Relations and Functions

SciAstra

1 Introduction
In this chapter, we will study relations and functions. These concepts are fun-
damental to many areas of mathematics and have important applications in
computer science, physics, economics, and other fields.

2 Relations
In mathematics, we frequently use the term ”relation.” A relation is a math-
ematical concept that describes the connection between two or more objects..
Relations are critical in algebra, geometry, calculus, and other areas of mathe-
matics.
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. We use the notation a ∼ b to indicate
that (a, b) is an element of the relation. For example, consider the set of all
pairs of integers where the first integer is less than the second:

R = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ Z, a < b}

Here, Z denotes the set of integers. We can also represent this relation using a
graph, where each integer is a node and there is an arrow from a to b if a < b.

Example: Let A = (−0.5, 1, 2, 3) and B = (a, e, x, o, u, i, y, z). Define a re-

lation R from A to B such that (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a is a natural number
and b is a vowel.

Solution:
The relation R from A to B can be defined as follows:
R=(2,x),(2,y),(2,z),(1,a),(3,a),(2,e),(3,e),(2,i),(1,o),(3,o),(2,u),(3,u)

Any subset of the above will qualify as a relation

3 Types of Relations
There are several types of relations that we can define. Some of the important
ones are:

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3.1 Reflexive Relation
A relation R is reflexive if (a, a) is an element of R for all a in the domain. For
example, the relation ≤ on the set of real numbers is reflexive because a ≤ a for
all a.

3.1.1 Properties
Reflexive relations have several important properties, some of which are:

Idempotent
A reflexive relation R is idempotent, which means that R ◦ R = R. Here,
R ◦ R represents the composition of R with itself, i.e., R ◦ R = {(a, c) ∈ A × A |
∃b ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R}.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}. Then, we have
R ◦ R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} = R. Hence, R is idempotent.

3.1.2 Applications
Reflexive relations have many applications in various fields of mathematics and
computer science. Some examples include:

Ordering In partial orderings and total orderings, reflexivity is a required

property. In a partial ordering, for any two elements a and b, either a ≤ b or
b ≤ a, or neither. If a ≤ a for all a, then the ordering is reflexive. In a total
ordering, reflexivity is required for all elements, not just some.

Graph Theory In graph theory, a reflexive relation is used to represent loops

in a graph. A loop is an edge that connects a vertex to itself. For example,
a directed graph with a reflexive relation on its vertices can represent a state
machine, where the loops represent transitions to the same state.

3.2 Symmetric Relation

A relation R is symmetric if (a, b) is an element of R implies that (b, a) is also an
element of R. For example, the relation ”is a sibling of” is symmetric because
if a is a sibling of b, then b is also a sibling of a.
Let A = 1, 2, 3 and R = (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2). We can see that (1, 2) and
(2, 1) are both in R, which means that R is symmetric.

Example:
Let A = 1, 2, 3 and B = a, b, c. Define a function f from A to B such that
f (1) = b, f (2) = a, and f (3) = c. Is the function symmetric?

Solution:
The function f from A to B can be defined as follows: f(1)=b, f(2)=a, f(3)=c

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 To check if f is symmetric, we need to see if (a, b) ∈ f implies (b, a) ∈ f for
all a, b ∈ A. Since f (1) = b and f (2) = a, we have (a, b) ∈ f . But f (1) = b and
f (2) = a do not satisfy f (2) = b and f (1) = a, so (b, a) ∈ / f . Therefore, the
function f is not symmetric. Applications:
Symmetric relations have many applications in various fields of mathematics
and computer science. Some examples include:

3.2.1 Graph Theory

In graph theory, a symmetric relation is used to represent an undirected graph.
An undirected graph is a graph in which edges do not have a direction. In other
words, if there is an edge between vertex a and vertex b, then there is also an
edge between vertex b and vertex a.

3.2.2 Social Networks

Symmetric relations are used in social network analysis to represent mutual
relationships between individuals. For example, if person A is friends with
person B, then person B is also friends with person A.

3.3 Transitive Relation

A relation R is transitive if (a, b) and (b, c) are elements of R implies that (a, c)
is also an element of R. For example, the relation ≤ on the set of real numbers
is transitive because if a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
Let A = 1, 2, 3 and R = (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3). We can see that (1, 2) and (2,
3) are in R, and (1, 3) is also in R. Therefore, R is transitive.

Example:
Let A = 1, 2, 3, 4 and B = a, b, c. Define a function f from A to B such that
f (1) = b, f (2) = a, f (3) = b, and f (4) = c. Is the function transitive?

Solution:
The function f from A to B can be defined as follows:
f(1)=b, f(2)=a, f(3)=b, f(4)=c
To check if f is transitive, we need to see if (a, b) ∈ f and (b, c) ∈ f implies
(a, c) ∈ f for all a, b, c ∈ A. Since f (2) = a and f (1) = b, we have (a, b) ∈ f .
Similarly, since f (3) = b and f (4) = c, we have (b, c) ∈ f . But f (2) = a and
f (4) = c do not satisfy f (2) = c, so (a, c) ∈
/ f . Therefore, the function f is not
transitive.

Example:
Let A = a, b, c and B = 1, 2, 3. Define a function f from A to B such that
f (a) = 1, f (b) = 2, and f (c) = 3. Is the function transitive?

Solution:

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The function f from A to B can be defined as follows:
f(a)=1, f(b)=2, f(c)=3
To check if f is transitive, we need to see if (a, b) ∈ f and (b, c) ∈ f implies
(a, c) ∈ f for all a, b, c ∈ A. Since f (a) = 1 and f (b) = 2, we have (a, b) ∈ f .
Similarly, since f (b) = 2 and f (c) = 3, we have (b, c) ∈ f . Also, since f (a) = 1
and f (c) = 3, we have (a, c) ∈ f . Therefore, the function f is transitive.

3.3.1 Transitive Closure

The transitive closure of a reflexive relation R is the smallest transitive relation
that contains R. A relation T is transitive if for all (a, b), (b, c) ∈ T , we have
(a, c) ∈ T .
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}.
Here, R is reflexive but not transitive, because (1, 2), (2, 3) ∈ R but (1, 3) ̸∈ R.
The transitive closure of R is the relation T = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)},
which is the smallest transitive relation that contains R.

3.4 Equivalence Relation

A relation R is an equivalence relation if it satisfies three properties: reflexivity,
symmetry, and transitivity.
Reflexivity means that every element is related to itself, which is satisfied
by definition for reflexive relations. Symmetry means that if (a, b) ∈ R, then
(b, a) ∈ R, which is not required for reflexive relations. Transitivity means that
if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R, which is also not required for
reflexive relations.
However, reflexive relations can be part of an equivalence relation. For exam-
ple, let A = 1, 2, 3 and R = (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3). Then, R is reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive, which makes it an equivalence relation. The equivalence classes
of R are 1, 2, and 3.

4 Functions
A function is a special type of relation where each input has exactly one output.
We use the notation f (a) = b to indicate that a maps to b under the function
f . For example, consider the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 .

2 4
1 2 3
6

The arrow diagram shows that the domain of the function is 1,2,3, the range
is 2,4,6, and each element in the domain is mapped to a unique element in the
range.

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4.1 Properties of Functions
Functions have several important properties that we need to be aware of. These
properties help us to analyze and manipulate functions in various ways.

Example: Can the given relations be classified as functions ?

1 1
(i) Ra = {(3, 5), (4, ), (9, ), (3, 12)}
3 48
4 2
(ii) Rb = {(4, 8), (5, ), (8, ), (37, 1)}
3 9
Solution:

(i) No it cannot be a function since the same input 3 gives two different outputs
(ii) Yes it is a function

4.1.1 Domain and Range

The domain of a function is the set of all possible inputs, while the range is
the set of all possible outputs. It is important to note that the range may not
contain all the elements of the codomain (the set of all possible outputs). For
example, consider the function f: 1,2,3 → 2,4,6 defined by f(x) = 2x. The range
of the function is 2,4,6, which is a subset of the codomain 2,4,6,8.

Example: Figure out the domain where the following functions become equal:
x2 , 2x − 1

Solution:

As implied in the question, we try and equate the functions:

x2 = 2x − 1
x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
(x − 1)2 = 0

Hence f (x) = g(x) at x = 1

Example:

Let A = 1, 2, 3, 4 and B = a, b, c, d. Define a relation R from A to B as fol-

lows: R = (1, a), (1, b), (2, c), (3, d). Is R a function from A to B? If yes, then
write its domain and range.

Solution:

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To check whether R is a function or not, we need to ensure that for every
element in A, there is only one image in B. In other words, there should be no
element in A that maps to more than one element in B. Let’s check:
(1, a) and (1, b) both map to 1, so this violates the definition of a function.
(2, c) and (3, d) both map to distinct elements in B, so they do not violate the
definition of a function.

Since R violates the definition of a function, it is not a function. Therefore,

we cannot talk about its domain and range.

4.1.2 One-to-one and Onto

A function is said to be one-to-one if each element in the domain is mapped to
a unique element in the range. In other words, no two distinct elements in the
domain are mapped to the same element in the range. Mathematically, we can
say that a function f : A → B is one-to-one if for all a, bϵA, if f (a) = f (b), then
a = b.
A function is said to be onto if every element in the range is mapped to by
at least one element in the domain. In other words, the range of the function is
equal to the codomain. Mathematically, we can say that a function f : A → B
is onto if for all bϵB, there exists an aϵA such that f (a) = b.

4.2 Composition of Functions

We can compose two functions f and g to get a new function f ◦ g, defined
by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)). For example, if f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 1, then
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 .

4.3 Inverse Functions

If a function f is bijective, then it has an inverse function f −1 , which is defined
by f −1 (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y. For example, if f (x) = x2 with domain
√
[0, ∞), then f −1 (y) = y with domain [0, ∞).

Example 3: Let f : R− > R be defined by f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2. Find the

inverse of f.
Solution: To find the inverse of f, we need to solve for x in terms of y in the
equation y = f (x). Let’s start:

y = x2 + 3x + 2
y − 2 = x2 + 3x
2
p the square: y − 2 + (9/4)
Completing p = (x + (3/2)) Taking square root: x +
(3/2) = ± (y − (1/4)) x = (−3/2) (y − (1/4)) p
Therefore, the inverse of f is given by f ( − 1)(x) = (−3/2) ± (x − (1/4)).

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 Note: To ensure that f has an inverse, we need to check that it is a one-
to-one function, i.e., that no two distinct elements in the domain map to the
same element in the range. This can be done by checking the discriminant
of the quadratic equation that defines f. In this case, the discriminant is
32 − 4(1)(2) = 1, which is positive, so f is invertible.

f
1 2
f-1

5 Conclusion
We have studied the fundamental concepts of relations and functions. We have
seen how to define and represent different types of relations, and how to analyze
the properties of functions. These concepts have wide-ranging applications and
are essential for further study in mathematics and related fields.