anthropology. Methodology- Research methodology is the specific Procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. It is the science of understanding how research is performed methodically. It studies different techniques which can be utilized in the performance of experiments, tests, surveys, etc. The objective is to apply correct procedures to determine solutions. Three research tools for anthropological research are - Participant observation- Participant observation is the method of fieldwork par excellence in anthropology. Anthropologists use various degrees of participant observation, from full participation in ongoing activities to passive observation in places of interest. Participant observation is useful in multiple stages of an evaluation: Initially, to identify problems that need to be explored with other data collection methods; In the course of evaluating the process To follow other types of data, triangulate previous findings and directly observe specific phenomena. Participant observation allows the researcher to assess real behavior in real-time. Information collected in this way can strengthen the interpretation of information collected through interviews. Large projects that employ multiple observers can use an observation template. This allows observers to be guided in taking notes on central phenomena and allows them to add notes on other phenomena. It is important to ensure that observations from any location are made at different times of the day and week to identify patterns and differences. In-depth individual interviews- In-depth interviews using open-ended questions aim to capture the informant’s mental and experiential world. Individual interviews allow participants to tell their stories in a detailed and consistent way. Also, without worrying about what their classmates may think. A semi-structured interview uses an interview guide with a central list of open-ended questions as well as advance follow-up questions. This allows researchers to ensure that all participants are asked a minimum set of identical questions. In this way, they can collect reliable and comparable qualitative data. Additionally, this interview technique allows researchers to ask spontaneous questions to investigate clarification of participant responses. Therefore, they can follow new and relevant topics raised by the participants. Semi-structured interviews should be conducted by someone trained in qualitative interviews and who is comfortable using open-ended questions. In this way they can encourage participants to expose their thoughts. The duration of the interviews can vary and the evaluators can record audio and transcribe them. Focus group- Focus group is a useful group interview method for obtaining information on relatively new topics. Researchers choose focus groups rather than one-on-one interviews when data acquisition will benefit from the dynamics that are created through the discussion group. The discussion often generates information and ideas that might not come from an individual interview, including the colloquial ways in which participants speak. The following factors are critical to the success of the focus groups: Thoughtful creation of a list of open-ended questions designed to attract participants to discussion on desired topics. Careful attention to recruiting participants who have the desired characteristics and experiences. Also taking into account that they are comfortable with non-hierarchical group discussions. The presence of an observer who keeps notes on the process operates the recording equipment and assists the moderator as needed. Focus groups generally include 6 to 12 participants and last 1 to 2 hours. Moderators should strive to facilitate openness and dynamic dialogue between participants to allow opportunities for creative idea generation. 2. What do you know about functionalism and cultural & personality school of thought? Discuss critically. Functionalism Functionalism is the doctrine that makes something a thought, desire, pain, (or any other type of mental state) depends not on its internal continuation. It is a theory that focuses on interdependence in institutions and their behavior pattern to maintain their social system and survival. It shows how functions play an important role in maintaining a cultural system through the social life of the culture. Basically, functionalism is how individuals function in their daily life to support their society. Malinowski suggested that individuals have physiological needs (reproduction, food, shelter) and that social institutions exist to meet these needs. There are also culturally derived needs and four basic “instrumental needs” (economics, social control, education, and political organization), that require institutional devices. Each institution has the personnel, a charter, a set of norms or rules, activities, material apparatus (technology), and a function. Malinowski argued that uniform psychological responses are correlates of physiological needs. He argued that satisfaction of these needs transformed the cultural instrumental activity into an acquired drive through psychological reinforcement Cultural and personality- The Culture and Personality movement was at the core of anthropology in the first half of the 20th century. It examined the interaction between psychological and cultural forces at work in the human experience. Culture and Personality were too divided to really be considered a “school of thought.” It had no orthodox viewpoint, centralized leadership, or coherent training program; however, there were also some basic ideas with which most practitioners would agree. At a minimum, these would include: Adult behavior is “culturally patterned,”. Childhood experiences influence the individual’s personality as an adult, and Adult personality characteristics reflected in cultural beliefs and social institutions, such as religion. Most prominent culture-and-personality theorists argued that socialization Paces directly shape personality patterns. The socialization process molds a person’s emotions, thoughts, behaviors, cultural values, and norms, allowing the person, should the process work, to fit it into and function as of productive member of the surrounding human society. The field developed more with later work by Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict. Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa provided “the first sustained consideration of the relation between personality and culture”. Culture and Personality reached a peak during the 1930s and 1940s and began to lose support in the 1950s. It was viewed as being unscholarly, and the few remaining practitioners changed the name of their approach to psychological anthropology to avoid the stigma, but also to widen its scope. Modern psychological anthropology, among other pursuits, attempts to bridge the gap between anthropology and psychology by examining the “cross-cultural study of the social, political, and cultural-historical constitution of the self.
Short Question
1. Why Anthropology is important? Discuss
To understand what anthropologists do and what their contributions are to society it is important to understand what they study and why. Anthropologists study anthropology to understand humans and their history. Anthropology is divided into several forms such as archeology, biological, and linguistic anthropology. Throughout history, humans have evolved into improved circumstances for humanity’s advancement. Anthropologists are responsible for observing humanity’s past and evaluating what separates groups of people from each other. Through their procedures and methods, anthropologists are able to learn from people. In the subject of archaeology, anthropologists discover the hidden past of humanity by finding artifacts and old constructions. As we hope you have learned thus far, anthropology is an exciting and multifaceted field of study. Because of its breadth, students who study anthropology go on to work in a wide variety of careers in medicine, museums, field archaeology, historical preservation, education, international business, documentary filmmaking, management, foreign service, law, and many more. Beyond preparing students for a particular career, anthropology helps people develop essential skills that are transferable to many career choices and life paths. Studying anthropology fosters broad knowledge of other cultures, skills in observation and analysis, critical thinking, clear communication, and applied problem-solving. Anthropology encourages us to extend our perspectives beyond familiar social contexts to view things from the perspectives of others. As one former cultural anthropology student observed, “I believe an anthropology course has one basic goal: to eliminate ethnocentrism. A lot of issues we have today (racism, xenophobia, etc.) stem from the toxic idea that people are ‘other’ we must put that idea aside and learn to value different cultures.” This anthropological perspective is an essential skill for nearly any career in today’s globalized world.
2. What do you know about kinship terminology? Discuss the Omaha and Crow kinship terminology. Kinship terminology, in anthropology, is the system of names applied to categories of kin standing in relationship to one another. The possibilities for such nomenclature would seem limitless, but anthropologists have identified a small number of basic systems that are found in all world societies. Six of these systems use the criterion of classification of kin in the same generation as “ego,” a given individual designated as the starting point in genealogical reckoning. Four terminological systems that focus on the ego’s parental generation have also been identified. Six basic patterns of kinship Hawaiian kinship. Sudanese kinship. Eskimo kinship. Iroquois kinship and its variations. Crow kinship. Omaha kinship. Omaha-crow kinship Omaha kinship is characteristic of societies that use patrilineal descent relatives are lumped together on the basis of descent and gender. Siblings and parallel cousins of the same gender are given the same term of reference. Omaha descent groups are characteristically patrilineal. In this system, relatives are sorted according to their gender. Ego's father and his brother are merged and addressed by a single term and a similar pattern is seen for ego's mother and her sister. Crow kinship is the father’s sisters’ son gets the same term as the father and the father’s sister’s daughter the same term as the father’s sister. These systems are generally found in societies with strong matrilineal kinship emphases. The Crow system is similar to the Iroquois system but distinguished between the mother's side and the father's side. Relatives on the mother's side of the family have more descriptive terms and relatives on the father’s side have more classificatory terms.
