1 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

Time Response Analysis of Control Systems

Contents:
 Typical test signal,
 Unit step response and time domain specifications of first order,
second order system. Steady state error,
 Error constants.
Introduction
The first step in the analysis of a control system is, describing the
system in terms of a mathematical model and defining its transfer
function.
The next step would be, to obtain its response, both transient
and steady state, to a specific input. The input can be a time
varying function which may be described by known mathematical
functions or it may be a random signal. Moreover these input
signals may not be known apriori. Thus it is customary to subject
the control system to some standard input test signals which
strain the system very severely. These standard input signals are:
an impulse, a step, a ramp and a parabolic input.
Analysis and design of control systems are carried out, defining
certain performance measures for the system, using these
standard test signals.
We also learned that any arbitrary time function can be
expressed in terms of linear combinations of these test signals
and hence, if the system is linear, the output of the system can
be obtained easily by using superposition principle. Further,
convolution integral can also be used to determine the response
of a linear system for any given input, if the response is known for
a step or an impulse.
Standard Test Signals: Following are the standard signals used
for the analysis of control systems in the time domain.

S. Signal Graphical Mathematical Representation

No. Representation
1. Impulse  The impulse function is zero for all t ;
function t < 0 and it is infinity at t = 0. It rises
to infinity at t = 0- and comes back
to zero at t = 0+ enclosing a finite
area.
 If this area is A it is called as an
impulse function of strength A.
 If A = 1 it is called a unit impulse
function.
 Thus an impulse signal is denoted by
f(t) = Aδ (t)

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2 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

2. Step  It is zero for t < 0 and suddenly rises

Functio to a value A at t = 0 and remains at
this value for t > 0
n
 It is denoted by f(t) = Au (t).
 If A = 1, it is called a unit step
function.

3. Ramp  It is zero for t < 0 and uniformly

Functio increases with a slope equal to A.
 It is denoted by f (t) = At.
n
 If the slope is unity, then it is called a
unit ramp signal.

1.0
4. Parabol  A parabolic signal is denoted by
2
ic t
f ( t )= A u (t)
Functio 2
n  If A is equal to unity then it is
known as a unit parabolic signal.

1.0
It follows from the above figures that:
1. The Step function can be obtained by integrating the impulse
function from 0 to ∞ .
2. The Ramp function can be obtained by integrating the step function.
3. The Parabolic function can be obtained by integrating the ramp
function.
OR
Ramp function, Step function and Impulse functions can be to obtained by
successive differentiations of the parabolic function.
Such a set of functions which are derived from one another are known as
singularity functions.
If the response of a linear system is known for anyone of these input
signals, the response to any other signal, out of these singularity
functions, can be obtained by either differentiation or integration of the
known response.
Representation of Systems

The input output description of the system is mathematically represented

either as a differential equation or a transfer function.
The differential equation representation is known as a time domain
representation and the transfer function is said to be a frequency domain
representation.
We consider the transfer function representation for all our analysis and
design of control systems.
The open loop transfer function of a system is represented in the following
two forms:

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3 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

Pole – Zero ( s+ z 1 ) ( s + z 2 ) … … ( s + z n )
Form G ( s )=K
( s + p 1 ) ( s + p2 ) … … ( s + p m )
( s+ z 1 ) , ( s + z 2 ) ,… … ( s+ z n) are called zero factors.
( s+ p1 ) , ( s+ p2 ) , … … ( s+ pm ) are called pole factors.
s= z1 , z2 … … , z n are called zeros.
s= p 1 , p2 ,… … , pm are called poles.
 The poles and zeros may be simple or repeated.
 If the poles and zeros are complex, their conjugates
also must be poles and zeros. Poles and zeros may
occur at the origin.
 In the case where some of the poles occur at the
origin, the transfer function may be written as:
( s + z 1) ( s+ z 2 ) … … ( s+ z n )
G ( s )=K r
s ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 ) … … ( s + pm )
1
The term r indicates the poles at the origin. The
s
1
term represents an integrator. Number of poles
s
at origin decides type of the system.
If r = 0, the system has no pole at the origin and
hence is known as a type - 0 system.
If r = 1, there is one pole at the origin and the
system is known as a type - 1 system.
If r = 2, the system is known as type - 2 system.
The total number of poles (degree of the denominator) in
the transfer function decides the order of the given
system.

Time ( τ z s +1 )( τ z s +1 ) … … ( τ z s+1 )
G ( s )=K 1
1 2 n

Constant
Form
( τ p s +1 )( τ p s+1 ) … … ( τ p s +1 )
1 2 m

τ z , τ z … … τ z are called time constants of zeros.

1 2 n

τ p ,τ p ……τ p
1 2 m
are called time constants of
poles.
Zeros are related to time constant by the
1
expression, z n= τ for i=1 ,2 , .. ,n
zi

Pols are related to time constant by the

1
expression, z n= τ
pj
for j=1 , 2 ,.. , m

Y. Pavan Kumar, Asst. Professor, APSCE, Bangaluru 560 082

4 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

∏ zi
i=1
K 1=K m

∏
j=1
zi
 The poles and zeros may be simple or repeated.
 If the poles and zeros are complex, their conjugates
also must be poles and zeros. Poles and zeros may
occur at the origin.
 In the case where some of the poles occur at the
origin, the transfer function may be written as:
( s + z 1) ( s+ z 2 ) … … ( s+ z n )
G ( s )=K r
s ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 ) … … ( s + pm )
1
The term r indicates the poles at the origin. The
s
1
term represents an integrator. Number of poles
s
at origin decides type of the system.
If r = 0, the system has no pole at the origin and
hence is known as a type - 0 system.
If r = 1, there is one pole at the origin and the
system is known as a type - 1 system.
If r = 2, the system is known as type - 2 system.

First Order System: Response to a Unit Step Input

1
Consider a feedback system with G ( s )= as shown:
τs

E(s)
R(s) +¿ 1
C (s )
τs
−¿

The closed loop transfer function of the system is given by

C (s) 1
T ( s )= =
R (s) τs+1
1
For a unit step input R(s)= and the output is given by
s
1
C ( s )=
s (τs+1)
Taking partial fractions
A B 1 τ
C ( s )= + = −
s (τs+1) s 1
τ (s+ )
τ

Inverse Laplace transformation yields

−t
c (t )=(1−e τ )

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5 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

The plot of c (t )Vs t is as shown:

1.0
0.632 .0

t
The response is an exponentially increasing function and it approaches a
0 τ
value of unity as t → ∞ .
At t = τ , the response reaches a value, c ( τ )=1−e−1=0.632, which is 63.2 per
cent of the steady value. This time, τ is known as the time constant of the
system.
One of the characteristics which we would like to know about the system
is its speed of response or how fast the response is approaching the final
value. The time constant τ is indicative of this measure and the speed of
response is inversely proportional to the time constant of the system .
Another important characteristic of the system is the error between the
desired value and the actual value under steady state conditions. This
quantity is known as the steady state error of the system and is denoted
by e ss .
The error E(s) for a unity feedback system is given by, E(s)=R (s)−C (s )
¿ R ( s )−G(s) R(s)

G(s)R (s )
¿ R ( s )−
1+G(s)
R(s)
E ( s )=
1+G( s)

1 1
For the system under consideration G(s)= , R(s)= and therefore,
τs s
τ
E ( s )=
τs+1
−t
Taking Laplace inverse e ( t )=e τ
As t → ∞, e ( t ) →0. . Thus the output of the first order system approaches the
reference input, which is the desired output, without any error. In other
words, we say a first order system tracks the step input without any
steady state error.
First Order System: Response to a Unit Ramp Input
1
For a unit ramp input R(s)= 2 and the output is given by
s
1
C ( s )= 2
s (τs+1)
Taking partial fractions
2
A B C 1 τ τ
C ( s )= 2 + + = 2− +
s s (τs+1) s s (τs+ 1)
1 τ τ
¿ 2− +
s s (s+1 /τ)

Y. Pavan Kumar, Asst. Professor, APSCE, Bangaluru 560 082

6 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

Inverse Laplace transformation yields

−t
c (t )=(t−τ +τ e τ )
( ))
−t
τ
¿( t−τ 1−e
The plot of c (t )Vs t is as shown:

r (t )
τ
c (t )

The error E(s) for the unity feedback system is given by,t E(s)=R (s)−C (s )
0 ¿ R ( s )−G(s) R(s)

G(s)R (s )
¿ R ( s )−
1+G(s)
R(s)
E ( s )=
1+G( s)

1 1
For the system under consideration G(s)= , R(s)= 2 and therefore,
τs s

1 τs
E ( s )=
s τs+ 1
2

Using Laplace final value theorem, steady state error, e ss = lim sE (s )

s→0
1 τs τ
sE ( s )=s 2 =
s τs+1 τs+1

τ
e ss = lim =τ
s→0 τs+1

Response to a Unit Parabolic or Acceleration Input

1
For a unit parabolic input R(s)= 3 and the output is given by
s
1
C ( s )= 3
s (τs+1)
Taking partial fractions
2
A B C D 1 τ τ
C ( s )= 3 + 2 + + = 2− +
s s s ( τs+1) s s (τs+1)
1 τ τ
¿ 2− +
s s (s+1 /τ)

Inverse Laplace transformation yields

2 −t
2 t 2
c (t )=(τ −τt + −τ e τ )
2

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7 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

2 2 −t
t 2 t 2
The error e(t) = r(t) – c(t) = −(τ −τt + −τ e τ )
2 2
The final value of error gives the steady state value. This value is given by
e ss = lim e (t)=∞
t →0
Thus a first order system follows the parabolic input with an error of
infinity.
Second Order Systems
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system.

E(s)
R(s) +¿
2
ωn C (s )
s (s+2 δ ω n)
−¿
ω 2n
For the above system, open loop transfer function is G ( s )=
s (s+2 δ ωn )

And the feedback gain is unity.

2
ωn
The open loop transfer function, G ( s )= is connected with a unity
s (s+2 δ ωn )
negative feedback.
The transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity negative
feedback is
2
ωn
C( s) G( s) s ( s+2 δ ω n)
= =
R( s) 1+ G ( s ) H (s) ω 2n
1+
s(s+ 2 δ ωn )
2
ωn
¿ 2
s (s +2 δ ω n)+ ωn

2
ωn
¿ 2 2
s + 2 δ ωn s +ω n

The characteristic equation of the second order system is, 1+G ( s ) H ( s ) =0

2 2
s +2 δ ω n s+ ωn=0

The roots of the characteristic equation are,

−2 δ ωn ± √ (2 δ ωn ) −4 ω n
2 2

s1 ,2 =
2

s1 ,2 =−δ ω n ± ω n √(δ¿¿ 2−1)¿

The roots of the characteristic equation depend on the value ofδ ,

the damping factor.
δ=0 The two roots are imaginary s1 ,2 =−δ ω n ± jωn
δ=1 The two roots are real and s1 ,2 =−δ ω n

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8 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

equal
δ >1 The two roots are real but not s1 ,2 =−δ ω n ± ω n √(δ¿¿ 2−1)¿
equal
0< δ<1 The two roots are complex s1 ,2 =−δ ω n ± ω n √(1−δ ¿¿ 2)¿
conjugate

The above figure shows the location of poles in the S – plane.

Response of Second order system for unit step input

E(s)
R(s) +¿
2
ωn C (s )
s (s+2 δ ω n)
−¿
For the second order system shown, we have,
2
ωn
C ( s )= 2 2
R(s)
s +2 δ ωn s +ω n

1
For a unit step input, R ( s )= , therefore,
s
2
1 ωn
C ( s )=
s (s ¿¿ 2+2 δ ω n s+ ω2n )¿

We solve the above equation for the case where, 0< δ<1. Solutions for
other cases can be obtained from the solution obtained for this
case.
1 ω 2n
C ( s )=
s (s ¿¿ 2+2 δ ω n s+ ( δ ω n )2+ ω2n− ( δ ω n )2)¿

2
1 ωn
¿
s ¿¿

Taking partial fractions,

A Bs +C
C ( s )= +
s ¿¿

1 −1 s−2 δ ω n
¿ +
s ¿¿

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9 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

1 s+ δ ωn
¿ −
s ¿¿
Replacing ω n √( 1−δ ) =ω 2
d
damped natural frequency of oscillations, we get
ωd
ω n=
√( 1−δ 2
)
1 s+ δ ωn
¿ −
s ¿¿

1 s+ δ ωn
¿ −
s ¿¿
Taking Laplace inverse transformation
−δ ωn t δ −δ ωn t
c (t )=1−e cos ω d t− e sin ωd t
−δ ωn t
√ ( 1−δ ) 2

¿ 1−
e
[ √( 1−δ ) cos ω t−δ sin ω t ]
2

√ ( 1−δ ) 2 d d

From the right angled triangle shown we have,

sin θ=¿ √ ( 1−δ )∧cos θ=δ ¿
2

And 1
θ=tan−1 √ √ 1−δ
2
1−δ 2
θ
δ
δ
−δ ωn t
e
c (t )=1− [ sin θ cos ω d t−cos θ sin ω d t ]
√( 1−δ 2
)
−δ ωn t
e
c (t )=1− [ sin ( ωd t+ θ ) ]
√( 1−δ 2 )
−δ ωn t
c (t )=1−
e
[ sin ( ω √( 1−δ ) t +θ ) ] 2

√
n
( 1−δ ) 2

For an under damped system, 0< δ<1.

The response of the second order system
for 0< δ<1 is oscillatory with magnitude of oscillations decreasing with
time. It approaches to 1 as t → ∞ .
The response curve is as shown.

Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

The performance of a system is evaluated in terms of the following
qualities:
I. How fast it is able to respond to the input,
2. How fast it is reaching the desired output,
3. What is the error between the desired output and the actual output,
once the transients die down and steady state is achieved,
4. Does it oscillate around the desired value?

Y. Pavan Kumar, Asst. Professor, APSCE, Bangaluru 560 082

10 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

These are answered in terms of time domain specifications of the system

based on its response to a unit step input.
5. Is the output continuously increasing with time? or is it bounded? – This
is concerned with the stability of the system.
The response of the under damped second order system for unit step
input and its graphical representation are given below.
−δ ω t
e
[ ]
sin ( ω n √( 1−δ ) t +θ )
n
2
c (t )=1−
√( 1−δ ) 2

The design specifications are:

1. Delay time, It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of
td the steady state value for the first time.
2. Rise time t r It is the time required for the response to reach 100% of
the steady state value for under damped systems.
For over damped systems, it is taken as the time required
for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady
state value.
3. Peak time t p It is the time required for the response to reach the
maximum or Peak value of the response.
4. Peak It is defined as the difference between the peak value of
M
overshoot p the response and the steady state value. It is usually
expressed in per cent of the steady state value.
C ( t p )−C (∞)
The peak overshoot is given by, M p= ×100
C (∞ )

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11 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

For systems of type 1 and higher, the steady state value

c (00) is equal to unity, the same as the input.
5. Settling time It is the time required for the response to reach and
ts remain within a specified tolerance limits (usually ± 2%
or ± 5%) around the steady state value.
6. Steady state It is the error between the desired output and the actual
error e ss output as t→ ∞ or under steady state conditions,
e ss =lim [ r ( t ) −c (t ) ]
t →∞
Where r ( t ) is the reference input.

Delay Time: It is the time required for the response to reach half of its
final value from the zero instant. It is denoted by t d . Consider the step
response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when 0< δ <1.
−δ ω t
e
[
sin ( ω n √( 1−δ ) t +θ ) ]
n
2
c (t )=1−
√( 1−δ ) 2

The final value of the step response is one. Therefore, at t = t d , the value
of the step response will be 0.5. Therefore,
−δ ωn t d
c ( t d )=0.5=1−
e
[ sin ( ω √ ( 1−δ ) t + θ ) ] 2

√
n d
( 1−δ ) 2

−δ ωn t d
0.5=
e
[sin ( ω √ ( 1−δ ) t +θ ) ] 2

√
n d
( 1−δ ) 2

1+0.7 δ
Using linear approximation, we get t d= ωn

Rise time t r : The time required for the response to reach 100%
of its steady state value for the first time.
−δ ωn t r
c ( t r )=1=1−
e
[ sin ( ω √( 1−δ ) t +θ ) ]
2

√
n r
( 1−δ ) 2

Or
−δ ωn t r
e
[ sin ( ω √( 1−δ ) t +θ ) ]= 0 2

√
n r
( 1−δ ) 2

sin ( ωn √ ( 1−δ ) t r +θ )=0

2

ω n √ ( 1−δ ) t r +θ=π
2

π−θ
t r= ,
ω n √ ( 1−δ )
2

where θ=tan−1 √1−δ

2

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12 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

Peak time t p: At the peak time, t p, the response attains its

maximum value and this can be obtained by differentiating c (t )
and equating it to zero.
dc (t) δ ω n −δ ω e
−δ ω t n

ω n √ 1−δ cos ( ωd t+ θ )=0

2
= e sin ( ωd t +θ ) −
n

dt √1−δ 2
√1−δ 2

Simplifying,
δ sin ( ωd t +θ ) −√ 1−δ 2 cos ( ωd t +θ ) =0
From the right angled triangle shown we have,
sin θ=¿ √ ( 1−δ )∧cos θ=δ ¿
2

And 1
θ=tan−1 √ √ 1−δ
2
1−δ 2
θ
δ
This can be written as δ
cos θ sin ( ωd t +θ ) −sin θ cos ( ω d t+θ )=0
sin ( ω d t+θ−θ )=0
ω d t=nπ
For the first peak n = 1
π
t p=
ωn √ 1−δ 2
Peak overshoot: The peak overshoot is defined as
M p=c ( t p )−1

π
−δ ωn
ωn √ 1−δ
2

¿ 1−¿ e sin ( ω d t p +θ ) −1
π
√ 1−δ2
−δ
√ 1−δ 2
¿−¿ e
√ 1−δ 2
(
sin ωn √ 1−δ
2 π
ωn √ 1−δ 2
+θ
)
−δ ωn t p
e
¿−¿ sin ( π +θ )
√1−δ 2
−δ ωn t p
e
¿−¿ ¿}
√1−δ 2
π
−δ
√ 1−δ 2
¿e
π
Percentage overshoot = 100 e−δ √ 1−δ 2

Settling time t s: The time varying term in the step response, c (t), consists
−δ ω t
e n

of a product of two terms; namely, an exponentially delaying term,

√( 1−δ 2 )
and a sinusoidal term, [ sin ( ωd t + θ ) ] . The response is a decaying sinusoid, the

Y. Pavan Kumar, Asst. Professor, APSCE, Bangaluru 560 082

13 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

−δ ωn t
e
envelop of which is given by . The response reaches and remains
√( 1−δ 2
)
within a given band, around the steadystate value, when this envelop
crosses the tolerance band. Once this envelop reaches this value, there is
no possibility of subsequent oscillations to go beyond these tolerance
limits.
For a 2% tolerance band,
−δ ω t
e n s

=0.02
√( 1−δ 2 )
For small values of δ , √ ( 1−δ 2 ) is small and negligible.
−δ ω t
e =0.02 ,
n s

Simplifying using natural logarithm,

4
t s=
δ ωn
As the steady state error, for various test signals, depends on the type of
the system,

Steady State Errors

One of the important design specifications for a control system is the
steady state error. The steady state output of any system should be as
close to desired output as possible. If it deviates from this desired output,
the performance of the system is not satisfactory under steady state
conditions. The steady state error reflects the accuracy of the system.
Among many reasons for these errors, the most important ones are the
type of input, the type of the system and the nonlinearities present in the
system. Since the actual input in a physical system is often a random
signal, the steady state errors are obtained for the standard test signals,
namely, step, ramp and parabolic signals.

Error Constants
Consider a feedback control system shown below:

For the system, E ( s )=R ( s )−B (s )

B ( s )=C ( s ) H ( s )

C ( s )=E ( s ) G (s)

The error signal E(s) is given by

E ( s )=R ( s )−C ( s ) H ( s )

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14 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

¿ R ( s )−E ( s ) G(s) H (s )

E ( s ) + E ( s ) G ( s ) H (s)=R ( s )

E ( s ) [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]=R ( s )

R ( s)
E ( s )=
[1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]
Applying final value theorem, we have the steady state error,
R ( s)
e ss =lim sE ( s )=lim s
s→ s → 0 [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]

Steady state error is a function of input function and open loop transfer
function G(s).
Steady state error for unit Step Input:
1
For unit step input, R ( s )= ,
S
1
Hence, S
e ss =lim sE ( s )=lim s
s→ s → 0 [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]

1
¿ lim
s→0 [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]

1
¿
[1+lim G ( s ) H ( s ) ]
s →0
1
¿
[1+ K p ]
K p=lim G ( s ) H ( s ) is called the positional error constant.
s →0
Steady state error for unit Ramp Input:
1
For unit ramp input, R ( s )= 2
S
Hence,
1
2
S
e ss =lim sE ( s )=lim s
s→ s → 0 [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]

1
¿ lim
s→0 s [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]

1
¿
lim sG ( s ) H ( s )
s →0
1
¿
Kv
K V =lim ⁡ sG ( s ) H ( s ) is velocity error constant
s →0

Y. Pavan Kumar, Asst. Professor, APSCE, Bangaluru 560 082

15 18EE61 Control System Module 3: Time Domain Analysis

Steady state error for unit parabolic Input:

1
For unit ramp input, R ( s )= 3
S
Hence,
1
3
S
e ss =lim sE ( s )=lim s
s→ s → 0 [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]

1
¿ lim 2
s→0 s [1+G ( s ) H ( s ) ]

1
¿ 2
lim s G ( s ) H ( s )
s →0
1
¿
Ka
2
K a =lim ⁡ s G ( s ) H ( s ) is Acceleration error constant.
s→ 0

Y. Pavan Kumar, Asst. Professor, APSCE, Bangaluru 560 082