Atomos: Not to Be Cut

The History of Atomic Theory

 Atomic Models
 This model of the
atom may look
familiar to you. This is
the Bohr model. In
this model, the
nucleus is orbited by
electrons, which are
in different energy
levels.
 A model uses familiar ideas to
explain unfamiliar facts
observed in nature.
 A model can be changed as
new information is collected.
 The atomic
model has
changed
throughout the
centuries,
starting in 400
BC, when it
looked like a
billiard ball →
 Who are these men?
In this lesson, we’ll learn
about the men whose quests
for knowledge about the
fundamental nature of the
universe helped define our
views.
 Democritus 400 BC

 This is the Greek

philosopher Democritus
who began the search for
a description of matter
more than 2400 years
ago.
 He asked: Could
matter be divided into
smaller and smaller
pieces forever, or was
there a limit to the
number of times a
piece of matter could
be divided?
Atomos
 His theory: Matter could
not be divided into
smaller and smaller
pieces forever, eventually
the smallest possible
piece would be obtained.
 This piece would be
indivisible.
 He named the smallest
piece of matter “atomos,”
meaning “not to be cut.”
Atomos
 To Democritus, atoms
were small, hard
particles that were all
made of the same
material but were
different shapes and
sizes.
 Atoms were infinite in
number, always
moving and capable
of joining together.
 This theory was ignored and
forgotten for more than 2000
years!
 Why?
 The eminent
philosophers
of the time,
Aristotle and
Plato, had a
more
respected, Aristotle and Plato favored the earth, fire, air
and water approach to the nature of matter.
(and Their ideas held sway because of their
eminence as philosophers. The atomos idea
ultimately was buried for approximately 2000 years.

wrong) theory.
 Dalton’s Model
 In the early 1800s,
the English
Chemist John
Dalton performed a
number of
experiments that
eventually led to
the acceptance of
the idea of atoms.
Dalton’s Theory
 He deduced that all
elements are composed of
atoms. Atoms are
indivisible and
indestructible particles.
 Atoms of the same element
are exactly alike.
 Atoms of different elements
are different.
 Compounds are formed by
the joining of atoms of two
or more elements.
 .

 Thistheory
became one
of the
foundations
of modern
chemistry.
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
 In1897, the
English scientist
J.J. Thomson
provided the first
hint that an atom
is made of even
smaller particles.
 Thomson Model
 He proposed a
model of the atom
that is sometimes
called the “Plum
Pudding” model.
 Atoms were made
from a positively
charged substance
with negatively
charged electrons
scattered about,
like raisins in a
pudding.
 Thomson Model
 Thomson studied
the passage of
an electric
current through a
gas.
 As the current
passed through
the gas, it gave
off rays of
negatively
charged
 Thomson Model
Where did
they come
 This
surprised from?

Thomson,
because the
atoms of the gas
were uncharged.
Where had the
negative charges
come from?
Thomson concluded that the
negative charges came from within
the atom.

A particle smaller than an atom had

to exist.

The atom was divisible!

Thomson called the negatively
charged “corpuscles,” today known
as electrons.

Since the gas was known to be

neutral, having no charge, he
reasoned that there must be
positively charged particles in the
atom.

But he could never find them.

 Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiment
 In 1908, the
English physicist
Ernest Rutherford
was hard at work
on an experiment
that seemed to
have little to do
with unraveling the
mysteries of the
atomic structure.
 Rutherford’s experiment Involved
firing a stream of tiny positively
charged particles at a thin sheet of
gold foil (2000 atoms thick)
 Most of the positively
charged “bullets” passed
right through the gold
atoms in the sheet of
gold foil without changing
course at all.
 Some of the positively
charged “bullets,”
however, did bounce
away from the gold sheet
as if they had hit
something solid. He
knew that positive
charges repel positive
charges.
 http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R
UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html
 This could only mean that the gold atoms in the
sheet were mostly open space. Atoms were not
a pudding filled with a positively charged
material.
 Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small,
dense, positively charged center that repelled
his positively charged “bullets.”
 He called the center of the atom the “nucleus”
 The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a
whole.
Rutherford
 Rutherford reasoned
that all of an atom’s
positively charged
particles were
contained in the
nucleus. The
negatively charged
particles were
scattered outside the
nucleus around the
atom’s edge.
 Bohr Model
 In1913, the
Danish scientist
Niels Bohr
proposed an
improvement. In
his model, he
placed each
electron in a
specific energy
level.
Bohr Model
 According to
Bohr’s atomic
model, electrons
move in definite
orbits around the
nucleus, much like
planets circle the
sun. These orbits,
or energy levels,
are located at
certain distances
from the nucleus.
Wave Model
The Wave Model
 Today’s atomic
model is based on
the principles of
wave mechanics.
 According to the
theory of wave
mechanics,
electrons do not
move about an
atom in a definite
path, like the
planets around the
sun.
 The Wave Model
 In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact
location of an electron. The probable location of
an electron is based on how much energy the
electron has.
 According to the modern atomic model, at atom
has a small positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a large region in which there are
enough electrons to make an atom neutral.
 Electron Cloud:
 A space in which
electrons are likely to be
found.
 Electrons whirl about the
nucleus billions of times
in one second
 They are not moving
around in random
patterns.
 Location of electrons
depends upon how much
energy the electron has.
 Electron Cloud:

 Depending on their energy they are locked into a

certain area in the cloud.
 Electrons with the lowest energy are found in
the energy level closest to the nucleus
 Electrons with the highest energy are found
in the outermost energy levels, farther from
the nucleus.
 Indivisible Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
Cloud
Greek X
Dalton X
Thomson X
Rutherford X X
Bohr X X X
Wave X X X
Atomic Number and Mass Number

All atoms of an
element have
the same
number of
protons and the
same atomic
number.
 ISOTOPES
Atoms with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons
 Atomic Number
The atomic number
• is a whole number specific for each element.
• is the same for all atoms of an element.
• is equal to the number of protons in an atom.
• appears above the symbol of an element in the
periodic table.

Atomic number 11
Symbol
Na
Atomic Number = Protons in an Atom
Atomic number = number of protons—for
example,
 the atomic number of H is 1; every H atom
has one proton.
 the atomic number of C is 6; every C atom
has six protons.
 the atomic number of Cu is 29; every Cu
atom has 29 protons.
All atoms of lithium (left) contain three protons, and all atoms of carbon (right) contain six protons.
 Atoms are Neutral
For neutral atoms, the net charge is zero.
number of protons = number of electrons

Aluminum has 13 protons and 13 electrons. The net (overall)

charge is zero.

13 protons (13+) + 13 electrons (13–) = 0

 Study Check
Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number of
protons, and number of electrons for each of the following
elements:

Element Atomic Protons Electrons

Number
N

Zn

S
 Solution
Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number of
protons, and number of electrons for each of the following
elements:

Element Atomic Protons Electrons

Number
N 7 7 7

Zn 30 30 30

S 16 16 16
 Mass Number
The mass number
• represents the number of particles in the nucleus.

• is equal to the number of protons + the number of neutrons.

• is always a whole number.
• does not appear in the periodic table.
Composition of Some Atoms of
Different Elements
Study Tips: Protons and Neutrons

Number of protons = atomic number

Number of protons + neutrons = mass number

Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

Note: Mass numbers are given for specific isotopes only.

 Study Check
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.

A. How many protons are in the nucleus?

B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?
C. How many electrons are in the atom?
 Solution
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.

A. How many protons are in the nucleus?

atomic number = 82; number protons = 82
B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?
mass number – number protons = number neutrons
207 – 82 = 125 neutrons
C. How many electrons are in the atom?
An atom is neutral, which means that the number of
electrons is equal to the number of protons. An atom of
Pb has 82 protons and 82 electrons.
 Learning
The Periodic Table of Elements
 What are Atoms?
 Atoms are the simplest and
smallest particle composed of
protons, electrons, and
neutrons.
 The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom is equal to
its atomic number.
 Normally, the number of The Atom’s Family

protons equals the number of

electrons.
 Protons, Neutrons and Electrons
 A proton is a positively charged particle
inside the nucleus.
 A neutron is a neutral particle also inside the
nucleus.
 An electron is a negatively charged particle
that orbits the nucleus.
 What is the Periodic Table of
Elements?
 Elements are substances that cannot be
broken down any further by chemical
means. There are over 100!
 The Periodic Table is the arrangement of
these elements by increasing atomic
number and similar properties.
 Elements
 Each element on the Periodic Table has an atomic
number, symbol, name and average atomic mass.
 Atomic number – the number of protons found in
the nucleus of an atom.
 Average atomic mass – the mass of an atom
including the protons, neutrons and electrons.
 How is it Arranged?

 The elements are put into rows by

increasing ATOMIC NUMBER.
 The horizontal rows are called periods
and are labeled 1 to 7.
 The vertical rows are called groups and
are labeled 1 to 18

The red lines show the different periods and the green lines show the groups.
 Three States of Matter
Substances are made up of particles.
The state of the substance depends on the arrangement of the particles.

The Three States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

 Particles held tightly  Particles held weakly  No attraction between

 Very close together  Very close together particles
 Regular arrangement  Random arrangement  Far apart
 Vibrate  Vibrate  Random arrangement
 Can’t move from place  Constantly move past  Vibrate
to place each other  Move quickly in all
directions
 Grouped Elements Have
Similarities
 Elements in the same group have similar
properties. Remember, groups are columns.
 Chemical Property - a property used to
characterize materials in reactions that change
their identity. Ex: burning something.
 Physical Property - a characteristic of a substance
that can be observed without changing the
substance into something else. Ex: measuring
something’s length, color, mass or volume.
Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids
 The major categories of elements are the
metals, non-metals, and metalloids.
 Metals are lustrous, malleable, and are good
conductors of heat and electricity.
 Non-metals are elements that do not share
the properties of metals.
 Metalloids are elements that share some,
but not all the properties of metals.
Metals - Lustrous, Malleable, and
Good Conductors?
These are physical properties of metals
 Lustrous means shiny or reflective of light.
 Coins and jewelry are shiny and reflective .
 Malleable means capable of being shaped.
 Aluminum foil is shaped or molded around food items to
keep them fresh.
 Being a Good Conductor means being able to
allow electricity and heat to flow through.
− When you think about the wires we use for
electrical devices, they are mostly made of
copper and other metals.
 Alkali Metals

 Elements in Group 1 (not including

Hydrogen).
 Very reactive metals. Always combine
with something else in nature.
 Salt – an Alkali Metal,
Sodium, and another
element, Chlorine,
combined.
 Alkaline Earth Metals
 Elements in Group 2.
 Reactive Metals that are
always combined with
non-metals in nature.
 Several of these
elements are important
mineral nutrients, like
Calcium.
 Transition Metals
 Elements in Groups 3-12.
 Less reactive, harder metals.
 Includes metals used in jewelry, money and
construction.
 Boron Family
 Elements in Group 13.
 Boron has properties of both metals
and non-metals.
 The rest of the elements in this
group are metals.
 Carbon Family
 Elements in Group 14.
 Contains elements important to life and
computers.
 Carbon is the basic element in all organic
compounds.
 Silicon and
Germanium are
important
semiconductors.
 Nitrogen Family
 Elements in Group 15.
 Nitrogen makes up more than ¾ of
our atmosphere.
 The red tip of matches is made of
phosphorous.
Oxygen Family or Chalcogens
 Elements in Group 16.
 Oxygen is necessary for respiration.
 Many things that have a bad odor
contain sulfur.
 Halogens
 Elements in Group 17.
 Very reactive, diatomic non-metals.
 Always found combined with other
elements in nature.
 Chlorine is used to keep bacteria out of
swimming pools.
 Noble Gases
 Elements in Group 18.
 VERY reactive gases.
 Used in lighted neon signs.
 Helium is used to make party balloons float.
 Elements Used Everyday

Can you think of any elements you use every day?