Research Methodology 21BRM57

Module-1 Introduction: Foundations of Research: Meaning, Objectives, Motivation, Utility.

Concept of theory, empiricism, deductive and inductive theory. Characteristics of scientific
method – Understanding the language of research – Concept, Construct, Definition, Variable.
Research Process. Problem Identification & Formulation – Research Question – Investigation
Question – Measurement Issues – Hypothesis – Qualities of a good Hypothesis –Null
Hypothesis & Alternative Hypothesis. Hypothesis Testing – Logic & Importance.

Teaching- Learning Process: Chalk and talk method / PowerPoint Presentation.

(RBT Levels: L1, L2) 5 hours

Introduction

Research methodology is a means of taking decision from the results obtained from the
collective, natural or social phenomena. The primary goal of research methodology is to
understand immediate, distant and past social problems in order to gain a better measure of
control over them. Well designed and tested research techniques are scientifically used for
research purposes. Research in general sense can be regarded as a search for knowledge.
Research can be carried out in different fields via social, economics, politics, education etc.
Research is not a search that yields infallible truths; rather it can be regarded as a search that
provides knowledge for solution of problems. The knowledge of research methodology is must
for all those who desire to keep themselves abreast of the latest techniques developed in the
field of research. Research has become an important aspect of human activity. It is through
research that knowledge grows and develops, ultimately leading to the extension of the
boundaries of knowledge and scholarship. It is considered that the progress made by our society
is due to the result of research.

Research: Meaning and Definition

Research is a matter of raising a question and then trying to find an answer. In other words,
research, means a sort of investigation describing the fact that some problem is being
investigated to shed for generalization. Therefore, research is the activity of solving problem
which adds knowledge and developing of theory as well as gathering of evidence to test
generalization. Research is composed of two words "re" and "search" which means to search
again, or to search for new facts or to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge. The

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Webster's International Dictionary proposes a very inclusive definition of research as "a careful
critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles diligent investigation in order
ascertain something" A careful investigation carried out to understand or re-examine the facts
or to search for new facts or to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge. Research is an
academic activity. According to Coiffure Woody research comprises defining and redefining,
problems, formulating hypothesis, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. The term "research" refers to the systematic
method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or
data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions
towards the conceded problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation
Encyclopaedia of social sciences defines research as " the manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art”. This definition throws
light on four connotations, as

• Manipulation of things
• Generality
• Extending knowledge
• Building up theory or practice

Objectives Of Research:

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);

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• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known
as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Characteristics of Research

Research is a systematic activity to achieve the truth. Research includes the procedure of
collecting data, analysing the data and finding the conclusion or truth. The main characteristics
of research are given below:

1. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem and discovers relationship

between variables.
2. Development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting
future occurrence.
3. Research demands accurate observation and description.
4. It involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using existing data
for a new purpose.
5. It is carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
6. It is objective and logical applying every possible test to validate the procedures
employed.
7. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
8. Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meaning.
9. Research means a systematic frequent active and intensive study of the collected data.
10.A critical and exhaustive investigations or experimentation having as its aim the
revision of accepted conclusions in the light of newly discovered facts.

Motivation in Research

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental

importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates’ research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability.

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However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and
the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

Utility of Research

➢ Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking.
➢ Research provides the basis for all government policies in our economic system.
➢ Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry
➢ Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and
in seeking answers to various social problems.
➢ Research is helpful in critical assessment of the way we work, execute policies, and
give. instructions in our professions.

What Is a Research Approach?

A research approach is a procedure selected by a researcher to collect, analyse, and interpret

data. Based on the methods of data collection and data analysis, research approach methods are
of three types: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. However, considering the general
plan and procedure for conducting a study, the research approach is divided into three
categories:

1. Inductive Approach

The inductive approach begins with a researcher collecting data that is relevant to the research
study. Post-data collection, a researcher will analyse this data broadly, looking for patterns in
the data to develop a theory that could explain the patterns. Therefore, an inductive approach
starts with a set of observations and then moves toward developing a theory.

2. Deductive Approach

The deductive approach is the reverse of the inductive approach. It always starts with a theory,
such as one or more general statements or premises, and reaches a logical conclusion. Scientists
use this type of reasoning approach to prove their research hypothesis.

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Inductive Vs Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning, also called induction, Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning
constructs or evaluates general prepositions from general statements to reach a logical
derived from specific examples conclusion

Arguments in deductive reasoning are valid or

Arguments in inductive reasoning are strong or
invalid.
weak.
· If the logic is correct, then the argument
· Strong arguments are cogent if the
is valid.
premise is true.
· If there is no theory, then deductive
· Weak arguments are uncogent.
reasoning cannot be conducted.

Conclusions may be incorrect even with strong Conclusions could be proven valid if the
arguments and true premises. premises are true.

Example of Inductive Reasoning: Example of Deductive Reasoning:

Most men are right-handed. John is a man. All men are mortal. John is a man. Therefore,
Therefore, John must be right-handed. John is mortal.

Types of Research

Research can be classified into various categories depending on the perspective under which
the research activity is initiated and conducted. The categorization depends on the following
perspectives in general:

• Application of research study

• Objectives in undertaking the research
• Inquiry mode employed for research

1. Classification based on Application:

• Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research: As the term suggests a research activity

taken up to look into some aspects of a problem or an issue for the first time is
termed as basic or pure. It involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses
that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have
practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced
through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research
methods. Pure research is theoretical but has a universal nature. It is more focused
on creating scientific knowledge and predictions for further studies.

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Key Features:

• Theoretical framework
• Focus on understanding fundamental principles
• Long-term in nature
Applications: Foundational in fields like physics, mathematics, and social
sciences.

• Applied / Decisional Research: Applied research is done on the basis of pure or

fundamental research to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,
administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is
usually descriptive. The purpose of doing such research is to find solutions to an
immediate issue, solving a particular problem, developing new technology and look
into future advancements etc. This involves forecasting and assumes that the
variables shall not change. Applied research is carried out to find answers to
practical problems to be solved and as an aid in decision making in different areas
including product design, process design and policy making
Key Differences between Basic and Applied Research
1. Basic Research can be explained as research that tries to expand the already
existing scientific knowledge base. On the contrary, applied research is used to
mean the scientific study that is helpful in solving real-life problems.
2. While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical
approach.
3. The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research, in the
sense that the former is universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied
only to the specific problem, for which it was carried out.
4. The primary concern of the basic research is to develop scientific knowledge
and predictions. On the other hand, applied research stresses on the development
of technology and technique with the help of basic science.
5. The fundamental goal of the basic research is to add some knowledge to the
already existing one. Conversely, applied research is directed towards finding a
solution to the problem under consideration.

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2. Classification based on Objectives:

a) Descriptive Research: This attempts to explain a situation, problem, phenomenon,

service or programme, or provides information viz. living condition of a community, or
describes attitudes towards an issue but this is done systematically. It is used to answer
questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research
question or problem. This type of research makes an attempt to collect any information
that can be expressed in quantifiable terms that can be used to statistically analyze a
target audience or a particular subject. Descriptive research is used to observe and
describe a research subject or problem without influencing or manipulating the
variables in any way. Thus, such studies are usually correlation or observational. This
type of research is conclusive in nature, rather than inquisitive. E.g. explaining details
of budget allocation changes to departmental heads in a meeting to assure clarity and
understanding for reasons to bring in a change.
b) Co relational Research: This is a type of non-experimental research method, in which
a researcher measures two variables, understands and assesses the statistical
relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable. This is
undertaken to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence
between two or more aspects of a situation. For example, the mind can memorize the
bell of an ice cream seller or sugar candy vendor. Louder the bell sound, closer is the
vendor to us. We draw this inference based on our memory and the taste of these
delicious food items. This is specifically what co relational research is, establishing a
relationship between two variables, ―bell sound‖ and ―distance of the vendor‖ in this
particular example. Co relational research is looking for variables that seem to interact
with each other so that when you see one variable changing, you have a fair idea how
the other variable will change.
c) Explanatory Research: is the research whose primary purpose is to explain why
events occur, to build, elaborate, extend or test a theory. It is more concerned with
showcasing, explaining and presenting what we already have. It is the process of turning
over 100 rocks to find perhaps 1 or 2 precious gemstones. Explanatory survey research
may look into the factors that contribute to customer satisfaction and determine the
relative weight of each factor, or seek to model the variables that lead to people shifting
to departmental stores from small shops from where they have been making purchases
till now. An exploratory survey posted to a social networking site may uncover the fact

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that an organization ‘s customers are unhappy thus helping the organization take up
necessary corrective measures.
d) Exploratory Research: Exploration has been the human kind‘s passion since the time
immemorial. Looking out for new things, new destinations, new food, and new cultures
has been the basis of most tourist and travel journeys. In the subjective terms
exploratory research is conducted to find a solution for a problem that has not been
studied more clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop operational definitions
and improve the final research design. Exploratory research helps determine the best
research design, data-collection method and selection of subjects. For such a research,
a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify
issues that can be the hub for future research. An important aspect here is that the
researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new
data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a beginning
stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it
used to answer questions like what, why and how. For example: a fast food outlet owner
feels that increasing the variety of snacks will enable increase in sales, however he is
not sure and needs more information. Thus the owner starts studying local competition,
talks to the existing customers, friends etc to find out what are their views about the
current menu and what else do they wish to be included in the menu and also assess
whether he would be able to generate higher revenues.

3. Classification based on Inquiry Mode:

a) Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as

quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives,
design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined.
It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many
people hold a particular attitude? E.g. asking a guest to give feedback about the dishes
served in a restaurant.
b) Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as
qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research
process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon
without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon,
situation or attitude e.g., description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration

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of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue,
description of working condition in a particular industry. E.g. when guest is
complaining about the room not being comfortable and is demanding a discount the
staff has to verify the claims empathically. In many studies you have to combine both
qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example, suppose you have to find the
types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity.
Types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails
description of the culture and cuisine. The extent of their popularity is the quantitative
aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such
cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

4. Other Types of Research:

1. Descriptive v/s Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and factfinding

enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at any given time. The term Ex post facto research is used
in social sciences and business research for descriptive research studies. The researcher
only reports about the factors identified and cannot modify the details available thus it
makes it clear that he does not have any control over such variables Most ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher strives to find
out information about, for example, frequency of dining out, preferences of individuals,
etc. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even
when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and co relational
methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
2. Applied v/s Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for
an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. ―Gathering knowledge for knowledge‘s sake is termed ‗pure‘
or ‗basic‘ research.‖ Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about

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human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at
certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends
that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether
certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied
research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic
research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications
and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
3. Quantitative v/s Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. E.g. Studying the number of enquiries received for room bookings through
different modes like internet, emails, calls, letters, or different sources like travel and
tours operators, companies and government organizations etc. Qualitative research, on
the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to
or involving quality or kind. E.g. studying the stress levels and reasons for variable
performances of staff in different shifts in the same department of a hotel. The same
individuals may perform differently with the change of shift timings. It can involve
performing research about changing preferences of customers as per the change of
season. Another example is attitude or opinion research i.e. a research intended to find
out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also
qualitative research. Through behavioral research we can evaluate the diverse factors
which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or
dislike a particular thing. It is therefore important that to be relevant in qualitative
research in practice the researcher should seek guidance from qualified individuals from
the field opted.
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is associated to some theoretical
idea(s) or presupposition and is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to get a better understanding of an existing concept in practice. On the
other hand, Empirical research draws together the data based on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. It is also known as experimental research as it is essential

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to get facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to
stimulate the production of desired information. Here the researcher develops a
hypothesis and assimilates certain outcomes to start with followed by efforts to get
adequate facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. An experimental design is
then developed based on variables that can modify or concur the results to prove that
he has given a valid statement. This also affirms that he has a reasonable control over
the variables and can get different results by giving different values to them. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables
in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today
considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

Scientific Methods
The Scientific method is a process with the help of which scientists try to investigate, verify,
or construct an accurate and reliable version of any natural phenomena. They are done by
creating an objective framework for the purpose of scientific inquiry and analysing the results
scientifically to come to a conclusion that either supports or contradicts the observation made
at the beginning.

Scientific Method Steps

The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyse the observation made at the
beginning. Still, various steps are adopted per the requirement of any given observation.
However, there is a generally accepted sequence of steps in scientific methods.

1. Observation and formulation of a question: This is the first step of a scientific

method. To start one, an observation has to be made into any observable aspect or
phenomena of the universe, and a question needs to be asked about that aspect. For
example, you can ask, “Why is the sky black at night? or “Why is air invisible?”

2. Data Collection and Hypothesis: The next step involved in the scientific method is to
collect all related data and formulate a hypothesis based on the observation.
The hypothesis could be the cause of the phenomena, its effect, or its relation to any
other phenomena.

3. Testing the hypothesis: After the hypothesis is made, it needs to be tested

scientifically. Scientists do this by conducting experiments. The aim of these

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experiments is to determine whether the hypothesis agrees with or contradicts the
observations made in the real world. The confidence in the hypothesis increases or
decreases based on the result of the experiments.

4. Analysis and Conclusion: This step involves the use of proper mathematical and other
scientific procedures to determine the results of the experiment. Based on the analysis,
the future course of action can be determined. If the data found in the analysis is
consistent with the hypothesis, it is accepted. If not, then it is rejected or modified and
analysed again.

It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing one

experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the data and the
result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved, it is accepted as a ‘theory’.

Characteristics of scientific method

The scientific method is a systematic approach used by scientists and researchers to study and
understand the natural world. It involves a series of steps and principles that help ensure the
reliability and validity of scientific investigations. The key characteristics of the scientific
method include:

1. Empirical Observation: The scientific method relies on objective observations of the

natural world. Scientists use their senses or instruments to gather data about phenomena
or events.
2. Formulation of a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction that
proposes an explanation for a specific observation or phenomenon. It serves as the basis
for conducting experiments or making observations.
3. Testing and Experimentation: Scientists design experiments or observational studies
to test the validity of their hypotheses. These experiments are structured to gather data
and provide evidence for or against the proposed hypothesis.
4. Data Collection and Analysis: During experimentation, scientists collect data, which
may be qualitative or quantitative. Data is then analyzed using statistical methods or
other analytical techniques to draw meaningful conclusions.
5. Reproducibility and Verification: One of the hallmarks of the scientific method is
that experiments and observations should be reproducible. Other researchers should be
able to replicate the study and obtain similar results to validate the findings.

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6. Peer Review: Before research findings are published, they usually undergo a peer-
review process, where other experts in the field evaluate the study’s methodology,
results, and conclusions. This helps ensure the quality and credibility
of scientific work.
7. Revision and Refinement: The scientific method is an iterative process. New evidence
or data may lead to the revision of hypotheses or theories, and scientific understanding
evolves over time.
8. Objectivity and Impartiality: Scientists strive to maintain objectivity and impartiality
during their investigations, minimizing bias and personal beliefs that could influence
the results.
9. Falsifiability: Scientific hypotheses and theories must be testable and falsifiable. This
means that there should be the possibility of obtaining evidence that contradicts or
refutes the proposed explanation.
10. Theory Building: Successful and widely accepted hypotheses, after undergoing
rigorous testing and validation, may contribute to the development
of scientific theories, which provide a comprehensive explanation of natural
phenomena.

By following these principles, the scientific method ensures a systematic and reliable approach
to studying and understanding the natural world, leading to the advancement of knowledge and
the development of various fields of science.

Understanding the Language of Research

“Understanding the Language of Research” in research methodology refers to the ability to

comprehend and interpret the specific terminology, concepts, and jargon commonly used in
academic and scientific research. Research involves a precise and structured language that
allows researchers to communicate their findings effectively and ensure a clear understanding
of their work among their peers and the wider academic community.

Key aspects of understanding the language of research include:

1. Scientific Terminology: Research involves the use of specialized terms and

vocabulary that may not be familiar to the general public. Understanding these terms is

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essential for comprehending research papers, communicating with other researchers,
and conducting effective literature reviews.
2. Research Methods and Designs: Different research studies employ various methods
and designs, such as experimental, correlational, qualitative, or mixed methods.
Understanding the distinctions between these methodologies is crucial for interpreting
the strengths and limitations of each study.
3. Statistical Analysis: Research often includes statistical analyses to draw conclusions
from data. Understanding statistical terms and concepts like p-values, significance
levels, regression, and sample sizes is essential for critically evaluating research
findings.
4. Literature Review: Research often builds upon existing knowledge. Understanding
how to conduct a literature review, which involves searching, evaluating, and
synthesizing relevant previous studies, is an integral part of the research process.
5. Research Ethics: Researchers must adhere to ethical principles and guidelines while
conducting studies involving human participants or animals. Understanding the
language of research ethics ensures the protection of subjects and the integrity of the
research.
6. Academic Writing Style: Researchers communicate their findings through academic
papers that follow a specific writing style, such as APA (American Psychological
Association) or MLA (Modern Language Association) format. Understanding this style
ensures clarity and consistency in academic writing.

By mastering the language of research, both novice and experienced researchers can effectively
engage with the existing body of knowledge, contribute to the scientific community, and
produce meaningful and credible research outcomes.

Key Concepts in Understanding the Language of Research

Understanding the language of research involves grasping key concepts such as "concept,"
"construct," "definition," and "variable."

Concept

• A concept is a generalized idea or notion that represents a set of objects, events, or

phenomena sharing common characteristics.

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• Concept gives a vivid picture on something which help to understand the subject or
phenomena.
• Concepts are based on our experiences.
• Example: In psychology, "intelligence" is a concept that refers to the ability to learn,
understand, and make judgments or have opinions that are based on reason.

Construct

• A construct is a theoretical idea that is not directly observable but is inferred from
related variables or concepts. Constructs are used to explain and predict phenomena.
• It is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen to explain a given phenomenon or
subject.
• Constructs cannot be directly observed or measured.
• Example: "Self-esteem" is a construct in psychology that reflects an individual's overall
subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth.

Definition

• In research, a definition specifies the meaning of a concept or construct. Definitions can

be conceptual or operational.
o Conceptual Definition: Defines a concept or construct in theoretical terms.
o Operational Definition: Defines how a concept or construct will be measured
or identified in practical terms.
• Example: For the concept of "stress," a conceptual definition might describe it as a
physical, mental, or emotional response to external pressures. An operational definition
might measure stress by the levels of cortisol in the bloodstream.

Variable

• A variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or quantified.

Variables can vary among subjects in a study.
o Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or categorized to
observe its effect on the dependent variable.
o Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured to see if it is affected by
changes in the independent variable.

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o Control Variable: Variables that are kept constant to accurately test the impact
of an independent variable.
• Example: In a study examining the effect of sleep on cognitive performance, "hours of
sleep" is the independent variable, and "test scores" is the dependent variable.

How They Relate

• Concepts form the foundation of theoretical frameworks and are often broad and
abstract.
• Constructs are more specific than concepts and are used in theories to explain
phenomena.
• Definitions provide clarity to concepts and constructs, allowing researchers to
operationalize them for empirical study.
• Variables are the practical elements measured in research to test hypotheses related to
concepts and constructs.

Example in Context. Let's consider a research study on the impact of social media on mental
health:

• Concept: Social Media Usage

• Construct: Social Media Addiction
• Definition:
o Conceptual Definition: Social media addiction is a compulsive use of social
media platforms that interferes with daily life.
o Operational Definition: Social media addiction can be measured using a
survey that assesses frequency, duration, and impact on daily activities.
• Variable:
o Independent Variable: Time spent on social media daily.
o Dependent Variable: Scores on a mental health inventory.
o Control Variables: Age, gender, socioeconomic status.

Understanding these elements helps researchers design studies, develop theories, and
contribute to the body of knowledge in their field.

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Research Process

Conducting research involves a systematic and organized process that follows specific steps to
ensure the collection of reliable and meaningful data. Research process consists of series of
actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The following Figure well illustrates a
research process.

Step 1: Formulating a Research problem:

In research process, the first step a researcher does is formulate a problem and define it
properly. Research forms a circle. It starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the
problem. A research problem is anything that a researcher finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a
difficulty of some sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not working
well as it was expected. The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and
properly define the research problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and
formulate it, so as to make it amenable or susceptible to research. In general, a research problem
refers to an unanswered question that a researcher might encounter in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation, which he/she would like to answer or find a solution to.

Selecting the Problem:

Criteria for selection of research problem depend on the following characteristics.

• Personal Inclination: The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the
personal inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he
would select that problem for his research work
• Resources Availability: During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources
available. If these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available
to the selection place, then the selection of the problem is easy.
• Data Availability: If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would
be selected.

• Urgency: Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent
problem must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.

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• Feasibility: Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem.
The researcher qualification, training and experience should match the problem. Area
Culture: The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also
responsible for the selection of research problem.

Step 2: Review of Literature

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview

of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the
existing research. Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications (such as
books and journal articles), critically analysing them, and explaining what you found. There
are five key steps:

• Search for relevant literature

• Evaluate sources

• Identify themes, debates and gaps

• Outline the structure

• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyses, synthesizes, and
critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to
every operational step. -Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating,
but is also rewarding. Its functions are:

a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem - The process of reviewing the literature
helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps you to conceptualise your
research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the relationship between
your research problem and the body of knowledge in the area

b. Improve your methodology - A literature review tells you if others have used procedures
and methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have
worked well for them, and what problems they have faced with them. Thus you will be better
positioned to select a methodology that is capable of providing valid answer to your research
questions

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c. Broaden your knowledge- It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which
you intend to conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of
study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand how the findings of your
study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

d. Contextualise your findings- How do answers to your research questions compare with
what others have found? What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing body
of knowledge? How are your findings different from those of others? For you to be able to
answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It is important to place
your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry.

Procedure for reviewing the literature:

i) Search for existing literature in your area of study- To effectively search for literature in
your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have in mind at least some idea of broad subject
area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters for your search. -
Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are:

1. Books- BOOKS comprise a central part of any bibliography. Advantage-material

published generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with other
research to form a coherent body of knowledge. Disadvantage-material is not
completely up to date, as it can take a few years between the completion of a work and
publication in the form of a book. Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a
final list, locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources. Examine their
content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your topic, delete it from your reading
list.

2.Journals -Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though
there is a gap of two to three years between the completion of a research project and
the publication in a journal. As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for
identifying literature relevant to your study. This can be done as follows: -locate the
hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study; - use the internet - look at
the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and read the articles.
Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more
detail for your review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to
see if there is an article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular article

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is of relevance to you, read its abstract. If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy
or prepare a summary and record it for reference for later use.

ii) Review the literature selected- After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step
is to start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated. If you
do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of
paper for each article or book. Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the
material so far reviewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of
that framework. As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs
under the theme so far developed. You may need to add more themes as you go. Read critically
with particular reference to the following aspects:

• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond
doubt.

• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted and the criticisms of them.

• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain the areas
in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

iii) Develop a theoretical framework- As you have limited time it is important to set
parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your
research topic. As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number
of aspects that have a direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as
a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Until you go through the literature you
cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have developed a theoretical framework,
you cannot effectively review the literature. Literature pertinent to your study may deal with
two types of information: - universal; - more specific ( i.e. local trends or specific program) In
writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually
narrowing down to the specific.

iv) Develop a conceptual framework.

Writing up the literature reviewed: In order to comply with the first function of literature review
i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study: -List the main themes that have emerged
while reading literature. -Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise,
descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical progression. -Now, under each

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57
subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in question, highlighting the
reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues. In order to
comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising the findings of your
study- requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those made by others.
Quote from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It
places your findings in the context of what others have found out. This function is undertaken
when writing about your findings i.e. after analysis of your data.

Step 3: Developing the hypothesis

A tentative assumption made to test its logical or empirical consequences. The role of
hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area and keep him on right track Steps
to develop a working hypothesis:

➢ Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution

➢ Examination of data and records,

➢ Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems

➢ Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a

limited scale with interested parties and individuals.

Step 4: Preparing Research Design

The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the
research project, which is popularly known as the research design. A research design helps to
decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc. With regard to an
enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection
and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure. In fact, research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis
of data. Thus, research design provides an outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms
of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the final data analysis.

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57
Step 5: Determining sample design
The use of sampling in making inferences about a population is possible and has been in
operation right from beginning. When one has to make an inference about a lot of large size
and it is not practicable to examine each individual unit, then few units of the lot are examined
and on the basis of the information of those units, one makes decisions about whole lot. For
example, a person would like to purchase a bag of rice may examine a handful of rice from the
bag and on the basis of that he/she makes his/her decision about the purchase of full bag.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest,
in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. Some common data collection methods include surveys,
interviews, observations, focus groups, experiments, and secondary data analysis. The data
collected through these methods can then be analysed and used to support or refute research
hypotheses and draw conclusions about the study's subject matter.

Step 7: Execution of the project

Execution of the research project involves both conducting and monitoring the proposed
activities, as well as updating and revising the project plan according to emerging lessons
and/or conditions. The activities include assembling the research team(s), applying for the
logistical needs and allocation of tasks. Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is
executed a systematic manner and or time.

Step 8: Data Analysis

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences. After the data has been collected, the researcher turns to the task
of analysis them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Analysis work after tabulation is generally
based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well
defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57
or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to test of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions(s).

Step 9: Testing of Hypothesis

After analysis the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if
any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be
contrary? The is the actual question which should be answered while testing hypothesis.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F test have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If
the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data
may be stated as hypothesis to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come. The
hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the
nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it.

Step 10: Generalizations and interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, researcher may arrive at generalization, i.e.,
to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to
explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. This process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.

Step 11: Preparation of the report

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report
must be done with great care keeping in view of the following:

• The layout of the report should be as follows: the preliminary pages; the main text, and
the end matter.
• Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like
• Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
• Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may be well stated.

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57
Research Problem Identification & Formulation

The researcher must first decide the area of his/ her interest and the purpose of his research
endeavors. It must be the area of research where the researcher is capable of demonstrating
necessary initiative, insight, critical analysis and judgmental capacities.

Sources for selecting a research problem

There are various sources which are available to researcher and which help him to identify and
specify the meaningful problem of research. These are mainly:

• Theory
• Experience
• Discussion
• Dissatisfaction
• Literature

Theory

Scientific conceptions of the nature of things involve theories. The researcher should have some
understanding of the nature of theory and should avoid trying to build theories that are too
sophisticated. Theory is a set of generalizations arrived at by psychological and educational
theories when known to a researcher help in identifying the research area. The application of
principles that are derived from theories extend an authentic ground to locate the problem. For
example, theories of learning -personality and motivation etc. have provided research
initiatives that were used to improve upon the classroom teaching-learning situations,
curriculum designing and evaluation. Therefore, the important source of the research problem
lies in the inferences that can be drawn from various educational and psychological theories.
The application of general principles involved in various theories to a specific classroom
situation makes an excellent starting point for research and it will help to determine whether a
particular theory can be translated into actual practice and also the validity, scope and
practicability of various theories in educational situations. For example, if the 'Effect of Basic
Teaching Model on a Teacher's Performance in Class is to be studied, the theory on which this
model is developed becomes an important reference. Moreover, the theory:

• explains the phenomena under research proposed,

• permits the prediction of the occurrence of the phenomena,

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• enables the investigator to postulate and eventually to discover hitherto unknown and
unobserved phenomena, explains the relationship among various components,
• facts and principles, pinpoints the crucial aspects to be investigated and crucial
questions to be answered, and
• helps the researcher to structure and restructure the domain of understanding,

Research and theory go together. If research is conducted without consulting a theory, it means
that many essential aspects of theory that could guide and control the researcher's efforts are
ignored. If the researcher intends to work in the domain of teaching and learning, then learning
theories by Pavlov, and Skinner provide a frame of thinking as to how the researches in the
area can be designed. Theory, of course, does not provide answer but it stimulates and controls
research.

Experience

The best single way for a researcher to find a good research problem is to attach himself1
herself to a dynamic research environment, which increases the opportunities for finding and
solving problems. Spirited intellectual discourses, in which ideas are presented, explained,
analysed and challenged is a rich source of inspiration. Attending professional meetings
particularly those in which papers are read and discussed, conferences with stimulating
professors, lectures by eminent educationists, discussions with fellow research workers, part
time job in research worthy of investigation provide clues needed for the solution of problems.
Professors and research experts who have had experience in tackling a particular type of
problem can help in telling the novice what can and what cannot be successfully accomplished.

Examining the everyday experiences gives and inspires the problem. Every day while
encountering with students, equipments, tests, text-books, guidance, discipline, parents,
curriculum and administration etc., some sorts of problems are faced. Thus, as a result of
participating in various academic activities and interacting with researchers, fellow teachers, a
researcher may confront problems of various nature, they may be psychology based,
sociological, behavioural, administrative etc. The personal experience which the researcher
gains help hid her in the following ways:

• develops insight into sharpening the focus of research,

• experiences the relative usefulness of various issues that emerge in his/ her mind for
research,

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• explores the context for innovative researches,
• formulate the research problem more meaningfully and practically,
• equips the researcher with such understandings that she is able to identify the
problematic situations,
• behaviours and issues for which solutions are not available and which need to be
researched, and becomes a wiser researcher.

Thus, the personal experience that the researcher gains is a potential source of research
problems to be identified and formulated.
Discussion

Discussion works as a brainstorming exercise. It helps in settling a problem. While discussing

with researchers, professors and other intellectual persons, the shrinkages of mind are opened
and then there is a germination of a seed of a new problem. These discussions give chances to
the researcher to get into close contact with crucial problems and issues concerning education.
The researcher finds a group of individuals working enthusiastically on some enterprise and
some of their enthusiasm will rub off on hid her. Sometimes researchers have problems in their
mind but they are not able to verbalise and give proper shape to the problem. It is discussions
with his/her fellows and other senior professors that help him/ her to evolve a manageable
research problem from the one which was very vague and complex, Discussion is a very useful
resource of research problem identification.

The following are some of the advantages which the researcher gets out of discussion:
Contemporary research areas capture the mind of a researcher.

• Certain ambiguities that the researcher initially has get clarified.

• The researcher is helped with new academic inputs to reflect upon problem situations
and to come out with a suitable research problem identification.
• Many unknown hazards that the researcher may experience while identifying a problem
situation become known to hid her.
• The meaningfulness of the research problem in the mind is further judged, e.g. whether
this research problem will make a significant contribution to the existing knowledge or
not.
• The researcher may be able to make a clear classification as to how to classify his/ her
problem-whether it will be fundamental, applied or action research.

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57
Dissatisfaction

When a researcher attempts the identification of problem, sthe has to go through various
situations-some satisfying and some dissatisfying. Research is a felt need of a researcher. Need
itself leads to inadequacy and this inadequacy activates the researcher to design a course of
action through which that need is fulfilled. The inadequacies and incompatibilities create
dissatisfaction within the researcher for which s/he tries to identify the problem, which clearly
shows the direction to the solution of a problem. After the researcher perceives the problem,
for its proper identification and formulation he reviews the literature, discusses with people,
consults recent books and journal and traces some flaws, gaps and inadequacies in his thinking.
He may find it difficult to give a proper shape to his thinking and it becomes a gigantic task for
him to formulate research questions. The dissatisfaction thus created, becomes a rich source of
inspiration.

While working in the institutions, reading good books related to the problem area, the
researcher is confronted with many dissatisfying situations that makes him problem sensitive,
he then thinks about a problem, and comes out with a proper identification and formulation of
the research problem. These days information and communication technology has
revolutionized almost every aspect of human life, and so it has deeply entered into the orbit of
an educational system, consequently posing new challenges and input for thinking. The
researcher experiences dissatisfaction in himself when he comes out with such problem
situations as, impact of these technologies on mechanization of learning, impact on the source
literature, etc.,

The Literature

The review and the survey of literature may help the researcher to expand his knowledge
background, examine new findings in his field, identify gaps in knowledge, discover
contradictions in findings and the need for fresh studies and their direction. Through his various
readings he comes to know about various methods and techniques of research used by other
researchers, learn about facts, phenomena concept, theories related to his field of research
which may be useful to him/ her in the formulation, description and conduct of his study. 'Ihe
source literature consists of surveys, periodicals and journals, foreign and Indian books,
encyclopaedias, dictionaries, handbooks and year books, bibliographical literature and other
references. Some specialized sources are Survey of Research in Education brought by NCERT,

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57
Dissertation Abstracts International, Handbook of Research on Teaching, Encyclopaedia of
Educational Research, Psychological Abstracts, Educational Technology Abstracts, etc.

Characteristics of research question

Feasible

• Adequate number of subjects

• Adequate technical expertise
• Affordable in time and money
• Manageable in scope

Interesting

• Getting the answer intrigues the investigator and her friends

Novel

• Confirms, refutes or extends previous findings

• Provides new findings

Ethical

• Amenable to a study that institutional review board will approve

Relevant

• To scientific knowledge
• To clinical and health policy
• To future research

Problems encountered by researchers in India

• The lack of scientific training in the methodology by research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country.
• There is insufficient interaction between the university and research departments on
one side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions
on the other side.
• Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant
un supplying the needed information to researchers.

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57
• Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information this results in duplication and fritters away resources.
• There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter university and inter
departmental rivalries are also quite common.
• Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely
secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point of
any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes components
like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A research hypothesis is a
hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

Hypothesis is a testable statement that explains what is happening or observed. It proposes

the relation between the various participating variables. Hypothesis is also called Theory,
Thesis, Guess, Assumption, or Suggestion. Hypothesis creates a structure that guides the
search for knowledge.

A hypothesis is a suggested idea or plan that has little proof, meant to lead to more study. It’s
mainly a smart guess or suggested answer to a problem that can be checked through study
and trial. In science work, we make guesses called hypotheses to try and figure out what will
happen in tests or watching. These are not sure things but rather ideas that can be proved or
disproved based on real-life proofs. A good theory is clear and can be tested and found wrong
if the proof doesn’t support it.

A hypothesis is a proposed statement that is testable and is given for something that
happens or observed.

• It is made using what we already know and have seen, and it’s the basis for
scientific research.
• A clear guess tells us what we think will happen in an experiment or study.
• It’s a testable clue that can be proven true or wrong with real-life facts and
checking it out carefully.
• It usually looks like a “if-then” rule, showing the expected cause and effect
relationship between what’s being studied.

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Qualities/Characteristics of Hypothesis
• Testable: An idea (hypothesis) should be made so it can be tested and proven
true through doing experiments or watching. It should show a clear connection
between things.
• Specific: It needs to be easy and on target, talking about a certain part or
connection between things in a study.
• Falsifiable: A good guess should be able to show it’s wrong. This means there
must be a chance for proof or seeing something that goes against the guess.
• Logical and Rational: It should be based on things we know now or have seen,
giving a reasonable reason that fits with what we already know.
• Predictive: A guess often tells what to expect from an experiment or
observation. It gives a guide for what someone might see if the guess is right.
• Concise: It should be short and clear, showing the suggested link or explanation
simply without extra confusion.
• Grounded in Research: A guess is usually made from before studies, ideas or
watching things. It comes from a deep understanding of what is already known in
that area.
• Flexible: A guess helps in the research but it needs to change or fix when new
information comes up.
• Relevant: It should be related to the question or problem being studied, helping
to direct what the research is about.
• Empirical: Hypotheses come from observations and can be tested using
methods based on real-world experiences.

Sources of Hypothesis
Hypotheses can come from different places based on what you’re studying and the kind of
research. Here are some common sources from which hypotheses may originate:

• Existing Theories: Often, guesses come from well-known science ideas. These
ideas may show connections between things or occurrences that scientists can look
into more.
• Observation and Experience: Watching something happen or having personal
experiences can lead to guesses. We notice odd things or repeat events in everyday
life and experiments. This can make us think of guesses called hypotheses.

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• Previous Research: Using old studies or discoveries can help come up with
new ideas. Scientists might try to expand or question current findings, making
guesses that further study old results.
• Literature Review: Looking at books and research in a subject can help make
guesses. Noticing missing parts or mismatches in previous studies might make
researchers think up guesses to deal with these spots.
• Problem Statement or Research Question: Often, ideas come from questions
or problems in the study. Making clear what needs to be looked into can help
create ideas that tackle certain parts of the issue.
• Analogies or Comparisons: Making comparisons between similar things or
finding connections from related areas can lead to theories. Understanding from
other fields could create new guesses in a different situation.
• Hunches and Speculation: Sometimes, scientists might get a gut feeling or
make guesses that help create ideas to test. Though these may not have proof at
first, they can be a beginning for looking deeper.
• Technology and Innovations: New technology or tools might make guesses by
letting us look at things that were hard to study before.
• Personal Interest and Curiosity: People’s curiosity and personal interests in a
topic can help create guesses. Scientists could make guesses based on their own
likes or love for a subject.
Types of Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis (H0)
Null hypothesis is a statement that says there’s no connection or difference between different
things. It implies that any seen impacts are because of luck or random changes in the
information.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)

Alternative Hypothesis is different from the null hypothesis and shows that there’s a big
connection or gap between variables. Scientists want to say no to the null hypothesis and
choose the alternative one.

Functions of Hypothesis
Hypotheses have many important jobs in the process of scientific research. Here are the key
functions of hypotheses:

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• Guiding Research: Hypotheses give a clear and exact way for research. They
act like guides, showing the predicted connections or results that scientists want
to study.
• Formulating Research Questions: Research questions often create guesses.
They assist in changing big questions into particular, checkable things. They guide
what the study should be focused on.
• Setting Clear Objectives: Hypotheses set the goals of a study by saying what
connections between variables should be found. They set the targets that scientists
try to reach with their studies.
• Testing Predictions: Theories guess what will happen in experiments or
observations. By doing tests in a planned way, scientists can check if what they
see matches the guesses made by their ideas.
• Providing Structure: Theories give structure to the study process by arranging
thoughts and ideas. They aid scientists in thinking about connections between
things and plan experiments to match.
• Focusing Investigations: Hypotheses help scientists focus on certain parts of
their study question by clearly saying what they expect links or results to be. This
focus makes the study work better.
• Facilitating Communication: Theories help scientists talk to each other
effectively. Clearly made guesses help scientists to tell others what they plan, how
they will do it and the results expected. This explains things well with colleagues
in a wide range of audiences.
• Generating Testable Statements: A good guess can be checked, which means
it can be looked at carefully or tested by doing experiments. This feature makes
sure that guesses add to the real information used in science knowledge.
• Promoting Objectivity: Guesses give a clear reason for study that helps guide
the process while reducing personal bias. They motivate scientists to use facts and
data as proofs or disproval for their proposed answers.
• Driving Scientific Progress: Making, trying out and adjusting ideas is a cycle.
Even if a guess is proven right or wrong, the information learned helps to grow
knowledge in one specific area.

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 Research Methodology 21BRM57

Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing involves formulating assumptions about population parameters based on
sample statistics and rigorously evaluating these assumptions against empirical evidence.
This article sheds light on the significance of hypothesis testing and the critical steps involved
in the process.
What is Hypothesis Testing?
Hypothesis testing is a statistical method that is used to make a statistical decision using
experimental data. Hypothesis testing is basically an assumption that we make about a
population parameter. It evaluates two mutually exclusive statements about a population to
determine which statement is best supported by the sample data.
• Null hypothesis (H0): In statistics, the null hypothesis is a general statement
or default position that there is no relationship between two measured cases
or no relationship among groups. In other words, it is a basic assumption or
made based on the problem knowledge.
• Alternative hypothesis (H1): The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis
used in hypothesis testing that is contrary to the null hypothesis.
Key Terms of Hypothesis Testing
• Level of significance: It refers to the degree of significance in which we accept
or reject the null hypothesis. 100% accuracy is not possible for accepting a
hypothesis, so we, therefore, select a level of significance that is usually 5%. This
is normally denoted with and generally, it is 0.05 or 5%, which means your
output should be 95% confident to give a similar kind of result in each sample.
• P-value: The P value, or calculated probability, is the probability of finding the
observed/extreme results when the null hypothesis(H0) of a study-given problem
is true. If your P-value is less than the chosen significance level then you reject
the null hypothesis i.e. accept that your sample claims to support the alternative
hypothesis.
• Test Statistic: The test statistic is a numerical value calculated from sample data
during a hypothesis test, used to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.
It is compared to a critical value or p-value to make decisions about the statistical
significance of the observed results.

Prof. Rajimol KP, AIT 33

 Research Methodology 21BRM57
• Critical value: The critical value in statistics is a threshold or cutoff point used
to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis in a hypothesis test.
• Degrees of freedom: Degrees of freedom are associated with the variability or
freedom one has in estimating a parameter. The degrees of freedom are related to
the sample size and determine the shape.
Why do we use Hypothesis Testing?
Hypothesis testing is an important procedure in statistics. Hypothesis testing evaluates two
mutually exclusive population statements to determine which statement is most supported by
sample data. When we say that the findings are statistically significant, thanks to hypothesis
testing.
What are Type 1 and Type 2 errors in Hypothesis Testing?
In hypothesis testing, Type I and Type II errors are two possible errors that researchers can
make when drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. These errors
are associated with the decisions made regarding the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis.
• Type I error: When we reject the null hypothesis, although that hypothesis was
true. Type I error is denoted by alpha
• Type II errors: When we accept the null hypothesis, but it is false. Type II
errors are denoted by beta

Null Hypothesis is True Null Hypothesis is False

Null Hypothesis is True Type II Error (False

Correct Decision
(Accept) Negative)

Alternative Hypothesis is Type I Error (False

Correct Decision
True (Reject) Positive)

Limitations of Hypothesis Testing

• Although a useful technique, hypothesis testing does not offer a comprehensive
grasp of the topic being studied. Without fully reflecting the intricacy or whole
context of the phenomena, it concentrates on certain hypotheses and statistical
significance.

Prof. Rajimol KP, AIT 34

 Research Methodology 21BRM57
• The accuracy of hypothesis testing results is contingent on the quality of
available data and the appropriateness of statistical methods used. Inaccurate data
or poorly formulated hypotheses can lead to incorrect conclusions.
• Relying solely on hypothesis testing may cause analysts to overlook significant
patterns or relationships in the data that are not captured by the specific
hypotheses being tested. This limitation underscores the importance of
complimenting hypothesis testing with other analytical approaches.
Hypothesis testing stands as a cornerstone in statistical analysis, enabling data scientists to
navigate uncertainties and draw credible inferences from sample data. By systematically
defining null and alternative hypotheses, choosing significance levels, and leveraging
statistical tests, researchers can assess the validity of their assumptions. The article also
elucidates the critical distinction between Type I and Type II errors, providing a
comprehensive understanding of the nuanced decision-making process inherent in hypothesis
testing. The real-life example of testing a new drug’s effect on blood pressure using a paired
T-test showcases the practical application of these principles, underscoring the importance of
statistical rigor in data-driven decision-making.

Prof. Rajimol KP, AIT 35