COURSE TITLE:

Research Method for IT

Chapter- 1
Introduction to Research

By Meresa H.(MSc.)

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Topics
1. Definition and meaning of Research
2. The role and purpose of Research
3. Motivations of the research
4. Characteristics of Research
5. Understanding Concepts, Constructs, Variables, and Definitions
6. Characteristics of Research
7. Problem formulation
8. Competence and Skill Need in Research
9. Steps in the research process
10.Time dimensions in research

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1. Meaning Of Research
■ Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards
progress. Without systematic research there would have been very
little progress.
■ Word ‘Research’ comprises of two words = Re+Search. It means
to search again.
■ “Re” is the prefix meaning ‘Again or over again or a new’ and
“Search” is the latter meaning ‘to examine closely and carefully’ or
‘to test and try’.
■ So research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain
new knowledge of the already existing facts.
■ The study of conducting research is called Research Methodology.

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1. Definition OF Research
• Research is a carful investigation or inquiry, especially through
the search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
• The systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem
formulating hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing
the facts and reaching certain conclusion either in the form of
solutions towards the problem or in concerned for certain for
some generalizations theoretical formulation.

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1. Definition OF Research
■ Research can also be defined as
– Search for knowledge
– Systematic and scientific search for getting relevant
answers on any taken up specific topic.
– Scientific enquiry into a subject.
– Research is a movement from the unknown to the known.
– It is the voyage of discovery

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Other Definitions Of Research --- cont’d
■ “Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.” -Redman & Mori

■ “Research is a careful investigation or inquiry, especially through the search for new
facts in any branch of knowledge.” - Rocco (2011)

■ “Research comprises defining and redefining problems ,formulating hypothesis or

suggested solutions, collecting ,organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and
reaching conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulated hypothesis.” -Clifford Woody

■ “Research is a systematic investigation aimed at establishing facts.” Creswell (2008),

■ The term research is derived from two syllables, "re" meaning again, anew or over
again, and "search" meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to
probe. Together, they produce a noun that denotes a diligent, methodical, and
comprehensive inquiry carried out to establish facts or principles in a particular field of
expertise. - Thyer (2011)
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2. Role/Purpose /Objectives Of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application
of scientific procedures and improve the quality of life.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
.(studies with this objective are known as exploratory or formative research
studies).
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group(studies with this objective are known as descriptive research
studies )
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.( studies with this objective are known as
diagnostic research studies).
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables( studies
with this objective are known as hypothesis-testing research studies )
.

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2. Role/Purpose /Objectives Of Research

• The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions

through the application of scientific procedures.

• The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is

hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.

• Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we

may think of research objectives as falling into a number of the
following broad groupings:

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2. Role/Purpose /Objectives Of Research

• Objectives of Research

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new

insights into it;

2.To portray/describe accurately the characteristics of a

particular individual, situation or a group;

3.To determine the frequency with which something occurs

something else; or it's associated with

4.To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between

variables.
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Curiosity
Quality of
Life
Utility of
Applications
Advancement of
Amount of Technology
knowledge

Application
Development
Applied Research
Basic Research

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•Funding and Resources:
3. Motivation In Research
■ What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of
fundamental importance.
■ The possible motives for doing research may be either one or
more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work or
the need to advance knowledge
4. Desire to be of service to society/ social impacts
5. Driven by curiosity and Exploration,
6. Desire to get Funding and Resources

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•Funding and Resources:
4. Characteristics of Research
■ Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena
which includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
facts that lines an individual's speculation with reality.
■ Characteristics of Research:-
1. Empirical:- Research is based on direct experience or observation by
the researcher.
2. Logical: -Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical.:-Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a
problem and ends with a problem.
4. Analytical:-Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in
gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, and experimental
and case study.
5. Critical.: -Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical: Research is conducted in a methodical manner without
bias using systematic method and procedures.
7. Replicability: - The research design and procedures are replicated or
repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive
results. 12
•Funding and Resources:
4. Characteristics of Research
■ Characteristics of Researcher:-
1. Intellectual Curiosity: A researcher undertakes a deep
thinking and inquiry of the things, and situations around
him.
2. Prudence: The researcher is careful to conduct his research
study at the right time and at the right place wisely,
efficiently, and economically.
3. Healthy Criticism: The researcher is always doubtful as to
the truthfulness of the results.
4. Intellectual Honesty: An intelligent researcher is honest to
collect or gather data or facts in order to arrive at honest
results.
5. Intellectual Creativity: A productive and resourceful
investigator always creates new researches.

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5. Understanding Constructs, Variables, and Definitions
■ Scientists operate on two levels:
1. theory-hypothesis-construct and
2. observation.
■ A hypothesis:- “early deprivation produces learning deficiency”,
consists of two concepts,
1. “early deprivation /denial or Scarcity/” and
2. “learning deficiency”, joined by a relation word, produces. It
is on the theory-hypothesis-construct level.
■ A research hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about the
expected outcome of a study. It is a statement that proposes a potential
relationship between two or more variables.
■ Observation: Scientists must operate at the level of
observation. They must define these constructs so that
observations are possible.

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4. Understanding Constructs, Variables, and Definitions
■ Constructs:
– These are abstract concepts that are specifically chosen or
created to explain a given phenomenon.
– Constructs are not directly observable but can be measured
through various indicators. Examples include intelligence,
motivation, and satisfaction.
■ Variables:
– These are measurable representations of constructs. Variables
can take on different values and are used in research to test
hypotheses.
– They can be classified into different types:
1. Independent Variables: These are the variables that researchers manipulate to
observe their effect on other variables.
2. Dependent Variables: These are the variables that are affected by changes in the
independent variables.
3. Control Variables: These are variables that are kept constant to prevent them
from influencing the outcome of the experiment.

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4. Understanding Constructs, Variables, and Definitions
■ Definitions:
– In research, definitions are crucial for clarity and consistency. There are two
main types:
1. Conceptual Definitions: These provide a theoretical meaning of a
construct. For example, a conceptual definition of intelligence might
describe it as the ability to learn from experience and adapt to new
situations.
2. Operational Definitions: These specify how a construct will be measured
or manipulated in a study. For example, an operational definition of
intelligence might involve scores on an IQ test.
■ Understanding the Constructs, Variables and Definitions elements is essential for
designing and conducting effective research.

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Concepts and Constructs ---cont’d
■ A concept express an abstraction formed by generalization from
particulars.

■ For example,
– achievement is an abstraction formed from the observation of
certain behaviors of children.
– These behaviors are associated with the mastery or “learning”
of school tasks—reading words, doing arithmetic problems,
drawing pictures, and so on.
– The various observed behaviors are put together and
expressed in a word (the concepts).
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Concepts and Constructs --cont’d
■ A construct is a concept. It has the added meaning, however, of having been
deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose.

■ For example,

– “intelligence” is a concept, an abstraction from the observation of

presumably intelligent and nonintelligent behaviors.

– But as a scientific construct, “intelligence” means both more and less than
it may mean as a concept.

– It means that scientists consciously and systematically use it in two ways:

1. It enters into theoretical schemes and is related in various way to

other constructs and

2. “Intelligence” is so defined and specified that it can be observed and

measured. 18
Variables --- cont’d
■ Scientists somewhat loosely call the constructs or properties they study as
“variable.”
■ A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned.
■ Qualitative variables: (dichotomies v.s. polytomies (>3)
– It is always possible to convert a continuous variable to a dichotomy or a
polytomy. Such conversion can serve a useful conceptual purpose, but is poor
practice in the analysis of data because it discards information.
■ Dichotomies (contrast b/n two things )
– It refer to variables that have only two categories or levels. These are often
referred to as binary variables. Examples: Gender (male/female), Yes/No
responses, True/False statements.
– Dichotomies are useful in situations where a clear, simple distinction is
needed. They are often used in surveys, experiments, and diagnostic tests.
■ Polytomies (division into more members/classes than three compare trichotomy)
– It also refer to variables that have more than two categories or levels. These
can be ordinal variable (with a meaningful order) or nominal (without a
meaningful order).
– Examples: Education level (high school, bachelor's, master's, doctorate),
Types of cuisine (Italian, Chinese, Mexican, Indian), Likert scale
responses (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree).
– Polytomies are useful when more nuanced distinctions are needed. They
allow for a richer and more detailed analysis of data.
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Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Constructs and Variables
■ Words or constructs can be defined in two general ways.
1. Defining a word by using other words, which is what a dictionary does.
2. Defining a word by assigning expressed or implied actions or behaviors. This kind of definition
can be called a behavioral or observational definition.
■ Constitutive and operational definitions
1. A constitutive definition: defines a construct using other constructs.
■ This provides a theoretical meaning of a construct. It explains what the construct is and
what it encompasses in a broad, abstract sense. It helps to clarify the concept and ensure
that everyone understands it in the same way.
■ E.g. For the construct "intelligence," a constitutive definition might be "the ability to learn
from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations."
2. An operational definition: assigns meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the
activities or “operations” necessary to measure it and evaluate the measurement.
■ This specifies how the construct will be measured or manipulated in a study. It translates the
constitutive definition into something observable and measurable.
■ It allows researchers to collect data and test hypotheses by providing a clear method for
measurement.
■ E.g. For the construct "intelligence," an operational definition might be "scores on a
standardized IQ test."
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Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Constructs and Variables

■ There are, in general, two kinds of operational definitions:

1. Measured and
2. Experimental
1. A measured operational
■ Definition describes how a variable will be measured.
– This specifies how a variable will be measured or quantified in a study. It involves identifying
the tools, instruments, or procedures used to assess the variable.
– An experimental operational definition spells out the details (operations) of the investigator’s
manipulation of a variable. For example, reinforcement can be operationally defined by giving
the details of how subjects are to be reinforced (rewarded) and not reinforced (nor rewarded)
for specified behaviors.
– E.g. If you are studying "stress," a measured operational definition might involve using a standardized stress
questionnaire to assess participants' stress levels.

2. Experimental Operational
■ Definition:
– This specifies how a variable will be manipulated or controlled in an experiment. It involves
describing the procedures used to create different levels or conditions of the variable.
– Example: If you are studying the effect of stress on performance, an experimental operational
definition might involve exposing participants to a stressful situation (e.g., public speaking) to
create different levels of stress.

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Types of Variables

1. Independent and dependent variables

2. Active and attribute variables
3. Continuous and categorical variables

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1. Independent and dependent variables

■ An independent variable is the presumed cause of the

dependent variable, the presumed effect.
■ When we say: If A, then B, we have the conditional
conjunction of an independent variable (A) and a dependent
variable (B).
■ In an experiment, the variable manipulated by an
experimenter is something that is proven to work, called an
independent variable.
■ The dependent variable is the event expected to change
when the independent variable is manipulated.
■ A general rule is that when the researcher manipulates a
variable or assigns participants to groups according to some
characteristic, that variable is the independent variable.

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2. Active and Attribute Variables
■ Active and attribute variables are terms often used in the context of research and data
analysis
■ Active Variables:
– These are variables that researchers manipulate or control in an experiment to
observe their effect on other variables. E
– E.g., in a study on the effect of different diets on weight loss, the type of diet would be an
active variable.
■ Manipulated/operated variables will be called active variables;
■ Attribute Variables:
– These are variables that describe characteristics or attributes of the subjects being
studied, but are not manipulated by the researcher.
– E.g. age, gender, and socioeconomic status are attribute variables in a study on health
outcomes.
■ measured variables will be called attribute variables.
■ Manipulation means, essentially, doing different things to different groups of
subjects.
■ Variables that cannot be manipulated are attribute or subject-characteristic
variables.
■ Subjects come to a study with these variables (attributes) ready-made or
preexisting.
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2. Active and Attribute Variables

■ There are some studies where the independent variable

could have been manipulated; however, for logistical or
legal reasons, they were not.
■ For example, comparing different care facilities’ effect on
cognitive and functional measures of Alzheimer’s
patients.
■ The attribute variable was the type of facility (traditional
nursing home versus special care unit). The researchers
were forced to study the subjects after they had been
assigned to a care facility.

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2. Active and Attribute Variables

■ Some variables that are attributes can also be active.

■ For example, we can measure the anxiety of subjects.
Anxiety is in this case obviously an attribute variable.
However, we can also manipulate anxiety by inducing
different degrees of anxiety.
■ Actually, we cannot assume that the measured (attribute)
and the manipulated (active) “anxieties” are the same.
We may assume that both are “anxiety” in a broad sense,
but they are certainly not the same.

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3. Continuous and Categorical Variables

■ Continuous Variables:
– These are variables that can take on an infinite number of values within a given range.
– They are often measured and can be divided into smaller increments. E.g. include height,
weight, temperature, and time. For instance, you can measure someone's height to the
nearest centimeter, millimeter, or even smaller units.
■ A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a
certain range.
■ Categorical Variables:
– These are variables that represent distinct categories or groups.
– They are often qualitative and cannot be divided into smaller increments. E.g. include
gender, nationality, and blood type.
– Categorical variables can be further divided into two types:
1. Nominal Variables: These have no inherent order or ranking. For example,
eye color (blue, green, brown) or types of fruit (apple, banana, orange).
2. Ordinal Variables: These have a specific order or ranking. For e.g.,
education level (high school, bachelor's, master's, PhD) or customer
satisfaction ratings (poor, fair, good, excellent).
■ Categorical variables belong to a kind of measurement called nominal. In nominal
measurement, there are two or more subsets of the set of objects being measured.
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3. Continuous and Categorical Variables

■ The expression “qualitative variable” has sometimes been

applied to categorical variables, especially to dichotomies,
probably in contrast to “quantitative variables” (our
continuous variables).
■ Such usage reflects a somewhat distorted notion of what
variables are.
■ They are always quantifiable, or they are not variables. If x
has only two subsets and can take on only two values (1
and 0), these are still values, and the variable varies. It has
been called “dummy variable”

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Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables

■ We can say that constructs are non-observables; and

variables, when operationally defined, are observables.
■ A latent variable is a variable that is not directly observed but is
inferred or estimated from other variables that are observed
(measured).
■ A latent variable is an unobserved “entity” presumed to
underlie observed variables.
■ The best-known example of an important latent variable
is “intelligence.” We can say that three ability tests—
verbal, numerical, and spatial—are positively and
substantially related.
■ We believe that something is common to the three tests
or observed variables, and name this something
“intelligence.” It is a latent variable.
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Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables

■ When we enunciate a theory, we enunciate in part

systematic relations among latent variables. We
are not too interested in the relation between
observed frustrated behaviors and observed
aggressive behaviors, for example, though we
must of course work with them at the empirical
level.
■ We are really interested in the relation between the
latent variable frustration and the latent variable
aggression.
■ Another example: “motivation” is a latent variable, a
construct invented to account for presumably
“motivated” behavior. This means that researchers
must always measure presumed indicators of
motivation and not motivation itself.

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Examples of Variations and Operational Definitions

■ “Test” definitions, like “intelligence is defined as a score

on X intelligence test,” are very specific.
■ A definition like “frustration is prevention from reaching
a goal” is more general and requires further
specification to be measurable.
■ An example on measured variable: “Intrinsic motivation”
is defined operationally as ” The cumulative amount of
time that each student played with the pattern blocks
with the reward system absent.”

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7. Problem Formulation

➢ The Research Problem

➢ In the beginning is the problem: “The scientist is a man with a
problem or he is nothing’’.
➢ A problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer in the
form of scientific inquiry.
➢ However, not all intellectual stimuli can be empirically studied,
and not all human behaviour is guided by scientific knowledge.
➢ According to Powers, Meenaghan and Twoomey(1985)
‘Potential research questions may occur to us on a regular
basis, but the process of formulating them in a meaningful way
is not at all an easy task’.
➢ Formulating a research problem requires considerable
knowledge of both the subject area and research methodology.
Importance of Formulating a Research Problem
➢ Formulation means translating and transforming the selected
research problem into a scientifically researchable question.
➢ The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important
step of the research process.
➢ It is like the identification of a destination before undertaking a
journey.
➢ The problem selected for research may initially be vague. The
question to be studied may not be clear. Why the answer/ solution is
wanted also may not be known.
➢ The formulation of a problem is like the ‘input’ to a study and the
‘output’(quality of the contents and validity of the associations or
causation established) is entirely dependent upon it.
 Sources of Problems

➢ The sources from which one may be able to identify

research problems or develop problem awareness are:
➢ Reading
➢ Academic experience
➢ Daily experience
➢ Exposure to field situations
➢ Consultations
➢ Brain storming
➢ Research
➢ Intuition
Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem

➢ Interest
➢ Magnitude
➢ Measurement of Concepts
➢ Level of Expertise
➢ Relevance
➢ Availability of Data
➢ Ethical Issues
 Formulation Process

The process of formulation involves the following steps:

➢ Developing Title: The title should be carefully worded. It should
reflect the real intention of the researcher and show on what is the
focus.
➢ Building a Conceptual Model: On the basis of the theoretical
knowledge of the phenomenon under study, the nature of the
phenomenon and their inter-relations should be identified and
structured into a framework.
- it gives an exact idea of the research problem and shows its
various properties and variables to be studied.
- it also serves as a basis for the formulation of the objectives
and the hypothesis to be tested.
➢
 Continued...
➢ Defining the Objectives: The objectives are derived from the
conceptual model.
- The objectives may aim at description or explanation or
analysis of causal relationship between variables, and indicate
the expected results or outcome of the study.
- The objectives may be specified in the form of either
statements or questions.
➢ Setting Investigative Questions: Sub-questions are set up for
each of the major research objectives/ questions.
 Continued...
-These specific questions guide the details of the research efforts,
including the development of concepts, operational definitions and
measurement devices.
- There may be several sub-levels of the investigative questions, each
being progressively narrower in scope and more specific.
➢ Formulation of Hypothesis: The hypothesis are tentative answers to
research problems. They are expressed in the form of a relation
between independent and dependent variables.
- Hypothesis can be derived deductively from theories, directly from
observations, intuitively, or from a combination of these.
- research hypothesis share four common characteristics: they are
clear, value free, specific, and amenable to empirical testing with
the available research methods.
- Hypothesis also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods
of data analysis to be used.
 Continued...

Operational Definition of Concepts:

- A concept is an abstract symbol representing an object,
a property of an object or a certain phenomenon.
-If concepts are to serve the functions of
communication, sensitization of experience,
generalization, and theory construction, they have to be
clear, precise, and agreed-upon.
- The title of the research problem, the objectives of the
study, the investigative questions and the hypothesis
consists of concepts.
 Continued...
- It is the definition of concepts that determine the information needs of the study.
- An operational definition is a set of procedures that describe the activities one
should perform in order to establish empirically the existence or degree of
existence of a concept.

➢ Delimiting the Scope of the Study: This means demarcation of the scope and
dimensions of the study.
- A researcher should take a close view of the implications and dimensions of the
selected problem and keep the scope of its study within manageable limits.
- the purpose of delimitation is to avoid confusion and superficiality and promote
clarification and successful completion within time limits and available
resources.
 Continued...
➢ The various aspects that may be delimited are:
- The objectives of the study
- The geographical area to be covered by the study
- The reference period
- The magnitude of the study
➢ The delimitation can be done from the standpoint of
- Aims and interests of the research worker or sponsor
- Availability of relevant information
- The extent and scope of previous research
- The amount of finance and time available
- Other facilities available
8. Competence and Skill Need in Research
■ Research is a multifaceted endeavor that requires a diverse set of competencies and
skills. Here are some key areas:
■ Core Competencies
1. Critical Thinking: The ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively.
2. Problem-Solving: Identifying research problems and finding effective solutions.
3. Analytical Skills: Interpreting data and drawing meaningful conclusions.
4. Communication: Clearly presenting research findings, both in writing and orally.
5. Ethical Understanding: Adhering to ethical guidelines and standards in research.
■ Essential Skills
1. Literature Review: Conducting thorough reviews of existing research to inform your
study.
2. Data Collection: Gathering data through various methods such as surveys,
experiments, or observations.
3. Statistical Analysis: Using statistical tools to analyze data and test hypotheses.
4. Technical Proficiency: Utilizing software and tools relevant to your field of study.
5. Project Management: Planning, organizing, and managing research projects
effectively.
9. Steps in the research process

■ Before embarking on the details of research methodology and

techniques, it seems appropriate to present a brief overview of the
research process.

■ What is research process......???

■ Series of various actions, which are necessary to effective

research work.

■ Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary

to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of
these steps
9. Steps in the research process

■ STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Selecting the research topic
2. Define the research problem or opportunity
3. Specify the research objectives
4. Develop a research design
5. Specify the information required.
6. Design the method of collecting information.
7. Design the questionnaire
8. Manage and implement the data collection
9. Analyze and interpret the results.
10. Write a Final research report
9. Steps in the research process

■ Step-1 Selecting the research topic

■ Where do research topics come from?
– A topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant
springs from its own seed.
■ It could be generated by the researcher

– The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a shortlist of

possible topics that have emerged from your reading or from
your own experience that look potentially interesting.
■ A general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter
(agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may have to be
identified at first.
9. Steps in the research process

■ Step-1 Selecting the research topic

■ Defining a research title is an important step in the research process.
Here are some tips to help you craft a clear and effective title:

1. Be Specific: Your title should clearly convey the main focus of your
research. Avoid vague or broad terms.

2. Use Keywords: Include important keywords that reflect the core

aspects of your study. This will help others find your research when
searching for related topics.

3. Keep It Concise: Aim for a title that is brief yet informative. A good
rule of thumb is to keep it under 15 words.
9. Steps in the research process

■ Step-1 Selecting the research topic

4. Reflect the Research Question: Your title should give a hint of the
research question or hypothesis you are addressing.
5. Avoid Jargon: Use language that is accessible to a broad audience,
including those who may not be experts in your field.
6. Consider the Scope: Make sure your title accurately reflects the scope
and boundaries of your research.
7. Be Descriptive: Use descriptive terms that provide a snapshot of your
research methodology or approach.

■ For example, if your research is about the impact of social media on mental
health among teenagers, a good title might be: "The Influence of Social
Media on Teen Mental Health: A Quantitative Study."
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step-2: Define the research problem
– The second, and the most important step in research:
■ "A problem well-defined is half solved"

■ Nature of the problem determines the type of study to conduct.

■ for example, declining sales, profit, market share, or customer

loyalty are not problems.

■ PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE PROBLEM

1. statement of the problem in a general way

2. understanding the nature of problem

3. surveying the available literature
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step-2: Define the research problem

– Knowing what to research and its purpose is key to the first step in the
research design.

– A good research topic is broad enough to allow you to find plenty of

material, but narrow enough to fit within the size and time constraints of
your paper.

■ To do a research a topic or a felt practical or theoretical difficulty

must be identified.

– The problem identification affects the quality, usefulness, effectiveness

and efficiency of the research activity.

– Defining the problem, showing the severity of the problem, showing the
extent of the problem, and showing the gaps
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step-2: Define the research problem

– What does one mean when he/she wants to define a research problem?

■ The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the

bounds within which it is to be studied.

■ It involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher

shall study the problem.

■ How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a

herculean/exceptional task.
9. Steps in the research process

■ Step 3: Establish Research Objectives

■ If you do not know what you are looking for, you won't find it" .

■ In establishing research objectives, the researcher must answer the

following questions:

I. What specific information should the project provide?

II. If more than one type of information will be developed from the study,
which is the most important? and finally,

III. What are the priorities?

9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 3: Establish Research Objectives
■ This is the step of rephrasing the problem into operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the
problem in as specific terms as possible.

■ in this section the specific activities to be achieved are listed.

– The main purposes of the study must be clearly enunciated.

– The general objective provides a short statement of the specific goals pursued by the
research.

– The specific objectives are the objectives against which the success of the whole
research will be judged.

– The specific objectives are operational and indicate the type of knowledge to be
produced, audiences to be reached, etc.

– An objective should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound –

that is, SMART.

– It must flow logically and clearly from the purpose, problem statement and justification
already stated.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 4: Research Design
■ Research Design step involves the development of a research plan for
carrying out the study.
■ There are a number of alternative research designs.
■ The choice will largely depend on the research purpose.
Exploratory
Qualitative Focus group:
Observation:
Others

Research Descriptive
Design Survey research

Quantitative
Casual
Laboratory-experiment
Mixed Field-Experiment
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 4: Research Design
■ Selecting a research design is a critical step in planning your study. Here are
some key considerations to help you choose the right design:
1. Research Question:
■ Your research question will largely determine the type of design you need. For
example, if you're exploring cause-and-effect relationships, an experimental design
might be appropriate.
2. Type of Data:
■ Decide whether you need qualitative data (descriptive, non-numerical) or
quantitative data (numerical, statistical). This will influence whether you choose a
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods design.
3. Study Population:
■ Consider the characteristics of the population you are studying. This can affect
your sampling methods and the generalizability of your findings.
4. Resources and Time:
■ Assess the resources available to you, including time, budget, and access to
participants. Some designs are more resource-intensive than others.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 4: Research Design
5. Ethical Considerations: Ensure that your design adheres to ethical
standards, particularly if you are working with vulnerable populations or
sensitive topics.
6. Validity and Reliability: Choose a design that maximizes the validity
(accuracy) and reliability (consistency) of your results.
■ Here are some common research designs:
■ Descriptive: Describes characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
■ Correlational: Examines the relationship between two or more variables.
■ Experimental: Investigates cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating
variables.
■ Quasi-Experimental: Similar to experimental but lacks random assignment.
■ Case Study: In-depth analysis of a single case or a small number of cases.
■ Longitudinal: Studies the same subjects over a period of time.
■ Cross-Sectional: Analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.
9. Steps in the research process

■ Step 5: Specify the information required

■ After defining the problem the researcher must
determine what kind of information will best meet the
research objectives.
■ Secondary information - Information that is readily
available. E.g. Internet, Magazines, books,
■ Primary information - Information that needs to be
found by conducting Survey, Observation or
experimentation
9. Steps in the research process

■ Step 6: Design the method of collecting

the needed information.
■ In research information may be collected in many ways:
■ via mail, telephone, fax, Internet, or personal interview.
■ using consumer panels, consisting of individuals who
have agreed to provide purchasing and media viewing
behavior.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 7: Design the questionnaire.
■ You need to have a questionnaire to collect Primary data
■ A primary responsibilities of a researcher is to design the data
collection instrument or questionnaire in a manner so that it is
easily understood by the respondent and administered to them.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 7: Design the questionnaire.
■ Behavioral questions address the following:
– Have you ever ........?
– Do you ever ........?
They determine people's actions in
– Who do you know ........? terms of what they have eaten (or
– When did you last ........? drunk), bought, used, visited, seen,
– Which do you do most often ........? read or heard. Behavioral questions
record facts and not matters of
– Who does it ........? opinion.
– How many ........?
– Do you have ........?
– In what way do you do it ........?
– In the future will you ........?
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 7: Design the questionnaire.
■ Attitudinal questions address the following:
– What do you think of ........?
– Why do you ........?
Attitudes are opinions or basic beliefs
– Do you agree of disagree ..? which people have about the products
– How do you rate ........? they buy, the companies they deal
– Which is best (or worst) for ........? with and it is attitudes that motivates
people in their actions.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 8: Manage and implement the data collection.
– The researcher must properly manage and oversee the data
collection process.
– If interview method is used, the researcher must train
interviewers and develop procedures for controlling the quality of
the interviewing.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 9: Analyze and interpret the results.
■ The 'raw' research data needs to be edited, tabulated and
analyzed to find the results and to interpret them.
■ the method used may be manual or computer based.
■ The analysis plan follows from the research objective of the study.
■ Association and relationships of variables are identified and
discussed in the light of the specific marketing problem.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 9: Analyze and interpret the results.
■ ANALYZE DATA
■ This process is the most important process in the research as the
results are generated on the basis of data preparation.
■ • After the data collecting stage the collected data is
– edited,
– Coded,
– transcribed
– corrected if required and
– validated.
■ Uni/multivariate techniques are used for analyzing data when
there is a single/multiple measurement of each element or unit in
the sample data.
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 9: Analyze and interpret the results.
■ Interpret the data ➔ (what does it all mean?)
9. Steps in the research process
■ Step 10: Prepare & Present the Final Research Report
■ Findings are presented often by research ,
■ objective should be in clear and concise way,
■ It is a report that communicates properly and result to clients
10. Time dimensions in research

■ From the angle of time, research could be divided into two broad
types:
A. Cross-Sectional Research.
B. Longitudinal Research

A. Cross-Sectional Research.
– It gives us a snapshot of a single, fixed time point and allow us
to analyze it in detail.
– Researchers observe at one point in time
– It cannot capture the change processes
– Simplest and cheaper
10. Time dimensions in research

B. Longitudinal Research.
– Provide a moving picture over a period of time.
– Used to examine features of people or other units at more
than one time.
– More complex and costly than cross-sectional research
– Answers to questions about change are determined.
■ Types of longitudinal research
1. Time series research
2. The panel study
3. Cohort analysis
10. Time dimensions in research
Types of longitudinal research
1. Time series research:
– Same type of information is collected on a group of people or other
units across multiple time periods.
2. The panel study:
– In panel study, the researcher observes exactly the same people,
group, or organization across time periods.
3. Cohort analysis:
– In it rather than observing the exact same people, a category of
people who share a similar life experience in a spenfied time period
is studied.
■ The focus is on category, not on specific individuals.
■ Examples, all people hired at the same time, all people retire on one or
two year time frame, and all people who graduate in a given year.
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