M1504 Integration APRIL 2023

ANTIDERIVATIVES AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Calculus involves the study of two basic operations:

i. Finding the derivative of a function often referred to as DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

ii. Using the “inverse operation” , i.e. reversing the process of differentiation called INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

We are now going to study much related concepts

i. The anti-derivative and

ii. The definite integral.

ANTIDERIVATIVES

We have solved problems of the type:

“Given a function 𝑓(𝑥), find the derivative 𝑓/ . ”

We now consider the reverse process:

Given a function 𝑓(𝑥), find a function 𝐹 (𝑥) such that

𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

DEFINITION

A function 𝐹(𝑥) is an ANTIDERIVATIVE of the function 𝑓 on an interval 𝐼 if

𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 in 𝐼.

The process of finding 𝐹(𝑥) is called ANTIDIFFERENTIATION.

e.g.
𝑑
if 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 then 𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑥 4 because (𝑥 4 ) = 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥

NOTE: There are many other anti-derivatives of 4𝑥 3

e.g. 𝑥 4 + 2, 𝑥 4 − 100, 𝑥 4 + 𝐶 where C is any constant.

Therefore, the anti-derivative is a “FAMILY” of functions which is NOT unique.

Thus, the anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is generally 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶.

THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

We call ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 the indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥), where ∫ is called the integral sign, the function 𝑓 the integrand,

𝑥 the variable of integration and 𝑑𝑥 the symbol that indicates the independent variable. Therefore,

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =𝐹 (𝑥) + 𝐶

Page 1 of 6
is the integral of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥, where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) and C is an arbitrary constant. The process of finding 𝐹 (𝑥) +
𝐶 when given 𝑓(𝑥) is called INDEFINITE INTEGRATION, or evaluating the integral or integrating 𝑓(𝑥).

IN GENERAL
𝑑 𝑑
∫ (𝑓(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶 and ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

RULES FOR INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Many of the properties (rules) that applied to differentiation have similar properties in integration.

1. Power Rule
𝑥𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1

SPECIAL CASE: 𝑛 = 0

∫ 1𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶

2. Constant Multiple Rule

If 𝑘 is any constant, then ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

SPECIAL CASE: Rule for Negatives

∫ −𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

3. Sum Rule

∫[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

4. Difference Rule

∫[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

5. INTEGRAL FORMULAS FOR EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

𝑑
i. Recall that (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥, similarly, ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 . From this we have ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

Thus, in general
𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑙𝑛𝑎

1
ii. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −1 = 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥| + 𝐶.

Exercises.

1. Find the anti-derivative in each case:

i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 ii. 𝑔(𝑥) = −7𝑥 iii. ℎ(𝑡 ) = √𝑡
𝑥6 𝑦2 +1
iv. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 − − 𝑥7 v. ℎ (𝑦) =
6 𝑦

2. Find the indefinite integrals:

Page 2 of 6
 3 2 √𝑥 2
i. ∫ [ − 2 ] 𝑑𝑡 ii. (∫ 𝑥 3⁄ 2 + − ) 𝑑𝑥 iii. ∫(𝑥 + 1)9 𝑑𝑥
𝑡 𝑡 5 2

1
iv. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +1

INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES

We will study the following Techniques

1. Integration by Substitution
2. Integration by Parts
3. Integration by Partial Fractions

1. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

We have used the chain rule in order to differentiate functions

REMINDER

If 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑢) is a differentiable function of 𝑢, then

𝑑
(𝑔(𝑢)) = 𝑔 ′ (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Hence
𝑑𝑢
∫ [𝑔 ′ (𝑢) ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔 ′ (𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
Integrating a composite function using Substitution -Procedure:

1. Write 𝑢 as a function of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑢
2. Take the derivative 𝑑𝑥 .
3. Solve for 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑑𝑢.
4. Substitute for 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥 in the integral.
5. Before integrating make sure that the variable 𝑥 is eliminated from the integral.
6. After Integrating substitute back to write the answer in terms of 𝑥.

Exercises:

Determine the following Integrals:

1. ∫ 7(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5)6 (2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 2. ∫(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5)4 (𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑥 (3𝑥 − 5)3 4. ∫ 3𝑥√1 − 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
5. ∫ 1
3
𝑥2 (1+ )
𝑥

2. Integration by Parts

This is one of the main methods of integration which is used often. It is derived from the product rule of the rules of
derivatives.
Page 3 of 6
 Recall:
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are two differentiable functions then
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 + 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
which we can simply write as
𝑑 (𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢
Integrate on both sides to obtain

∫ 𝑑 (𝑢𝑣 ) = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

⟹ 𝑢𝑣 = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

⟹ ∫ 𝒖𝒅𝒗 = 𝒖𝒗 − ∫ 𝒗𝒅𝒖 This is the integration by parts formula.

REMARKS
1. Use integration by parts when the integrand consists of a product of two unrelated functions.
2. There are special cases for which we use integration by parts: If the integrand includes the following functions,
we always choose 𝑢 to be one of these functions, ln(𝑥) , 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1(𝑥), 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 (𝑥),𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥).
3. The choice of 𝑢 and 𝑣 is very important.
(i) Make sure that 𝑑𝑣 can actually be integrated easily.
(ii) If possible, choose 𝑢 in such a way that it becomes simpler. e.g if you have a power of 𝑥, choose the
power of 𝑥 to be 𝑢 so that the power decreases.
(iii) Exclusions occur where the integrand includes powers of 𝑥 and one of the functions named above for
which we know their derivatives not their integrals.
Examples
1. ∫ 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2. ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3. Integration by Partial Fractions

𝑝(𝑥)
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = is a rational function that can be expressed as
𝑞(𝑥)

𝑝(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
= + + ⋯+
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎1𝑥+𝑏1 𝑎2𝑥+𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑥+𝑏𝑛

𝐴𝑖
where 𝐴1,𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 ,𝑎1 ,𝑎2 ,… , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏1 ,𝑏 2,… , 𝑏 𝑛 are constants. Then, each term ,
𝑎𝑖𝑥+𝑏 𝑖

𝑖 = 1,2,… , 𝑛 is called a partial fraction and 𝐴𝑖 ’s are called the undetermined coefficients. We say that 𝑓(𝑥) has been
written as a sum of partial fractions. The partial fractions can be decomposed by following the steps that follow below.

Procedure in Partial Fraction Decomposition

𝑝(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑥)
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = is a rational function. Break into partial fractions as follows:
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥)

Step 1

Page 4 of 6
 𝑝(𝑥 ) 𝑟(𝑥)
a) If is improper, divide 𝑝(𝑥) by 𝑞(𝑥). The result will be a polynomial plus a proper rational function [ ].
𝑞(𝑥 ) 𝑞(𝑥)
𝑟(𝑥)
For , go to step 2.
𝑞(𝑥)
𝑝(𝑥 )
b) If is proper, then go to step 2.
𝑞(𝑥 )
Step 2
Factor the denominator 𝑞(𝑥) completely (i.e write it into linear and irreducible quadratic factors).
Step 3
𝑝(𝑥)
Write as a sum of terms according to the following rules:
𝑞(𝑥)
a) Distinct linear factor rule
𝑝(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵
For each factor of 𝑞(𝑥), say (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑), then = +
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑐𝑥+𝑑
NB: The factors of 𝑞(𝑥) can be more than two.
b) The Linear factor rule
For each factor of 𝑞(𝑥) of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚 , where 𝑚 ≥ 1, include in the sum the 𝑚 terms
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑚
1 + 2 + ⋯+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑚
where 𝐴1, 𝐴2 ,… , 𝐴𝑚 are unknown coefficients.
c) The Irreducible quadratic factor rule
For each factor of q(x) of the form (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is irreducible and 𝑛 ≥ 1, include in
the sum the 𝑛 terms
𝐵1 𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝐵2 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝐵𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑛
2 + 2 2 +⋯+
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑛
where 𝐵1 ,𝐶1 ,𝐵2 , 𝐶2, … , 𝐵𝑛 ,𝐶𝑛 are unknown coefficients.

Step 4
Determine the unknown coefficients (𝑨𝒊 , 𝑩𝒊 ,𝑪𝒊 ):
a) Clear the obtained equation of fractions
b) Equate the coefficients of like terms (powers of x).
c) Solve the resulting equations for the coefficients.
Now that the rational function has been written as a sum of partial fractions and the values of the coefficients have been
obtained, we can integrate the rational function by integrating the sum, i.e
𝑝(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴𝑛 𝐴1 𝐴𝑛
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( +⋯+ ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑛 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑛

REMARK
There is an alternative procedure of finding the unknown coefficients but this method works if the factors of the
denominator, 𝑞(𝑥) are linear. The procedure states:
a) Find the zeros of 𝑞(𝑥) after factorizing it.
b) Clear the obtained equation of fractions.
c) Substitute the zeros in a) one at the time and solve the equation for the unknown coefficients. In the case where
the number of zeros is less than the number of partial fractions (since some zeros are of certain multiplicity), the
remaining unknown coefficients are obtained by substituting any value of x in the equation and solving the
resulting equation.

Page 5 of 6
Examples
Decompose each of the following integrand as sum of partial fractions and evaluate the integral.
𝑥−8 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥3 + 4 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1
1. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 2. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 4. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 − 1) 2 (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥2 − 4 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 + 1)

4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 10 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 11
5. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 6. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 7. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 5) 𝑥2 − 4 (𝑥 + 2) 3

Page 6 of 6