Chapter – 07

Integrals
Memory Tips

Integration is defined as the inverse process of differentiation.

The process of finding a function from its derivative is called integration.
d
If dx {g(x)} = f(x), then g(x) is called an integral or a primitive or anti-derivative of f(x) and is
denoted by ∫ f(x) dx.
In general, ∫ f(x) dx = g(x) + c
Algebra of Indefinite Integrals:
i. ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐
ii. ∫ 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
iii. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
iv. ∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐
v. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
Some Standard Formulae:
𝑥 𝑛+1
1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
1
𝑛+1
+ 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ −1 JK
2. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑥| + 𝑐
RA

3. ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐
4. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
EN

5. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
6. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
H
EP

7. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 . 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐

8. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
ST

𝑎𝑥
9. ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
log 𝑎
10. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥

𝑎𝑚𝑥
11. ∫ 𝑎𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑚 log 𝑎
1
12. ∫ 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
1
13. ∫ √1−𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 = − cos −1 𝑥 + 𝑘
1
14. ∫ 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 = − cot −1 𝑥 + 𝑘
1
15. ∫ |𝑥|√𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 + 𝑐 = − cosec −1 𝑥 + 𝑘
−1
Methods of Integration:
We have the following methods of integration.
✓ Integration by substitution
✓ Integration by parts
✓ Integration of rational algebraic functions by using partial fractions.
Integration By Substitution:
If 𝑔(𝑥) is a continuously differentiable function, then to evaluate integrals of the form

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∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
We substitute 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑡 and 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
These substitutions reduce the above integral to ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
After evaluating this integral we substitute back the value of 𝑡.
Some Formulae:
1 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
1. ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ −1.
𝑛+1
1
2. ∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
3. ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
4. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
5. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cot(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
6. ∫ sec(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
7. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) cot(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
8. ∫ tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 log|sec⁡(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)| + 𝑐
1
9. ∫ cot(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 log|sin⁡(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)| + 𝑐
1
10. ∫ sec(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 log|sec(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)| + 𝑐
1
11. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 log|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) − cot⁡(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)| + 𝑐
JK
RA

1 𝑎𝑚𝑥+𝑏
12.∫ 𝑎𝑚𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 +𝑐
log 𝑎
1
13. ∫ 𝑒 𝑚𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑒 𝑚𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑐
EN

1 1
14. ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 log|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐
H

𝑓′(𝑥)
EP

15. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐

𝑓′(𝑥)
16. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2√𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
ST

√𝑓(𝑥)
Evaluation of Integrals of the type
∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙 , 𝒐𝒓 ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒎𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
To evaluate integrals of the above form, we use the following trigonometrical identities.
2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 cos 𝐵 = cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 sin 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵), where 𝐴 > 𝐵
Evaluation of Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙, the following substitutions are useful.
(𝑖) If the exponent of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is odd, put 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑡.
(𝑖𝑖) If the exponent of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 is odd, put 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑡.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) If the exponents of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 both are odd, put either 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑡 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑡.
(𝑖𝑣) If the exponents of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 both are even integers, then 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 in terms of
sines and cosines of multiples of 𝑥 by using trigonometric results.
(𝑣) Let the integral is either of the forms ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Then put
1−cos 2𝑥 1−cos 2𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 −sin 3𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥+cos 3𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 =
2 2 4 4

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Integration By Trigonometric Substitution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1. ∫ √𝑎2 = sin−1 + 𝑐
−𝑥 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 −1 𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 = tan 𝑎 +𝑐
𝑎

𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ √𝑥 2 = log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
+𝑎2

𝑑𝑥
4. ∫ √𝑥 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
− 𝑎2

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
5. ∫ = sec −1 𝑎 + 𝑐
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥−𝑎
6. ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 = 2𝑎 log |𝑥+𝑎| + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑎+𝑥
7. ∫ 𝑎2−𝑥 2 = 2𝑎 log |𝑎−𝑥| + 𝑐
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 (𝒑𝒙+𝒒)𝒅𝒙 (𝒑𝒙+𝒒)𝒅𝒙
Evaluation of Integrals of the type ∫ 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 , ∫ , ∫ 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 , ∫
√𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 √ 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
To integrate ∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 or ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 , make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 unity by taking the numerical
+𝑏𝑥+𝑐
coefficient of 𝑥 2 outside. Complete the square in terms containing 𝑥 by adding and subtracting
the square of half the coefficient of 𝑥. Use the proper standard form.
(𝑝𝑥+𝑞)𝑑𝑥 (𝑝𝑥+𝑞)𝑑𝑥
To integrate ∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 , ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2
Put 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝐴
𝑑
+𝑏𝑥+𝑐
(𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝐵 = 𝐴(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐵
JK
𝑑𝑥
RA

Obtain the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵 by equating the coefficient of like powers of 𝑥 on both sides.
The above two steps are taken to break the given function into two functions such that in one,
EN

the numerator is the derivative of the denominator, and in the other numerator is a constant.
Integration By Partial Fraction:
H

𝑃(𝑥)
A function of the form , where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials in 𝑥, is called a rational
EP

𝑄(𝑥)
algebraic function.
ST

If the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑄(𝑥), then the function is called proper otherwise
called an improper function/ fraction.
𝑥 4 −3𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1
Consider an improper fraction 𝑥 2 +𝑥+3
(𝑥 2 +𝑥+3)(𝑥 2 −4𝑥+5)+(5𝑥−14)
=⁡ 𝑥 2 +𝑥+3
5𝑥−14
= (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5) + ⁡ 𝑥 2 +𝑥+3
An improper fraction is expressible as the sum of a polynomial and proper function.
The decomposition or split of proper rational function as the sum of simpler fractions is called
resolution into partial fractions
𝑃(𝑥)
Let 𝑄(𝑥) is a proper function. Depending on the factors of 𝑄(𝑥), three cases arise.
1. To each non–repeated linear factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) of 𝑄(𝑥), there corresponds a partial fraction of
𝐴
the form 𝑎𝑥+𝑏, where 𝐴 is a constant independent of 𝑥.
2𝑥+3 𝐴 𝐵
For example: (4𝑥+7)(7𝑥−8) = ⁡ 4𝑥+7 + ⁡ 7𝑥−8

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2. For a repeated linear factor, (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 , there corresponds partial fraction of the form
𝐴𝑟 2𝑥+3 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
, where 𝑟 = 1, 2, 3, … . , 𝑛. For example, =⁡ +⁡ +⁡
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑟 (𝑥+3)2 𝑥+3 (𝑥+3)2 (𝑥+3)3
3. To each non–repeated quadratic factor 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 of 𝑄(𝑥), there corresponds to a partial
𝐴𝑥+𝐵
fraction of the form 𝑝𝑥 2+𝑞𝑥+𝑟.
2𝑥+3 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
For example, (𝑥 2+2)(𝑥 2+3𝑥+1) = ⁡ 𝑥 2 +2 + ⁡ 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1
Integration By Parts:
If 𝑢 and 𝑤 are two differentiable functions of 𝑥, then
𝑑( 𝑢𝑤) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑(𝑢𝑤) − 𝑤 𝑑𝑢
Integrating, ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑢𝑤 − ∫ 𝑤 𝑑𝑢
⇒ ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑑𝑤 − ∫(𝑑𝑢 ∫ 𝑑𝑤)
⇒ ∫ 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 − ∫(𝑑𝑢 ∫ 𝑣) , where 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑤
This rule is called the rule of “integration by parts” and is used to integrate the product of two
functions.
In other words, the Integral of the product of two functions
= first function × Integral of second function − Integral of { derivative of first function ×
integral of second function}
JK
We can choose the first function as the function which comes first in the word 𝑰𝑳𝑨𝑻𝑬, where
𝐼 − stands for the inverse trigonometric functions
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𝐿 − stands for the logarithmic functions

𝐴 − stands for the algebraic functions
EN

𝑇 − stands for the trigonometric functions

H

𝐸 − stands for the exponential functions

Integrals of The Form ∫ 𝒆𝒙 {𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇′(𝒙)}𝒅𝒙
EP

We have ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 {𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)}𝑑𝑥

ST

= ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ {𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥} 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′(𝑥)𝑑 𝑥 + 𝑐
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
Remember: ∫ 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 {𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥)}𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
Some Important Integrals:
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
1. ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = ⁡√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + ⁡sin−1 + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎
𝑥 𝑎2
2. ∫ √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 2 ⁡√𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 + ln|𝑥 + √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 | + 𝑐
2
𝑥 𝑎2
3. ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 2 ⁡√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − ln|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
4. ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
5. ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Definite Integral:
𝑏
The definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) over [𝑎, 𝑏] is denoted by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

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 𝑏
We have defined ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 as the area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the
ordinates 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 and 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus:
Let 𝑓 be a continuous function defined on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝐹 be an anti-derivative
𝑏
of 𝑓. Then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ⁡ [𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).
The numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are respectively called the lower limit and upper limit of integration. The
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is called the interval of integration.
Properties of Definite Integral:
𝑏 𝑏
1. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥 = ⁡ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) ⁡𝑑𝑡
𝑖. 𝑒. integration is independent of the change of variable.
𝑏 𝑎
2. (Order of integration):∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥
𝑎
3. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑏 𝑏
4. ∫𝑎 𝑘⁡𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘⁡ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥⁡, 𝑘 is a constant.
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
5. ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ⁡ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥⁡ ± ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
6. (Additivity):∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ⁡ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ⁡ ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥, where 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏.
This property can be generalized into the following form.
𝑏 1 𝑐 2 𝑐
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + ∫𝑐𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥 ,
𝑏
JK
RA

where 𝑎 < 𝑐1 < 𝑐2 < ⋯ < 𝑐𝑛 < 𝑏

Learn to Heart:
EN

𝑏 𝑏
 If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function defined on [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 = ⁡ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
 If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function defined on [0, 𝑎], then ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 = ⁡ ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥
H

 If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous function defined on [−𝑎, 𝑎], then

EP

𝑎
𝑎 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓⁡𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠⁡𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 =⁡{ 0
ST

0,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑖𝑓⁡𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠⁡𝑜𝑑𝑑
 If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous function defined on [0, 2𝑎], then
𝑎
2𝑎 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ⁡𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓⁡𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
∫0 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 =⁡{ 0
0,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑖𝑓⁡𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Some Facts:
 Use constant in Integration.
1
 ∫ 𝑥 ⁡𝑑𝑥 ⁡ ≠ ⁡ ∫ 𝑥 −1 ⁡𝑑𝑥

 At the time of using Partial Fraction degree of the numerator must be less than the degree
of the denominator. Otherwise, Divide and reduce the degree of the numerator.
 Students are not able to select which one is a function and which one is its derivative.
 Students are not able to identify the first function and second function in integration at
the time of using by parts.

5|Page

PREPARED BY, K. STEPHEN RAJ -9943361320