CHAPTER TWO

Classification &
Properties of Materials
 Classification of Materials
Classification Base

 Materials that are used for

construction purpose can be broadly
classified based on their:
• Metallic Property
• Physical nature
• Mode of production
 Classification of Materials
Metallic Property

1.Metallic :
Metals are usually lustrous, ductile, malleable, and
good conductors of electricity. They are divided into
2 categories:
Ferrous: is the metal in which the principal element
is iron.
Examples:steel,wrought iron & cast iron
Non-ferrous : is the metal in which the principal
element is not iron
Examples: copper,aluminium,lead,zinc,etc
2.Non metallic:
Examples;concrete,timber,stone,lime etc.
Classification of Materials
Based on Physical Nature

Physical
Nature

Solid Liquid Gas

 Classification of Materials
Based on Mode Of Production

a) Naturally Occurring Materials

 Stone
 Timber
b) Industrially produced materials
 Cement
 Glass
C) Materials produced at construction site
 Concrete
 Mortar
 Properties of Materials
Generals

Properties Which relate to materials are:

1. Physical properties
➢ Density & Specific Gravity
➢ Thermal Property
➢ Acoustic /Sound permeability
➢ Fire resistance
➢ Porosity
2. Chemical properties
➢ Corrosion Resistance
➢ Combustibility
➢ Toxicity
➢ Decay Resistance
3.Mechanical Properties
The resistance of material to:
➢ The action of external static forces (compressive, tensile,
bending, shear ,torsional strength)
➢ The action of dynamic external forces(impact and vibratory
loads)
 Properties of Materials
Behavior of Materials Under Load

Application of external force on solid body in equilibrium

results in:
➢ Internal resisting forces are developed in the body which
balances the externally applied force.
➢ The body is deformed to varying degree
➢ The intensity of internal force is stress and the deformation
per unit is strain
Stress can be defined by ratio of the perpendicular force
applied to a specimen divided by its original cross
sectional area, formally called engineering stress
Strain is the ratio of change in length due to deformation
to the original length of the specimen, formally called
engineering strain.
 Properties of Materials
Behavior of Materials Under Load

Depending on the arrangement & direction of

the external forces, the stress produced in the
body may be :
⚫ Tensile
⚫ Compressive
⚫ Shear
⚫ Bending
⚫ Torsional
⚫ Various combinations of the above.
 Properties of Materials
Testing of Materials for Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties are conducted to examine

the performance of construction materials under
the action of external forces.
Mechanical tests are classified :
A. With reference to the arrangement & direction of the
external forces;
B. With reference to the rate & duration of the load
application
C. With Reference to the effect on the specimen
 Mechanical Tests
With reference to the arrangement &
direction of the external forces;
Tension Test Bending Test.
✓ Specimen under tension test is ✓ Specimen is subjected to forces
subjected to an axial tensile force that give rise to bending moments
✓ Tensile stress is developed on cross- ✓ The resulting stresses are
sectional area perpendicular to the compressive on one side of the
line of action of the force.
neutral axis & tensile on the other
✓ The specimen increase in length. side.
Compression Test ✓ Shear stress exist throughout the
✓ Specimen is subjected to an axial beam.
compressive force Torsion Test
✓ Compressive stress is produced. ✓ This test is conducted to
✓ The specimen decrease in length. determine the shearing strength of
Shear test a material
In this test, shearing stress is ✓ The specimens for torsion test are
determined on the x-sectional area generally cylindrical in shape.
parallel to the line of action of the
external forces.
Mechanical Tests
With Reference to the Rate and Duration of
the Load Application

Static Tests
✓ Made with gradually increasing load.
▪ e.g. ordinary tests in tension & compression etc.
Dynamic Tests
✓ Made with suddenly applied loads.
Wear Tests
✓ Made to determine the resistance to abrasion & impact.
Long time Tests
✓ These are made with the loads applied to the object for
long period of time.
Fatigue Tests
✓ These tests are made with fluctuating stresses repeated
a large number of times
Mechanical Tests
With Reference to the Effect on the
Specimen

Destructive Test
✓ The specimens are either crushed or ruptured and
made useless at the end of the tests.
✓ Tests conducted on the following materials are best
examples
 Ultimate strength of steel
 Compressive strength of concrete
Non-destructive Tests
✓ Are used to test the strength of members of existing
structures without affecting their performance.
 Example: hammer test
 Mechanical Properties
Stress-Strain Properties in Simple
Tension Test
❖ In standard conventional tension test,
specimen is subjected to a gradually
increasing axial tensile force ‘P’ by
means of testing machine.
❖ At various increments of load ,the
change in length ∆L of the specimen is
measured.
∆L=L-Lo where L=new length
Lo =original length

❖ It is assumed that the stress is ❖ The uniform stress will produce a

uniformly distributed for all points on uniform elongation ∆L. The elongation
each x-section. This stress is computed per unit length is strain & expressed
as follow; as:
σt =P/Ao where σt =Tensile stress ε= ∆L / L o Where ε =strain
Ao=X-sectional area ∆L=elongation
P= applied load Lo=original length of the specimen
 Mechanical Properties
Stress-Strain Properties in Simple
Tension Test

d
c
b
Stress a
Plastic range
(σt )

Strain(ε )
Fig 1. Stress-strain diagram for ductile materials

a= Proportional limit c=Yield strength

b=Elastic limit d= Ultimate strength
Mechanical Properties
Stress-Strain Properties in Simple
Tension Test
Mechanical Properties
Stress-Strain Properties in Simple
Tension Test
 Mechanical Properties
Properties in Elastic Range

❖ The parameters which are used to describe the mechanical properties of

a material in the elastic range are:
❖ Proportional limit,
❖ Elastic limit,
❖ Modulus of elasticity, stiffness etc.
1.Proportional Limit
is the greatest stress which a material is capable of withstanding without
deviation from the law of proportionality of stress to strain.
(point a of fig 1)
2.Elastic Limit
is the greatest stress which a material is capable of withstanding without a
permanent deformation remaining up on the release of stress.
(point b of fig 1)
3.Yield Point
is the stress at which there occurs a considerable increase in strain without an
increase in stress. Only ductile materials have both lower & upper yield points.
(point c of fig 1)
 Mechanical Properties
Properties in Elastic Range

4.Modulus of Elasticity(young’s modulus)

 is the slope of the initial linear part of
stress-strain diagram.
 The greater the modulus of elasticity,
the smaller the elastic strain resulting
from the application of a given values.

Methods of determining modulus of

elasticity, E.
i. For ductile materials, with linear
stress – strain portion,
E= ∆ σt ∕ ∆ ε
 Mechanical Properties
For materials with non-
linear stress-strain curves

 The slope of the stress- strain curve varies

and the modulus of elasticity cannot be
readily determined.

a. Initial-Tangent modulus: The slope of the stress –strain

curve at the origin which has a value of E 1 =tanф1 ф
1

b. Secant modulus : the slope of the line joining the origin and
the selected point on the stress-strain curve with the value of
ф2
E 2 =tanф2

c. Tangent modulus: The slope of the tangent to the stress – ф3

strain curve at the selected point with the value of E 3 =tanф3
 Mechanical Properties
Properties in Elastic Range

5.Stiffness
❖ is the measure of the ability of material to resist deformation.

❖ The higher the modulus of elasticity, the stiffer the material.

❖ A material has a higher stiffness value when its deformation in the elastic
range is relatively small.
❖ Comparing steel alloys with E=210Gpa and aluminium alloys with
E=70Gpa,the steel alloys are about three times as stiff as the aluminium
alloys i.e steel alloys will deform about one-third as much as aluminium alloys
for the same stress.

6.Poisson’s Ratio
✓ Is the ratio of the unit deformations or strains in transverse direction to the
longitudinal direction within proportional limit.
µ= ε’/ ε where ε’ = transverse strain, ε =longitudinal strain
✓ Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the stiffness of the material in the direction at
right angle to applied load.
 Mechanical Properties
Properties in Plastic Range

➢ The characteristic at the plastic range is that there is a

permanent deformation in the stressed body after complete
removal of the load.
➢ The parameters which are used to describe the mechanical
properties for the plastic range are; ultimate strength, ductility
and toughness.
1.Ultimate Strength
is the maximum strength a material can possibly resist before
failure.
➢ Depending on the stress strain relationship of a particular material, the
plastic strength will correspond to the ultimate strength or to the
fracture(rupture)strength.
 Mechanical Properties
Properties in Plastic Range
Stress
(σt )

Ultimate or fracture
Fracture Ultimate
strength
strength strength

Strain(ε ) Strain(ε )

Ductile material Brittle material

Mechanical Properties
Properties in Plastic Range

2.Ductility
➢ Represents its ability to deform in the plastic range.
➢ Ductile materials show relatively higher plastic
deformation, i.e they are capable of being drawn-out
,before rupture occurs.
➢ Ductility is measured by the percentage elongation
or percentage reduction in area.
De=Lf –Lo *100 Da =Ao-Af *100
Lo Ao

3.Toughness
✓ Is the ability of material to absorb energy in the
plastic range.
✓ A material with high toughness can absorb high
values of strain energy in the plastic range.
Questions