivers or by humans constructing roads will trigger slope
failure. Shear stress exceeds shear strength leading to slope failure along the slip plane.
The regolith rotates backwards leaving a scar/scarp at the top of the slope and a toe at
its foot. A continuous surface slope is transformed into blocks/steps/stepped terraces,
separated by near vertical faces/minor scarps, with transverse cracking to the blocks, leaving
a crown at the top – in the material which has not moved.
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Explain how rock falls occur.

Rock fall is fast movement of loose rocks down steep slopes due to gravity. In climates which
receive high rainfall, the rate of weathering of rocks also is high to produce loose rocks.
Weak and well-jointed rocks are easily weathered. When rain falls, the soil beneath is
lubricated and weight is also added. Pore water pressure increases resulting in shear
stress exceeding sheer strength. Construction of the road cause slope undercutting which
also steepens the slope resulting in slope destabilization. Moreover, the vibration due to traffic
or earthquakes will cause slope instability causing rock falls.

ROCK FALL

Briefly explain how rills form on slopes. [3]

Rills are small networks of shallow channels (1) created by thin, concentrated flows of water (1),
the result of infiltration capacity being exceeded (1)

Explain how human activity affects mass movement on slopes. [8]

The question asks for explanation which should refer to the effect that human activities have
on the shear stress and shear strength of the slope and slope materials.
The emphasis will probably be on land use change, especially deforestation (reducing
strength), and various engineering procedures such as road building, railway cuttings, etc.,
mostly increasing stress.
The better answers may try to relate specific human activities to specific mass movement
processes such as rock falls and landslides. The question refers to mass movement and not
just to slope stability/instability, so reference to specific mass movements should be
expected.
It needs to be remembered that human activity could prevent mass movements occurring
such as by slope reinforcement, re-afforestation, etc.
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Explain how climate affects the rate of mass movement. [6]

The main climatic factor will be the input of water from precipitation (this could include melting
snow). There needs to be an understanding of the role of water in reducing the stability of
slopes so that mass movement occurs.
The more water generally, the greater rate of movement, especially true of mudflows. Better
answers might differentiate between various types of mass movement suggesting that some
landslides / rock slides might occur without much water input. Rockfall could be discussed and
then it will be freeze thaw cycles that might be important. The effect of climate, precipitation and
temperature on weathering, such as producing weathered material or changing the nature of
weathered material (regolith), is relevant if clearly linked to mass movement.
For top marks (5/6) there should be an emphasis on rate and not just the
type of mass movement.

Explain how mass movement processes can affect the shape of a slope. [8]

Good diagrams could form the basis for the answer. The emphasis is on processes and the
main ones are sliding, flowing, falling and heave. All are relevant.
There needs to be more than one mass movement process.
Shape includes slope angle as well as slope form.
Examples of how different types of mass movement processes can change the
shape and gradient of the slope:
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Sliding

Rotational landslides/Slumping leading to a stepped profile/stepped terraces, with an upper

steep scarp/scar, main mass and fan shaped toe/ lobe.

Rock Fall
Rock fall leading to a steep back wall/backs scar or cliff, lower scree/talus, toe lobe and cliff face
with joints

Flow

Scar, flow track and toe lobe.

Heave/Soil creep leading to small slope terracettes and build up of material at the
slope base, bulging fences, slanting telegraph poles

Briefly explain how human activities can both increase and decrease mass movements
on slopes. [6]

Increase may be from deforestation, building on slopes, slope foot excavation such as
cuttings or quarrying, cut and fill for roads along slopes, cultivation and grazing.

Candidates might digress into soil erosion, slope wash, etc.This is not mass movement.

Decrease may be the simple opposite of some of these factors and will indicate the weaker
responses. Positive measures might be terracing, contour ploughing, planning controls,
drainage pinning, rock bolts, fencing.
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Effects of Hazardous Mass movements on people

⮚ destruction of buildings
⮚ loss of life
⮚ destruction of infrastructure such as dams (Vioant Reservoir in Italy), roads , power
cables.
⮚ destruction of croplands

Case Studies

The Andes Slopes in Peru

Area continues to experience disastrous landslides and avalanches because of-

a) Physical conditions of the area viz;

⮚ area lies over a destructive plate margin (Nazca and South American plates) which
currently is undergoing uplift
⮚ rivers respond by vertically eroding to create steeply sloping valley slopes which are
prone to mass movements
⮚ the slopes of the mountains have weathered unconsolidated materials and the area is
heavily fractured making the area prone to landslides
⮚ the seasonal nature of precipitation allows mass movements to be pronounced during
the wet season.
⮚ area is densely populated , human activities disturb slope stability
⮚ the high altitude nature of the area means that most hill slopes are above snowline.
Snowmelt may trigger off mass movement

2. Piave Valley, Northern Italy (1963)

⮚ the huge slide of rock into Vioant reservoir crated a huge wave of water that overtopped
the dam wall and inundated settlements and the town of Longarine below killing 2 000
people

3. Ormoc city, Phillipines (1991)

⮚ torrential rainfall from tropical cyclone Thelma resulted in devastating mudflows on steep
slopes killing 5 000 people leaving 4 600 homeless.

4. Northern Venezuela (1999)

⮚ very heavy rainfall , 900mm in 2 days plus extensive deforestation, led to landslides and
mudflows that killed 30 000 people 400 000 were made homeless
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Perception about the hazards held by the people :- these compound the effects of hazards
due to mass movements.

⮚ landslides and avalanches are not life threatening enough. Some of the benefits of
staying in the area outweigh the periodic nature of problems
⮚ they have very few options of where else to settle and so remain in the hazardous area
⮚ government does not strictly enforce people to move from the area
⮚ some have seen many hazards such as landslides and were unharmed so they perceive
they have nothing to fear
⮚ population pressure on land does not offer alternative areas where people may settle
⮚ as an LIC Peru lacks the capacity to deal with hazards.

Prediction of Mass Movements: warning signs that a mass movement is likely to occur
include:

⮚ cracks in buildings resulting from tension in the ground

⮚ tilted buildings
⮚ tilted poles and fences
⮚ bulging walls
⮚ GPS and laser surveys determine the amount of movement each year
⮚ Measurements in boreholes indicate changes in groundwater content and pressure it
exerts
⮚ Tilt meters record the amount of tilt occurring
⮚ Strain meters record changes in crustal strain
⮚ landslide hazard assessment maps drawn from previous records of mass movements,
areas of high, medium or low susceptibility to landslides are classified
⮚ routes taken by mass movements such as rock falls are mapped to reduce chances of
building in such areas
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Slope stabilisation measures .

⮚ afforestation and reforestation –vegetation roots bind the soil particles together thereby
stabilising the slopes. Interception promotes infiltration , checks the raindrop impact
reducing runoff and erosion thereby reducing the incidence of slope failure. Tree roots
absorb water from the soil so reduce soil saturation so stabilise slopes
⮚ Installing underground pipes to drain off excess water and reduce saturation so as to
promote stability and contain movement of earth material
⮚ Terracing and grading- this makes the slope flatter/gentler and reduces weight by cutting
and filling.
⮚ Pinning loose outer rocks with long bolts and dowels to anchor them and prevent them
from falling off the steep slopes. This prevent rock falls by stapling outer loose rocks to
the firm inner rock.
⮚ Use of mesh wire or drapes to hold loose rocks on the steep slope thus stabilising the
slope and reduce rock falls.
⮚ Use of ductile fence to capture loose rocks from the steep slopes at the foot of the
mountain/hill. This stabilises the foot of the hill.
⮚ constructing concrete interception drains to hold falling/flowing material
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⮚ gabions: boxes of metal mesh filled with stones/rocks

⮚ shot crete: loose rocks are sprayed with concrete binding them preventing them from
falling off the slopes

Measures to reduce effects of avalanches

Evaluation:- the success of some of these measures depends on the country’s capacity to
handle and prepare for disaster. MEDCs like Japan which frequently experience mass
movements triggered by earthquakes are very prepared for disaster. LEDCs on the other hand
are poor, they lack the capital, technology and are ill prepared to manage hazards.
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Case studies: Mass movements

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END
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