GEOMOPHOLOGY

THE EARTH’S STRUCTURE

The earth’s interior is made up of three distinct layers arranged in concentrically. Thsese
layers are;
• The crust (lithosphere)
• The mantle (mesosphere)
• The core (barysphere)

THE CRUST
It is the upper most layer of the earth. It is rigid/made of solid rocks. It has two parts. These
are; oceanic crust and continental crust

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OCEANIC CRUST AND CONTINENTAL CRUST

OCEANIC CONTINENTAL
Forms bases of oceans Holds continents
Dark in colour Light in colour
Heavy with density of 3.0 Light with density of 2.7
Made of very young rocks Made of very old rocks
6-10km thick 30-45km thick
Consist of silica and magnesium Consists of silica and alluminium
Made of basaltic rocks Made of granite rocks

THE MANTLE
It is the second layer. Rich in iron and magnesium. Rocks are in a molten state. Very hot.
Under high pressure. About 2900km thick. It is olivine. Consists of magma.

THE CORE
Made of thr inner core and outer core.outer core is in a semi-molten state. Inner core is solid.
Extremely hot.consists mainlynof iron and nickel.

THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS (CONTINENTAL DRIFT)

This involves the idea that millions of years ago, continents were interlocked into one
enornomous mass of land. Most of the the continents we see today were joined together into a
single super continent.
The earth is divided into a number of separate parts called tectonic plates. Thse plates are
mobile and float on the molten rock of the mantle. The horizontal movement of the plates is
very slow, only a few centimeters per year.

There are six main plates:

African plate
American plate
Eurassian plate

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Indo-australian plate
Pacific plate
Antartic plate

Minor plates:
Nazca plate
Arabian plate

CAUSE OF PLATE MOVEMENTS

The tectonic plates move because of radio-actively generated heat from the mantle. The heat
produces a system of slowly turning convection currents. The currents carry along the
tectonic plates with continents as passengers. This led to continental drift/plate movements.

CONCTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDERY

This is a result of divergence of tectonic plates. Tectonic plates diverge or move apart. As
these plates move apart, tensional force is created and applied on the crustal rocks. The
crustal rocks develop a crack / fault line in a gap. Molten rock material, (magma) from the
mantle forces its way through the crack on the earth's surface. When the magma reaches the
earth's surface it is called lava, and it cools and solidifies forming a new crust. This region is
called the Constructive plate boundary.
FEATURES PRODUCED
* Mid-oceanic ridge
* Volcanic islands

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* Volcanic activity
*Faulting

DESTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARY

This is a result of the convergence of tectonic plates. Tectonic plates move towards each
other or collide or converge, the oceanic and tectonic plates. As these plates converge, the
compression force is created and applied on the crustal rocks. When the two plates meet, the
oceanic plates, since it is heavy, goes beneath the lighter continental plate. The lighter
continental plate overrides the oceanic plate. The oceanic plate sinks into the mantle which
absorbs it; as a result, it melts, and it is destroyed. The area where the oceanic plate is
destroyed is called the SUBDUCTION ZONE. The margin created is called the Destructive
plate boundary.

FEATURES PRODUCED
*Trenches are created
*Fold mountains are created
*Volcanoes
*Faulting

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CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARY
The slide past each other. The movement of the plates is parallel to the fault line. The
movements of the plates are horizontal. The plates rub each other side by side. Pressure and
energy builds up between the edges of the plates. Plates may grab or hook each other
leadinding to vibrations when they release.
Associates Activities
*Earthquakes
CONTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE BOUNDARIES

FOLDING
This is the bending of the crustal rocks. It is a result lateral or horizontal movements of
crustal rocks. Crustal rocks bend due to compression.

TYPES OF FOLDS
1.SIMPLE FOLD
Compression first applied on a crustal rock creates a simple fold. An up fold is known as an
ANTICLINE. The down fold is known as the SYNCLINE. The sides of the fold are called
the LIMBS. The upper most part of an upfold is called the Crest.

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2.ASSTMETRICAL FOLD
When pressure resulting from compression, continues the crustal rock, one limb of the slopes
becomes steeper than the other.

3.AN OVERFOLD
When pressure continues, one limb of the fold is pushed over the other.

4. AN OVERTHRUST FOLD
This is also known as the THRUST FOLD. If the pressure applied on the crustal rocks
continue, the rocks fracture or crack, and one limb of the fold is thrusted over the crust.

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 FOLD MOUNTAINS
FORMATION OF A FOLD MOUNTAIN.
Fold mountains are formed due to the following processes:
Convection currents causes earth or plate movements
Compression force is created and applied on the crustal rocks
Trenches are formed on the crust
Sediments accumulate in a geosyncline/ depression
Sediments are laid in a horizontal layer.
As time goes on, sediments are compressed and hardened, forming sedimentary rocks.
Compression force is applied on the crustal rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are forced to bend up or fold up forming fold mountains.
a)

c)

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF YOUNG FOLD MOUNTAINS

Parallel ranges
Ridges
Deep valley/ gorge
Narrow valley
Peaks, mountains knot
Steep, Mountains
Bare rocks, Arcs
Volcanoes or lava flow
Snow caps or glaciers
High, Faults
Examples of fold mountains

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 YOUNG FLOD MOUNTAINs OLD FOLD MOUNTAINS
Atlas (Africa) Drakensburg
Alps (Southern Asia) Welsh
Himalayas (Asia) Appalachians (North America)
Andes (South America) Southwest Cape Range (South Africa)
Rockies (North America) Scandinavian (Europe)

Distribution of young fold mountains

Along plate boundaries
Subduction Zones
West coast of North and Southern America
South East Asia
Southern Asia
Caribbean Island
Pacific Ring of fire
Indonesia, Japan, Philippians, Madagascar

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INFLUENCE OF FOLD MOUNTAINS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Scenic beauty for tourism
Minerals for mining
Forests for lumbering
Relief rainfall on the windward side for arable farming
Development of rivers for water supply
Fertile soils for arable farming
Reasons for the lack of young fold mountains in Africa south of the Sahara
The area is stable/ no earth movement.
The areas are mainly made of crystalline rocks (granite)
The area is mainly covered by ancient rocks/ old rocks.

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FAULTING
This involves the fracturing, cracking or breaking of the crustal rock. This may be a result of
compression or tension. This leads to the displacement of crustal rocks either upwards or
downwards. The area where the brakeage occurs is called a fault plate.

TYPES OF FAULTS

1. NORMAL FAULT
This is a result of tension. When tension is applied on crustal rocks, one part of the crustal
rock moves down/ falls, this is known as the downwards displacement.

2. REVERSE FAULT
It is a result of compression. One part of the crustal rocks moves upwards. This is known as
upward displacement.

3. TEAR FAULT

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It is a result of lateral movements of the crustal rocks. Rocks slide past each other. Also
known as horizontal displacement.

4. THRUST FAULT
It is a result of compression. Rocks fracture crack and one side is thrown over the other.

FAULTS

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FEATURES PRODUCED BY FAULTING
BLOCK MOUNTAINS/HORSTS
• Earth movement due to convection currents in the mantle
• Compression force is created and applied on crustal rocks
• Parallel faults occur
• Large mass of crustal rock is pushed upwards between the parallel faults
• The raised rock forms the block mountains/horsts

EXAMPLES OF BLOCK MOUNTAINS

• Black forest-Germany
• Karasberg-Namibia
• Vosqes-France

RIFT VALLEYS
A valley is a depression/low land surrounded by highlands.

FORMATION OF VALLEYS TENSION FORCE

• Convection currents cause plate movements
• Tension force is created and applied on crustal rocks
• Parallel faults develop
• The blocks on the sides pull apart
• The central block sink creating a depression
• A valley is created

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FORMATION OF VALLEYS BAY COMPRESSION FORCE
• Convection currents cause plate movements
• Compresssion force is created and applied on crustal rocks
• Parallel faults develop
• The blocks on the sides are upwards above the middle block
• The central block remains in its position
• A depression/valley is created

An example of rift valley in Africa is the Great East Africa rift valley. It cuts across countries
such as Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, kenya, Uganda, DRC, Ethiopia, kenya.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EAST AFRICA RIFT VALLEY

• Has eacarpments along fault lines
• It has parallel faults
• It has volcanoes
• Block mountains
• Volcanic pipes
• Rivers

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 • Volcanic craters
• Lakes
• Geysers
• Hot springs

REASONS FOR THE PRESENCE OF VOLCANOES NEAR RIFT VALLEYS

• Plate boundaries
• Areas of instability
• Areas of plate movement
• Subduction zones
• Areas of faulting

INFLUENCE OF VALLEYS ON HUMAN ACTIVITY

• Rivers for water supply
• Fertile soils for arable farming
• Pastures for pastoral farming
• Scenic beauty for tourism
• Forests for lumbering
• Minerals for mining
• Hot springs for geothermal power production
• Heavy rainfall on the leeward side for arable farming

VULCANICITY
Is the process through which molten rock materials intrude into the earth crust or onto the earths
surface.

TYPES OF VULCANICITY
Intrusive vulcanicity
This is when magma cools and solidifies within the earth crust forming intrusive volcanic
features. Intrusive volcanic features are features formed when magma cool and solidifies within
the earth crust.
Extrusive vulcanicity
This is when magma moves and reach the surface as lava ,cools and solidifies on the earth’s
surface forming extrusive volcanic features. Extrusive volcanic features are features formed
when lava cools and solidifies on the earth’s surface.
TYPES OF LAVA
When the molten rock (magma) reaches the earth‘s surface it becomes lava. There are two
types of lava, basic lava and acidic lava. The difference between the two lies in their two
chemical composition and the nature of a volcanic eruption depends on the type of lava.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BASIC AND ACID LAVA
BASIC LAVA ACID LAVA
Low silica content High silica content
More magnesium and iron Less magnesium and iron
Quite /less eruptions Violent eruptions
Fluid and mobile Highly viscous /explosive
Forms features with gentle sides Forms features with steep slopes
Dark in colour Light in colour
High density Low density
Low melting point High melting point
Covers large areas of land Covers small areas of land
Travels fast in a long distance Travels slow over short distances

INTRUSIVE VOLCANIC FEATURES

There are features formed when molten rock material (magma) cools and solidifies within the
earth’s crust .These feature may be exposed to the earth’s surface through the process of
erosion, thereby becoming visible on the earth’s surface.
1.BATHOLITH
This is a very large mass of magma which accumulates ,cools and solidifies in the crust.
2.LACCOLITH
This is dome-shaped intrusion with a flat floor. It is produced from slow flowing viscous
magma which is not able to flow far .The magma accumulates and build up into a large
mushroom-shaped mass, over the overlying rocks.
3.SILL
This is produced when a sheet of magma cools and solidifies between horizontal sedimentary
rocklayers. When exposed by erosion,some sills may form ridges ,some of which may lead to
waterfalls, and rapids when crossed by a river.
4.DYKE
These may be vertical or inclined .They are formed when a large mass of magma cuts across
the bedding plane and form a wall like features. When exposed by erosion ,some dykes may
form ridges, escarpments or turn into shallow depressions. Like sills ,they sometimes give rise
to rapids and waterfalls.

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EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC FEATURES
These are features formed when the molten rock material is released and deposited onto the
earth’s surface, cools and solidifies as lava. They are formed on the earth’s surface.

1.VOLCANO
This is a conical hill or mountain formed by the eruption of molten rock material from the
magma reservoir in the mantle.

FORMATION OF A VOLCANO
• Convection currents cause earth movements
• Compression and tension forces are created and applied on the crustal rocks
• Pressure builds up in the mantle.
• Earth movement creates zones of instability.
• Faulting occurs
• Pressure is released
• Magma forces its way through the cracks on the earth’s crust.

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 • Violent eruptions may occur
• Lava accumulates on the earth surface.
• Lava cools and solidifies on the surface forming a volcano

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
Volcanoes are classified in terms of cone shape formed when the lava cools and solidifies. The
con shape is also influenced by the type of lava released and deposited on the earth ‘surface.
a. BASIC LAVA CONES
These are a result of viscous lava which forms cones with gentle.

b. ACID LAVA CONES

These are a result of viscous lava which forms cones with steep slopes.

c. THE COMPOSITE CONE

These are often called strata volcanoes. They are made up of alternating layers of lava
and ash. They are a result of violent eruptions, where first ash is released, and then lava
pouring out on top of the ash.

d. ASH AND SINDER CONES

Lava is blowen to great heights when violently ejected and it breaks into small
fragments which falls back to the earth surface to build cone .they are very small
volcanoes,with small craters and steep slopes.the lava is so viscous that it solidifies
after a short period of time.

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e. CALDERA
This can be referred to as an enlarged crater.Sometimes a volcano blows so violently
that it literally blow its top off destroying the entire volcanic summit, the top may sink
into the magma (subsidence), leaving a greatly enlarged crater called a caldera. A
caldera may become a site for lake e.g Lake Baasumtwi in Ghana.

FORMATION OF A CALDERA

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 OTHER FORMS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS

Emissions of gases and stem periodically take place from dormant volcanoes.ina hot
spring,super heated water flows quietly and in a gryser ,water is thrown out with a great
force accompanied by steam.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
Volcanoes usually pass through three stages in life cycle.
1. AN ACTIVE VOLCANO
This is also known as a live volcano .It is characterized by frequent eruptions or its a volcano
that erupts frequently.
2. A DORMANT VOLCANO
This is also referred to as a sleeping volcano.ii is known to have erupted in the past and show
signs of possible eruptions in the future or it’s a volcanoes that erupts after a long time period
of time.
3. AN EXTINT VOLCANO
This is also referred to ass a dead volcano.it has not erupted at allin historic times and does not
show sign of possible eruption in the future.
EXAMPLEES OF VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS IN AFRICA
• Mt. Kilimanjaro- Tanzania
• Mt. Kenya -Kenya
• Mt. Elgon-Kenya
• Mt.Nyingorongo-DRC
• Mt. Nyamlagira-DRC
• Mt. Cameroon-Cameroon
IMPACTS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITTY

a) ON THE ENVIRONMENT
✓ Pollution from toxic gases and ash
✓ Acid rain
✓ Destruction of vegetation
✓ Eruption of fires
✓ Loss of wild animals
✓ Land slides
✓ Mudflows
✓ Acidic /thin soils
✓

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 b) ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES/ BEIGNS
✓ Loss of lives
✓ Destruction of infrastructure
✓ Destruction of farmlands
✓ Fertile soils for arable farming
✓ Minerals for mining
✓ Scenic beauty for tourism
✓ Forests for lumbering
✓ Geysers for geothermal power production
✓ Pastures for pastoral farming
✓ Relief rainfall on the windward side for arable farming
✓ Rivers and lakes for water supply for irrigation, domestic use etc.
WHY PEOPLE SETTLE ON SLOPES OF VOLCANOES
✓ Extinct volcanoes
✓ Gentle slopes
✓ Fertile soils for arable farming
✓ Minerals for mining
✓ Heavy rainfall on the windward side for arable farming
✓ Scenic beauty for tourism
✓ Forests for lumbering
WHY SOME SLOPES OF VOLCANOES ARE FREE FROM SETTLEMENTS
✓ Active volcanoes
✓ Steep slopes
✓ Salty /saline soils
✓ Acidic/thin soils /infertile soils
✓ Little or no rainfall on the leeward side or the rain shadow
✓ Poisonous /toxic gases
✓ Extreme cold
✓ Thin or rarefied air that makes breathing difficult
MEASURES TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
✓ Evacuation/Rescue teams
✓ Early warning systems/predictions/forecasts
✓ Education
✓ Research
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
✓ Along tectonic plate boundaries/margins
✓ Subduction zone
✓ Pacific ring of fire
✓ Mid Atlantic ridges
✓ Southern Europe
✓ West coast of north and south America
✓ South East Asia

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 ✓ Caribbean Islands
✓ Philippines ,Indonesia, Madagascar, Japan, New Zealand

DISTRIBUTION OF VOOLCANOES

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EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is a shaking of the earth are vibrations in the earth’s crust as a result of that
sudden and rapid displacement of crustal rocks beneath the earth’s surface.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
• Volcanic eruptions
• Earth movements /tectonic plate movement
• Faulting of crustal rocks due to divergence and convergence of the crustal rocks
OCCURANCE OF EARTHQUAKES
• Along the plate boundaries
• Volcanic islands
• Ocean deeps
• Mid -oceanic ridges
• Along subduction zones
HOW AN EARTHQUAKE OCCURS
• Earth movements/ plate converge due to compression/plates diverge due to tension
• This creates zones of instability
• Faulting or folding occurs
• Pressure is released at the focus
• Shock waves radiate outwards/towards the epicenter
• Vibrations are felt
• Minor vibrations cause tremors/major vibrations cause earthquakes.
THE NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES

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 • The focus is the point where the shockwaves or earthquakes originates.
• The epicenter is the point on the earth surface immediately above the focus.
• The shock waves first hit the earth surface at the epicenter.
• The shock waves move outwards from the focus with diminishing effect, that is the
strength of the shock waves is much stronger at the focus and reduces as they radiate
away from the focus.
• On the earth’s surface, the greatest damage is at the epicenter, and it reduces as you
move away from the epicenter, that is, the strength of the shock waves is much greater
at the epicenter ,and reduces as they radiate away from the epicenter.
SCALES USED TO MEASURE THE SIZE OF AN EARTHQUAKE
1.MERCALLI SCALE
This is used to measure the the earthquake intensity, which is the effect produced by an
earthquake. It gives readings from 1 to 12. It is based on the effects or damage caused by the
shockwaves on the earth’s surface.

2.RICHTER SCALE
It gives readings from 0 to 8.9. It’s used to measure the earthquake magnitude, which is the
total amount of energy released by an earthquake or the strength of an earthquake. This scale
is based on instrument readings. The reading of 0 shows no movement, whilst 8.9 indicates
severe movement or destruction.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
1) ON THE ENVIRONMENT
o Destruction of vegetation
o Loss of wild animals
o Deep cracks on crustal rocks
o Displacement of crustal rocks
o Tsunamis (huge tidal waves)
o Land slides
o Raising and lowering of the sea floor
o Raising and lowering of crustal rocks.

2) ON HUMAN BEIGNS
o Loss of lives
o Destruction of houses or buildings
o Destruction of farmlands
o Destruction of infrastructure

3) ON THE ECONOMIY OF A COUNTRY

o Destruction of infrastructure

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 o Loss of skilled workers
o Destruction of farmlands which leading to decline in food production
o Destruction of communication network
o Destruction of manufacturing industries
o Slow economic development
o Poverty
SECONDARY EFFECTS
• Flooding
• Eruption of fires
• Homelessness
• Spread of disease
• Malnutrition
• Loss of jobs
• Trauma
WHY SOME PLACES ARE MORE AFFECTED BY EARTHQUAKES THAN OTHERS
/WHY IPACTS OF EARTHQUAKES VAARY FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER.
• Earthquake magnitude-the high the magnitude the more the damage
• Population density-the higher the population density the more the damage
• Type of building materials- the stronger the materials the lesser the damage
• Level of technology-the higher the level of technology the less the damage
• Time of day-more damage at night than during the day
• Distances from the epicenter-the nearer the place the more the damage
• Continentality-those closer to the sea experience more damage from floods than those
far from the seas
• Remoteness of an area-the further the place is from developments the more the damage
• Clustered buildings-more damage where buildings are clustered than where buildings
are scattered
• Availability of resources/ preparedness of an area
STEP TO MEASURE THE DAMAGE OR EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
• Early warning systems/technology to predict occurrence of earthquakes
• Strong reinforced building materials
• Rescue teams /Evacuation
• Education
• Put in plane methods of fire control
• Earthquake -proof building laws
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
• Subduction zones
• Along plate boundaries
• Pacific ring of fire
• Area of faulting
• Volcanic islands
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 • South East Asia
• West coast of North and South America
• Japan, Indonesia, Philippines ,New Zealand
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES

WHY THE EFFECTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES ARE

LIKELY TO BE MORE SERIOUS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES THAN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES THAN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

High level of technology Low level of technology

More skilled manpower Shortage of skilled manpower
More capital Lack of capital
Better machinery Lack of machinery

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