Embedded system

An embedded system is a combination of computer

hardware and software designed for a specific
function. Embedded systems may also function
within a larger system. The systems can be
programmable or have a fixed functionality.
Industrial machines, consumer electronics,
agricultural and processing industry devices,
automobiles, medical equipment, cameras, digital
watches, household appliances, airplanes, vending
machines and toys, as well as mobile devices, are
possible locations for an embedded system.
While embedded systems are computing systems,
they can range from having no user interface (UI)
-- for example, on devices designed to perform a
single task -- to complex graphical user interfaces
(GUIs), such as in mobile devices. User interfaces
can include buttons, LEDs (light-emitting diodes)
and touchscreen sensing. Some systems use remote
user interfaces as well.
MarketsandMarkets, a business-to-business (B2B)
research firm, predicted that the embedded market
will be worth $116.2 billion by 2025. Chip
manufacturers for embedded systems include many
well-known technology companies, such as Apple,
IBM, Intel and Texas Instruments. The expected
growth is partially due to the continued
investment in artificial intelligence (AI), mobile
computing and the need for chips designed for
high-level processing.
Examples of embedded systems
Embedded systems are used in a wide range of
technologies across an array of industries. Some
examples include:
 Automobiles. Modern cars commonly consist

of many computers (sometimes as many as

100), or embedded systems, designed to
perform different tasks within the vehicle.
Some of these systems perform basic utility
functions and others provide entertainment or
user-facing functions. Some embedded
systems in consumer vehicles include cruise
control, backup sensors, suspension control,
navigation systems and airbag systems.
 Mobile phones. These consist of many

embedded systems, including GUI software

and hardware, operating systems (OSes),
cameras, microphones, and USB (Universal
Serial Bus) I/O (input/output) modules.
 Industrial machines. They can contain

embedded systems, like sensors, and can be

embedded systems themselves. Industrial
machines often have embedded automation
systems that perform specific monitoring and
control functions.
 Medical equipment. These may contain

embedded systems like sensors and control

 mechanisms. Medical equipment, such as
industrial machines, also must be very user-
friendly so that human health isn't jeopardized
by preventable machine mistakes. This means
they'll often include a more complex OS and
GUI designed for an appropriate UI.
How does an embedded system work?
Embedded systems always function as part of a
complete device -- that's what's meant by the term
embedded. They are low-cost, low-power-
consuming, small computers that are embedded in
other mechanical or electrical systems. Generally,
they comprise a processor, power supply, and
memory and communication ports. Embedded
systems use the communication ports to transmit
data between the processor and peripheral devices
-- often, other embedded systems -- using a
communication protocol. The processor interprets
this data with the help of minimal software stored
on the memory. The software is usually highly
specific to the function that the embedded system
serves.

The processor may be a microprocessor or

microcontroller. Microcontrollers are simply
microprocessors with peripheral interfaces and
integrated memory included. Microprocessors use
separate integrated circuits for memory and
peripherals instead of including them on the chip.
Both can be used, but microprocessors typically
require more support circuitry than
microcontrollers because there is less integrated
into the microprocessor. The term system on a chip
(SoC) is often used. SoCs include multiple
processors and interfaces on a single chip. They are
often used for high-volume embedded systems.
Some example SoC types are the application-
specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and the field-
programmable gate array (FPGA).
Often, embedded systems are used in real-time
operating environments and use a real-time
operating system (RTOS) to communicate with the
hardware. Near-real-time approaches are suitable at
higher levels of chip capability, defined by
designers who have increasingly decided the
systems are generally fast enough and the tasks
tolerant of slight variations in reaction. In these
instances, stripped-down versions of the Linux
operating system are commonly deployed, although
other OSes have been pared down to run on
embedded systems, including Embedded Java and
Windows IoT (formerly Windows Embedded).
Characteristics of embedded systems
The main characteristic of embedded systems is
that they are task-specific.
Additionally, embedded systems can include the
following characteristics:
  typically, consist of hardware, software and
firmware;
 can be embedded in a larger system to perform
a specific function, as they are built for
specialized tasks within the system, not
various tasks;
 can be either microprocessor-based or
microcontroller-based -- both are integrated
circuits that give the system compute power;
 are often used for sensing and real-time
computing in internet of things (IoT) devices,
which are devices that are internet-connected
and do not require a user to operate;
 can vary in complexity and in function, which
affects the type of software, firmware and
hardware they use; and
 are often required to perform their function
under a time constraint to keep the larger
system functioning properly.
Structure of embedded systems
Embedded systems vary in complexity but,
generally, consist of three main elements:
 Hardware. The hardware of embedded

systems is based around microprocessors and

microcontrollers. Microprocessors are very
similar to microcontrollers and, typically, refer
to a CPU (central processing unit) that is
integrated with other basic computing
components such as memory chips and digital
 signal processors (DSPs). Microcontrollers
have those components built into one chip.
 Software and firmware. Software for
embedded systems can vary in complexity.
However, industrial-grade microcontrollers
and embedded IoT systems usually run very
simple software that requires little memory.
 Real-time operating system. These are not
always included in embedded systems,
especially smaller-scale systems. RTOSes
define how the system works by supervising
the software and setting rules during program
execution.
In terms of hardware, a basic embedded system
would consist of the following elements:
 Sensors convert physical sense data into an

electrical signal.
 Analog-to-digital (A-D) converters change

an analog electrical signal into a digital one.

 Processors process digital signals and store

them in memory.
 Digital-to-analog (D-A) converters change

the digital data from the processor into analog

data.
 Actuators compare actual output to memory-

stored output and choose the correct one.

The sensor reads external inputs, the converters
make that input readable to the processor, and the
processor turns that information into useful output
for the embedded system.

Types of embedded systems

There are a few basic embedded system types,
which differ in their functional requirements. They
are:
 Mobile embedded systems are small-sized

systems that are designed to be portable.

Digital cameras are an example of this.
 Networked embedded systems are connected

to a network to provide output to other

systems. Examples include home security
systems and point of sale (POS) systems.
 Standalone embedded systems are not reliant

on a host system. Like any embedded system,

they perform a specialized task. However, they
do not necessarily belong to a host system,
unlike other embedded systems. A calculator
or MP3 player is an example of this.
 Real-time embedded systems give the

required output in a defined time interval.

They are often used in medical, industrial and
military sectors because they are responsible
for time-critical tasks. A traffic control system
is an example of this.
Embedded systems can also be categorized by their
performance requirements:
  Small-scale embedded systems often use no
more than an 8-bit microcontroller.
 Medium-scale embedded systems use a
larger microcontroller (16-32 bit) and often
link microcontrollers together.
 Sophisticated-scale embedded systems often
use several algorithms that result in software
and hardware complexities and may require
more complex software, a configurable
processor and/or a programmable logic array.
There are several common embedded system
software architectures, which become necessary as
embedded systems grow and become more
complex in scale. These include:
 Simple control loops call subroutines, which

manage a specific part of the hardware or

embedded programming.
 Interrupt controlled systems have two loops:

a main one and a secondary one. Interruptions

in the loops trigger tasks.
 Cooperative multitasking is essentially a

simple control loop located in an application

programming interface (API).
 Preemptive multitasking or multi threading

is often used with an RTOS and features

synchronization and task switching strategies.
Very large-scale integration, or VLSI, is a term that
describes the complexity of an integrated circuit
(IC). VLSI is the process of embedding hundreds
of thousands of transistors into a chip, whereas LSI
(large-scale integration) microchips contain
thousands of transistors, MSI (medium-scale
integration) contains hundreds of transistors, and
SSI (small-scale integration) contains tens of
transistors. ULSI, or ultra-large-scale integration,
refers to placing millions of transistors on a chip.
VLSI circuits are common features of embedded
systems. Many ICs in embedded systems are
VLSIs, and the use of the VLSI acronym has
largely fallen out of favor.
Debugging embedded systems
One area where embedded systems part ways with
the operating systems and development
environments of other larger-scale computers is in
the area of debugging. Usually, developers working
with desktop computer environments have systems
that can run both the code being developed and
separate debugger applications that can monitor the
embedded system programmers generally cannot,
however.

Some programming languages run on

microcontrollers with enough efficiency that
rudimentary interactive debugging is available
directly on the chip. Additionally, processors often
have CPU debuggers that can be controlled -- and,
thus, control program execution -- via a JTAG or
similar debugging port.
In many instances, however, programmers need
tools that attach a separate debugging system to the
target system via a serial or other port. In this
scenario, the programmer can see the source code
on the screen of a general-purpose computer, just
as would be the case in the debugging of software
on a desktop computer. A separate, frequently used
approach is to run software on a PC that emulates
the physical chip in software. This is essentially
making it possible to debug the performance of the
software as if it were running on an actual physical
chip.
Broadly speaking, embedded systems have
received more attention to testing and debugging
because a great number of devices using embedded
controls are designed for use, especially in
situations where safety and reliability are top
priorities.
History of embedded systems
Embedded systems date back to the 1960s. Charles
Stark Draper developed an integrated circuit in
1961 to reduce the size and weight of the Apollo
Guidance Computer, the digital system installed on
the Apollo Command Module and Lunar Module.
The first computer to use ICs, it helped astronauts
collect real-time flight data.
In 1965, Autonetics, now a part of Boeing,
developed the D-17B, the computer used in the
Minuteman I missile guidance system. It is widely
recognized as the first mass-produced embedded
system. When the Minuteman II went into
production in 1966, the D-17B was replaced with
the NS-17 missile guidance system, known for its
high-volume use of integrated circuits. In 1968, the
first embedded system for a vehicle was released;
the Volkswagen 1600 used a microprocessor to
control its electronic fuel injection system.
By the late 1960s and early 1970s, the price of
integrated circuits dropped and usage surged. The
first microcontroller was developed by Texas
Instruments in 1971. The TMS1000 series, which
became commercially available in 1974, contained
a 4-bit processor, read-only memory (ROM) and
random-access memory (RAM), and it cost around
$2 apiece in bulk orders.
Also, in 1971, Intel released what is widely
recognized as the first commercially available
processor, the 4004. The 4-bit microprocessor was
designed for use in calculators and small
electronics, though it required eternal memory and
support chips. The 8-bit Intel 8008, released in
1972, had 16 KB of memory; the Intel 8080
followed in 1974 with 64 KB of memory. The
8080's successor, the x86 series, was released in
1978 and is still largely in use today.
In 1987, the first embedded operating system, the
real-time VxWorks, was released by Wind River,
followed by Microsoft's Windows Embedded CE in
1996. By the late 1990s, the first embedded Linux
products began to appear. Today, Linux is used in
almost all embedded devices.
Embedded system trends
While some embedded systems can be relatively
simple, they are becoming more complex, and
more and more of them are now able to either
supplant human decision-making or offer
capabilities beyond what a human could provide.
For instance, some aviation systems, including
those used in drones, are able to integrate sensor
data and act upon that information faster than a
human could, permitting new kinds of operating
features.
The embedded system is expected to continue
growing rapidly, driven in large part by the internet
of things. Expanding IoT applications, such as
wearables, drones, smart homes, smart buildings,
video surveillance, 3D printers and smart
transportation, are expected to fuel embedded
system growth.

System on a Chip: How Smaller, Faster Devices

are Made
In electronics, the name of the game is “more
performance, less power, and less space.”
Especially in portable devices such as tablets and
smartphones, massively complex technology must
fit within the smallest possible footprint and use the
least amount of power. To create devices that are
both fast and small, engineers eliminate the need
for multiple integrated circuits by consolidating all
the necessary components into a single package,
called a system on a chip (SoC).
What is a System on a Chip?
A system on a chip is an integrated circuit that
compresses all of a system’s required components
onto one piece of silicon. By eliminating the need
for separate and large system components, SoCs
help simplify circuit board design, resulting in
improved power and speed without compromising
system functionality. Components contained within
an SoC can be:
 Data processing units

 Embedded memory

 Graphics processing units (GPUs)

 USB interfaces
 Video and audio processing

Compact SOCs have become an indispensable

solutions for various markets, spanning from wired
applications like data centers, artificial intelligence
(AI), and high-performance computing (HPC) to
battery-operated devices like mobile phones and
wearables.
A diagram of a system on a chip
The History of SoCs
With smaller devices so common in our everyday
lives, it’s hard to imagine a time when SoCs
weren’t in everything. But it wasn’t until the 1970s
that the concept of fitting an entire system onto a
single microchip first became a reality.
1970s: According to the Computer History
Museum, the first system on a chip appeared in an
LCD watch in 1974. Until then, microprocessors
had only been standalone chips that required the
support of external chips.
1980s-90s: Advancements in semiconductor
manufacturing technology made it possible to
integrate more components on a single chip.
Mixed-signal integration allowed chips to process
both analog and digital signals.
2000-2010s: SoCs began integrating Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and cellular modems, bringing wireless
communications to our mobile devices. The
addition of powerful processors and graphics
capabilities helped make smartphones a new way
of life.
Present: SoCs are becoming increasingly
specialized and are expanding beyond mobile to
include automotive systems, wearable devices,
industrial automation, and more. New features
include artificial intelligence (AI), machine
learning (ML), and edge computing.
System on a Chip Applications
Thanks to their ability to be customized for highly
specialized requirements, SoCs can be used in a
variety of applications, from children’s toys and
doorbell cameras to industrial engines. Some SoC
uses include:
 Mobile devices: SoCs integrate wireless
connectivity and multimedia capabilities in
smartphones and tablets.
 Automotive systems: Vehicles of all types use
SoCs to power navigation systems, sensor
interfaces, infotainment systems, and danger
avoidance systems.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Highly efficient in
low-power use cases, SoCs are widely used in
IoT devices such as wearables and smart home
monitors.
 Networking equipment: In routers, switches,
and network appliances, SoCs integrate packet
processing capabilities, security features, and
specialized components for efficient data
routing.
 Consumer electronics: SoCs provide graphics
processing power and connectivity to a wide
range of common multimedia devices, such as
gaming consoles and digital media players.
 Industrial applications: SoCs enable real-
time processing, connectivity, and interfacing
capabilities, contributing to efficient and
intelligent industrial solutions.
 Medical devices: SoCs assist in improving
patient care by improving the processing
power and connectivity of patient monitoring
systems, diagnostic equipment, and
implantable devices.
SoC Design: Pros and Cons
The integration of multiple components onto a
single chip offers numerous benefits. But when
determining if an SoC is the right solution for a
device, these benefits must be weighed against the
challenges of such a complex design.
Advantages of System on a Chip
1. Space optimization: SoCs take up less space
than multiple discreet components, making
smaller device designs possible.
2. Power efficiency: Replacement of large
components and circuits with SOCs leads to a
significant reduction in power consumption
and the required PPA (power, performance,
and area) metrics can be achieved.
3. Cheaper: A single SoC chip is cheaper than
the set of multiple, separate chips that would
otherwise be needed.
4. Reliability: A single SoC has fewer
connections and is thus significantly more
reliable than a multipart system connected
through a substrate.
5. Performance: Because the signals can stay on
chip, an SoC can achieve higher performance
and speed than a multipart solution.
Disadvantages of System on a Chip
1. Single point of failure: With all components
in a single chip, a failure in one component
 affects the entire system (which limits
upgrades, too).
2. Time to market: When compared to off-the-
shelf components, designing custom SoCs
requires more expertise and specialized tools
with increased development time and costs.
These higher costs can only be recouped if the
market for the SoC is big enough to absorb
them.
3. Mixed analog/digital: As all the components
on an SoC are manufactured with a single
process technology, there is no option to use
optimal technology for the analog sections.
This leads to reduced analog performance and
makes SoCs better suited for digital
applications.
4. Flexibility: An SoC is ideally suited to its
intended task but has limited scope to be
applied for any other task.
System on a Chip Design Flow
Similar to an integrated circuit, the design
workflow for a system on a chip involves several
stages to plan, refine, and produce. Each stage
requires the collaboration of experts including
system architects, design engineers, and
manufacturers. The major milestones of the SoC
design flow include:
1. Specification: Clearly define the desired
function of the SoC. What are the applications,
performance goals, power limitations, etc.?
2. Logical design: Describe the desired behavior
in a hardware description language (HDL) and
simulate the functional behavior to verify it is
correct.
3. Logic synthesis: Automatically translate HDL
behavioral description into a list of transistor
elements and their interconnections, called the
“netlist.”
4. Physical design: Choose the appropriate
transistor components, determine their
physical locations on the silicon, and the
trajectories of the interconnection wires
between them.
5. Signoff: Use verification software like Ansys
RedHawk-SC to analyze and validate the
design to ensure proper functionality and
performance. Verify that the layout meets all
manufacturability requirements. Chips cannot
be repaired, so if there is any mistake in the
design, all the manufactured chips must be
thrown away and the design has to be revised.
This is why it’s so important to check and
verify before proceeding to manufacturing.
6. Tapeout: Generate the final graphic files for
creating the photomasks of the layout and send
to the manufacturer for production.
 7. Testing and packaging: Test to confirm the
SoC delivers on the specifications and is ready
for use. The silicon chip is then encapsulated
in a protective package.
SoC Design and Simulation
The demand for smarter, faster electronics in
increasingly challenging spaces will continue to
drive the need for SoC innovation. As SoCs are
becoming more complex to meet market demands,
design engineers should follow a formalized
approach to designing and validating these chips.
Simulation is an important key to creating a
successful SoC design that meets the required
design and manufacturing specifications. The
power delivery network is getting more complex,
and low-power concerns shrink the supply voltage.
As a result, signing off the design for signal
integrity and power integrity is critical.