Computers in

Human Behavior
Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879
www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Technology-enhanced language learning:

A case study
Shu Ching Yang *, Yi-Ju Chen
Graduate Institute of Education, National Sun Yat-sen University, 70 Lien-hai Road, Kaohsiung 80424,
Taiwan, ROC

Available online 29 March 2006

Abstract

This study explores participant views regarding the integration of Internet tools in language learn-
ing activities. The descriptive study has illustrated the perceptions of a class of senior high school
students regarding language learning in a technology environment. The subjects were 44 10th-grade
male students and their teacher who together joined a technology-enhanced language learning
(TELL) project in Taiwan known as ‘‘Advanced Joint English Teaching’’ (AJET). The students par-
ticipated in six Internet-based teaching activities; group e-mailing, a Web-based course, an e-mail
writing program, English homepage design, video-conferencing and chat room discussion. This
study found that the AJET project provided the students with an opportunity to experience new
technologies; learners experienced the pleasure of learning and thus increased their learning possibil-
ities. The students liked and approved of learning English using the Internet, but had differing opin-
ions about its benefits. The study demonstrated that learners bring different perspectives to TELL,
and that learners who are passively oriented towards Internet English learning require careful guid-
ance from pedagogical applications to this approach. Making students aware that learning English
through multimedia technology demands new learning strategies and self-directed learning is a cru-
cial first step. Some pedagogical suggestions are provided for effectively using computer networking
in second- and foreign language classrooms.
! 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: EFL; Technology-enhanced language learning; Internet-based teaching; Student attitudes

*
Corresponding author. Fax: +886 7 5255892.
E-mail address: shyang@mail.nsysu.edu.tw (S.C. Yang).

0747-5632/$ - see front matter ! 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.02.015
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 861

1. Introduction

Learning English is mainly an attempt to communicate with individuals. Because effec-

tive teaching is based on communication, the goal of English teaching is exactly the same,
namely to develop the ability of students to communicate with people in a new language in
real world situations (Brown, 1987; Ommagio, 1986; Oxford, 1990; Widdowson, 1978).
However, the Taiwanese language environment, which primarily is dominated by Chinese
languages, does not provide learners with a real and natural English environment. Conse-
quently, learners can only learn English through regular class teaching, radio broadcasts,
television, newspapers, magazines, and so on. Most learners study English through
repeated recitation and rote memorization. Furthermore, in most Taiwanese high school
English classes, the prevalent mode of instruction is based on large-groups, teacher-
dominated grammar-translation methods, and exam-oriented textbook-based lectures.
Students thus acquire knowledge in a decontextualized way. Therefore, it is difficult for
learners to practice what they have learned flexibly in daily life. Moreover, class sizes
are too large, there are limited opportunities for individual students to contribute or com-
municate one-on-one with teachers or classmates.
The arrival of the Internet could offer a turning point in English teaching methodology
(Ganderton, 1998; Hellebrandt, 1999; Kelm, 1992; Lee, 1997; Sanaoui & Lapkin, 1992;
Van Handle & Corl, 1998; Warschauer, 1996). Internet technology has a global reach
and provides extensive international resources. The Internet enables English learners to
access useful language resources and communicate directly with native English speakers.
In the first case, learners can practice applying information, while in the second case, they
can overcome the decontextualized predicament of English learning. Students can learn
listening, speaking, reading and writing English integratively via real worlds situations.
Students can also broaden their international perspectives, learn diverse knowledge forms,
and appreciate and accept different cultures.
As part of its standards for foreign language learning, the American Council on the
Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) advocated applying the ‘‘five Cs’’ in language
learning: communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities. Commu-
nication lies at the heart second language study. Language and culture are inextricable and
interdependent, and understanding target language culture improves understanding of the
language. Connections refer to bridges to other disciplines and information acquisition,
expanding learner ideas of ‘‘content-area’’ reading and functional writing across disci-
plines. Comparisons relate to the development of insights regarding the nature of language
and culture via student comparisons between the language being studied and their own
language. Finally, communities describe learner participation in multilingual communities
at home and around the world. The tools and resources available on the World Wide Web
(conferencing, e-mail, whiteboard, streaming ‘‘plug-in’’ technologies, etc.) offer excellent
opportunities for cultivating the five Cs through multimodal channels (listening, speaking,
writing, reading, and communicating). The Web provides an effective forum for dialogue
on issues that enhance or challenge the community. Comprising a vast global system of
voluntarily interconnected networks with literally millions of documents, resources, dat-
abases and various communication mechanisms, Internet technology serves as an intrinsi-
cally motivating device and a natural platform for developing the five Cs.
Recently, by leveraging the power of Internet technology, the Taiwanese Ministry of
Education has actively provided impetus to experimental long-distance teaching
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programs. Advanced Joint English Teaching (AJET) is one of the Internet English teach-
ing programs focusing on Taiwanese junior high and high school students. AJET goes to
considerable efforts to create Internet technology as an intrinsically motivating device and
a natural platform for achieving the above-mentioned five Cs, in addition to achieving
information literacy in language learning instruction. The current investigation focuses
on one of the pilot studies regarding the application of AJET.
The language, literacy and humanities literature contains a growing body of research and
discussion on the use of Internet technology as a learning tool for educational purposes.
However, most studies regarding the use of Internet technology as a tool for mediating
language learning in context are more promotional than research-based. Furthermore, most
previous studies used small groups of college students (or higher education) as research
subjects. The application of technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) to Taiwanese
high school students in big classes has rarely been studied. Additionally, most related studies
have examined the use of just one technological element, and studies regarding student per-
ceptions have been mainly focused on using computer-mediated communication via e-mail
or networking. This study describes student perceptions regarding the use of various multi-
media technologies in a particular course. Specifically, this study reports the perceptions of
senior high students in a basic English class during the first year of implementation of AJET.
The students participated in six Internet-based teaching activities; group e-mailing, a Web-
based course, an e-mail writing program, English homepage design, video-conferencing and
chat room discussion.
This research project explores participant views regarding the integration of Internet
tools in language learning. The participants comprised 44 male 10th-grade students and
a male teacher from one senior high school class. The study examined the gap between ide-
als and reality using an Internet-based English teaching project, and probes feasible meth-
ods of performing similar programs in future. Through a case study involving the Internet
English Teaching program, the researchers would like to provide a basis for the qualitative
analysis of high school students in Taiwan using Internet technology to learn English. The
insights gained via this small study can help EFL teachers to design better learning envi-
ronments in terms of classroom management, assessment and curriculum design. Some
feasible methods and related recommendations for practicing Internet English teaching
in Taiwan are developed.

2. Literature review

The use of multimedia technology for foreign language instruction has expanded rapidly
during the past two decades. Studies of the influence of technology-enhanced instruction on
language learning have also appeared in growing numbers (Abrams, 2002; Al-Jarf, 2004;
Blasszauer, 2001; Brandl, 2002; Chikamatsu, 2003; Jogan, Heredia, & Aguilera, 2001; Mes-
kill & Anthony, 2005; Muehleisen, 1997; Osuna & Meskill, 1998; Salaberry, 2001; Schwien-
horst, 2004; Warschauer, 1995, 2000; Weininger & Shield, 2003; Yang, 2001). Previous
research indicates that computer-mediated language learning can facilitate communication,
reduce anxiety, encourage oral discussion, develop the writing/thinking connection, nurture
social or cooperative learning, promote egalitarian class structures, enhance student moti-
vation, facilitate cross-cultural awareness, and improve writing skills. In light of these posi-
tive effects, an increasing number of ESL/EFL teachers have embraced multimedia
technology. For example, various studies have examined the use of computer-mediated
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 863

communication via e-mail or networking, video-conferencing, Web-based projects and pen

pal activity, while some studies have focused on specific elements of language skills (namely,
reading, listening, speaking, and writing), or cultural awareness, and some have reported
student or instructor perceptions of technology-enhanced language learning.
Researchers have reported that student writing skills can be improved via networked
computers. Foreign language teachers integrate e-mail-based activities into their curricu-
lum (Hertel, 2003; Knight, 1994; LeLoup, 1997; Warschauer, 1995). For example, interna-
tional key pal projects that enable students to correspond with native speakers of the
target language are easily implemented provided, the participants have the necessary
access, equipment, and foreign contacts. While examining peer response through net-
worked computers in writing classrooms, researchers have reported that Web-based
response is easier than face-to-face response, being characterized by more participation,
more discussion during interactions, more feedback, and gradually increased confidence
(Beauvois, 1998; Braine & Yorozu, 1998; Cononelos & Oliva, 1993; Curtis & Roskams,
1999; Davis & Thiede, 2000; Hartman et al., 1991; Kivela, 1996; Ortega, 1997). Research-
ers who have compared small group interactions in oral and network-based modes have
shown increased participation in electronic classroom discussions (Sullivan & Pratt,
1996; Warschauer, 1996). In reviewing early research on innovative use of networked com-
puters in language learning, Beauvois (1998) found that students in networked writing
projects demonstrated more fluid conversation. ESL learners might have more time to
think, phrase responses, and participate in networked writing.
Regarding communication skills, Lee (2002) completed a pilot study using synchronous
electronic chats combined with task-based instruction to boost learner communication
skills. Lee demonstrated that computer-mediated communication using less structure-
controlled but more open-ended exchange significantly impacted the language learning
process. In studying electronic mail as a medium for foreign language study and instruc-
tion, Lunde (1990) reported that students of Japanese enrolled in computer mediated com-
munication projects improved reading comprehension.
Furthermore, follow-up interviews in Beauvois (1994) revealed that many students
expressed increased confidence in speaking. The conversational aspect of writing via the
network may have helped students to routinize certain expressions, thus promoting the
development of automatic structures that assists speaking. In a case study of an ESL
senior secondary course integrating computer networking, Sanaoui and Lapkin (1992)
also found that ‘‘considerable growth occurred in French-speaking skills, and possibly also
in listening and reading comprehension, which implies that an explicit focus on one area
can have an effect on the other skills’’ (p. 544).
Regarding the effect of video-conferencing on language learning, Glisan, Dudt, and
Howe (1998) found that video-conferencing technology improved Spanish listening com-
prehension skills, but the time on task variable remained the key influence. Coverdale-
Jones (2000) observed both advantages and disadvantages to using video-conferencing
as form of communication for language learning. The advantages included (a) ability to
communicate with people from other parts of the world, (b) cheaper than traveling over-
seas to seek language practice opportunities, (c) more interactive and personal than e-mail/
chat, (d) easy to see who you are talking to and establish a rapport, (e) ability to see the
other party making it more personal than fax, telephone, and e-mail. The disadvantages
included (a) impersonal, (b) difficult to use with a group because of the one-way audio sys-
tem, (c) lack of clarity in understanding, (d) frequent problems with unclear (fuzz) picture
864 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879

and unstable communication, and (e) time lag-connection/link problems, including unsta-
ble volume and being cut-off. A study of student perceptions of a video-conferencing pro-
ject involving students of German and native speakers in Germany (Coverdale-Jones,
2000) revealed that students viewed video-conferencing as a reduced form of communica-
tion compared to face-to-face interaction.
Previous studies have also reported that internet technology provides equal opportunity
to all learners (Everett & Ahern, 1994; Lamy & Goodfellow, 1999; Ortega, 1997; Pratt &
Sullivan, 1994; Warschauer, 2000). Online discussion encourages learners to voice opin-
ions and provide feedback, leading to more interactive dialogue being built into the learn-
ing experience as learners need not concern themselves with pronunciation issues or worry
about oral communication in the target language (Beauvois, 1992; Kivela, 1996). Simi-
larly, Beauvois (1998) reported on her experiment involving electronic mail and com-
puter-assisted classroom discussion among 41 college-level French students, and found
that local area networks appear to encourage student discussion.

3. Methodology

3.1. Advanced Joint English Teaching

The Advanced Joint English Teaching (AJET) program was designed by the Computer
and Network Center of the Ministry of Education and approved for use by the Bureau of
Education of Kaohsiung City Government and National Sun Yat-sen University. AJET
was established in 1997 and is the forerunner of the present Experimental Website for
Internet virtual school of learning English. AJET is designed for the various empirical lev-
els of interdisciplinary teaching for promoting the incorporation of Internet technology
into the language curriculum and providing opportunities for cultural exchange via tele-
communications. The simple philosophy of AJET is to raise the teaching of English in
K-12 schools to a higher dimension. AJET attempts to ‘‘bring to life’’ English education
by focusing on the practical use of English as a communication medium.
The AJET program is based on whole language and constructive theory, and leverages
an abundance of tools and resources on the Web that provide learners with opportunities
to use and create, and furthermore, to own the language. The idea of the AJET program is
to provide students with an English learning environment, with the objective of applying
the language students have learned in an authentic context, to communicate, and to nur-
ture student language competence. The objective of the program is to improve the English
speaking, reading, and writing ability of students through videoconferences, writing e-
mail, having online discussions, and so on. With the continuous expansion of the AJET
program, dozens of high schools have participated in the experiment. Moreover, activities
on designated topics have been conducted in cooperation with Australia, Japan, England,
Rumania, Macedonia, Uganda, etc. (see Fig. 1).

3.2. Participants

This study examined a senior high school class and their teacher where the class was one
of the first to join the AJET program in Taiwan. Following practicing language teaching
for 10 years, the instructor joined the AJET program and worked on a scheme for inno-
vative Internet-based English teaching. The instructor integrated Internet technology into
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 865

Fig. 1. AJET homepage.

the curriculum, and required the students to apply this technology extensively in their pro-
jects. The instructor selected the technology and the course assignment, and acted as a
guide during the activities. The 44 study participants were 10th-grade students from a sin-
gle boy’s senior high school. Twelve percent of the sample had previously never used the
Internet. Meanwhile, the remaining 88% had experience of using one or more Internet
platforms (BBS, WWW, and e-mail).

3.3. Instructional design

The instructor included two activity types in the AJET program, asynchronous and
synchronous activities. Asynchronous activities included film discussion and composition,
designing personal web pages, and a Web-based course. Meanwhile, synchronous activi-
ties included chat rooms and video-conferencing.

3.3.1. Asynchronous activities

3.3.1.1. Web-based courses and projects. In this project, groups of students were asked to
conduct Web-based research projects. The project aimed to familiarize students with gen-
eral computer use and to help them understand the Web, with the ultimate goal of using
search engines to gather required information. Students were involved in tasks and pro-
jects that required them to learn how to use the Web for general research purposes, for
example searching for information and creating text and materials for their projects. Stu-
dents selected one of four textbook themes, such as eating out, reading signs, festivals, and
Halloween. Each group gathered topic-related information from the Internet or other
sources and wrote reports. Students could create their projects in whatever format they
prefered. Restated, they can assemble and compose information they found from the
Web or book references in whatever artful or creative format they like. Meanwhile, they
could publish their reports on the Web for sharing with other groups.

3.3.1.2. Group e-mailing. The students were divided into so-called pen pal groups, each
containing eight students. Each group contained four students from the sample class
866 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879

and four other students from another class in a girl’s high school. At the beginning of the
semester, the students greeted one another and introduced themselves via electronic cards.
The students then met their pen pals via videoconference. Next, they freely exchanged
their opinions or conducted discussions regarding topics of interest. The students thus
practiced using English to communicate with others.

3.3.1.3. Film discussion and composition (e-mail writing program). In this activity, the stu-
dents were instructed on how to write an English article and were provided with scaffold-
ing. During the first week, the students watched the movie Romeo and Juliet. Students
then exchanged their perspectives and opinions regarding the movie with pen pals by
e-mail. Students then engaged in a more profound discussion of certain subjects in the
movie, including love, kinship, friendship, hatred, dilemmas and so on. Students could
also search and gather data via the Internet to assist them in producing compositions
on the life of Shakespeare or the era and background of the story. Simultaneously, teach-
ers followed the weekly course schedule to guide students in the appropriate sequence of
the theme sentence and summary, and helped students to develop skills in expanding para-
graphs and connecting the text. The activity also allowed students to correct each other’s
compositions along with their pen pals’. Eventually, the corrected compositions were
handed over to the teachers and published on the personal web pages of their authors.

3.3.2. Synchronous activities

3.3.2.1. Videoconference. To offer learners further real-life linguistic experiences, AJET
has incorporated two types of synchronous activities into the Web-based courses, i.e.,
ELT chat rooms and video-conferencing. The video-conferencing procedure uses ISDN
to connect directly with the participating school. Teachers guide students in discussing
topics with students in other schools, providing them with the opportunity for oral English
practice. The discussion topics included self-introduction, earthquakes, animal protection,
Christmas Eve, and wishes for the millennium.

3.3.2.2. Chat room discussion. Chat room discussion primarily used the chat room in the
Internet Virtual School of AJET to encourage students to communicate in English. The
lesson was preceded by introducing topics on film and composition, Web-based courses
and information display. During the investigation, students discussed two themes, their
resolutions for the new year and the final exam. The chat room discussion was performed
in two sessions, each lasting for 30 min. The discussion participants included students of
two other high schools besides the sample school.

3.4. Data collection

This study adopted both qualitative and quantitative analysis. Data collection included
questionnaires, interviews, e-mails, and document analysis (Web projects, online discus-
sion, student’s works, etc.). Questionnaires and interviews were administered following
the study. After project completion, a questionnaire was administered to elicit relevant
information on participant perceptions of, and attitudes towards Internet English projects.
Follow-up interviews with students and the teacher were also gathered at the end of the
research to understand their reflections regarding the project. The first part of the survey
dealt with background information on using the Internet. Meanwhile, the second part
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 867

comprised statements about self-evaluations regarding curriculum, implementation, self-

performance, and so on, indicating levels of agreement or disagreement on a five-point
Likert-type scale, with five indicating strong agreement and one indicating weak agree-
ment. Moreover, the third part included open questions asking students to give their
thoughts about the project. Students were asked to describe the difficulties they encoun-
tered in working on the project. Students were also asked about the most positive features
of the course, and about the benefits of using the Web to learn English. The students com-
pleted the questionnaire in either Chinese or English, according to personal preferences.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Learner performance of AJET activities

4.1.1. Exhibition of student works

Following one semester of Internet learning activities, students displayed notable learn-
ing achievements on their personal web pages. The designs of student web pages were
diverse and imaginative (see Figs. 2 and 3). As the learners obtained information from
the Web, they demonstrated their problem-solving skills and their skills in analyzing
and synthesizing information. These experiences enabled learners to participate in the
culture of the target language, in turn enabling them to learn how cultural background
influences world view. Some students used colorful, animated cartoons and comic book
characters as backgrounds; some used dark colors as a background, matching the theme
and content of the articles, and thus create an unusual atmosphere; some put photographs
on the web page; finally, others designed intricate structures with rich content, specialized
articles and abundant links. Regarding web page content, the student web pages generally
contained a self-introduction, articles on film and composition, group projects from the
Web-based course, English idioms assigned by teachers and introductions and links to
other teaching Web sites. Furthermore, based on their personal interests, numerous
students added specialized articles with different themes to their web pages, including

Fig. 2. Design of student web page on environment conservation.

868 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879

Fig. 3. Design of student web page on the millennium.

environmental protection, endangered animals, favorite movies, idols, sports and leisure
activities, reports on the millennium, New Year’s resolutions, and so on.

4.1.2. Synchronous activities

This investigation incorporated two types of synchronous activities in the Web-based
courses; video-conferencing and chat rooms, to offer learners more reality based linguistic
experiences. The two activities placed less emphasis on learning tasks compared with other
activities. The incorporation of interactive video-conferencing and online chatting made
language instruction more varied and helped maintain high interest and motivation.
The two activities were designed to give learners a feel of how technology can facilitate
language learning, and provided learners the chance to demonstrate their communicative
competence and gain real and personal linguistic experiences.
Regarding student evaluations of their participation, some reported that they were
involved more in the videoconferences than the other AJET activities. One-fifth of stu-
dents had different perceptions. Although they were very interested in this activity, they
did not see it as helpful in terms of improving their language competency. These students
believed that those who were actively involved in the discussion already had good English.
Factors prohibiting their participation included lack of courage to speak out, lack of time
preventing everybody from participating, and difficulties in English listening or speaking.
For example, one learner commented that
what happened in the videoconference was that only a few got to talk, and they were
the ones with good English. Those with poor English, like myself lacked the courage
to speak out and did not have the chance to practice since there were only 50 min
and 40 students. (S5)
These findings corroborate the discussion of Coverdale–Jones regarding the advantages
versus disadvantages of using video-conferencing technology, and particularly her remark
that although video-conferencing technology contributes strongly to communication
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 869

authenticity, ‘‘we cannot simply transfer typical classroom activities, in which it is

relatively easy for the tutor to intervene and to direct the flow of the interaction, to the
videoconference, where communication factors are subject to external influences of the
‘‘technology/medium’’ (p. 36, 2000).
Regarding chat rooms, students visited chat rooms to see how they were designed and
discussed the topics of new year’s resolutions and the final exam as scheduled. Although
some viewed the feature as an appealing option for group or course communication, some
were enthusiastic about sharing ideas or considered it as a good social activity. However,
chat rooms maybe the first attempt for most learners; learners felt that the activities per-
formed in such an environment were interesting and helpful for learning English. How-
ever, some learners indicated that they had problems keeping up because of slow
typing, difficulty in sorting out individual threads, and inability to maintain a conversation
owing to poor writing proficiency.

4.1.3. Film discussion and composition

As part of this project, AJET arranged an event for students to e-mail pen pals and con-
ducted a film discussion writing activity. After watching the movie Romeo and Juliet and
participating in 4 weeks of task-based pen pal discussions, students wrote their reports (see
Fig. 4). Some students expressed their opinions regarding romance in the movie. More-
over, some students praised and criticized the performances of the actors. Some students
also talked about their favorite characters. Finally, others mentioned the special dialogue
in the script.
The survey revealed that students sent their AJET assigned pen pals an average of 2.1
e-mails per week. The most active students send 20 e-mails per week compared with just
one e-mail per week for the least active students. Individual students differed markedly in
their e-mail communications. For example, the group of students who sent just one e-mail

Fig. 4. Design of student web page on Romeo and Juliet composition.

870 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879

per week, sent just four e-mails during the whole semester. The goal of helping these students
to practice English thus was not fulfilled. Further interviews with these learners found the
following reasons for their sporadic e-mailing: slow typing, slow English writing, poor
English, no responses from partners, no writing habits, etc. Students in this group said:

! . . .I type slowly, in fact I am afraid of typing; also I have difficulty writing about general
topics in English. (S5)
! Sometimes I am afraid my writing is not good enough in terms of both content and
wording (such as grammar, word choice and organization). To leave a good impression
on my partners, I spent time checking my writing using a dictionary. But this is time
consuming and I have other tasks to do. (S14)
! It is frustrating when your pen pal does not respond to you, it makes me unwilling to
write. . .. (S23)
! I think it is troublesome to write and send e-mail. I wrote three mails to each pen pal
discussing Romeo and Juliet, but only two replied, each with just one e-mail. This both-
ered me. How come there is no response! (S12)
! Maybe I simply do not like to write to someone I am not familiar with? This is a
personal quirk, I simply am not accustomed to doing this. (S35)

Moreover, some students compared chain letters to junk mail, and said that they lacked
patience to read them. Some learners were worried especially about their partners laughing
at their writing due to it containing grammatical errors or poor ideas. However, some
learners perceived value in pen pal discussions. These learners felt that they could think
of more ideas through working together with partners. These learners believed that their
writing skills improved when assessing the general effect of technology-enhanced activities
on writing skills, since they shared their fresh insights, thoughts and feelings about the plot
and characters of the movie. Such a learner-centered, process-focused approach differs
from the formal and serous nature of academic composition, placing a greater emphasis
on error avoidance, and grammatical accuracy gives them a more carefree, functional,
entertaining and informative writing experience. Group-emailing activities also expanded
the reading process by providing new perspectives from other readers. Given the varied
learner perceptions of the e-mail project, future activities should provide additional scaf-
folding to low-achieving and low-confidence students.

4.2. Learner self-evaluations of AJET activities

Student evaluations of their performance were measured to clarify how learners per-
ceive their experiences of the usefulness of technology in learning a foreign language (See
Table 1). Regarding learner satisfaction with their own performance in the learning
activity: satisfaction with the videoconference activity was lowest, indicating that
video-conferencing leaves much to be desired, followed by satisfaction with group e-
mailing. Meanwhile, web page design had the highest satisfaction. Notably most learners
enjoyed incorporating text, graphics, animation, sound, voice, music, still pictures, and
motion video into their designs, and were particularly enthralled with the video, audio,
and animation components of multimedia. The diverse group projects on the Web dem-
onstrate that each group strove to use multimedia in their projects. The students devel-
oped presentations that integrated relevant text, animation, and sound. They viewed
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 871

Table 1
Students self-evaluation of AJET activities
Activity I felt satisfied about I am interested in the I think the activity
myself in. . . following activity contribute to my
language learning
Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank
Group e-mailing 3.2 0.96 4 3.7 0.94 3 3.9 0.82 2
Film discussion and composition 3.5 0.84 2 3.3 0.82 5 4.2 0.78 1
English homepage design 3.6 0.95 1 4.2 0.90 1 3.8 0.74 3
Web-based course 3.3 0.82 3 3.5 0.81 4 3.8 0.97 3
Videoconference/chatting 2.9 1.06 5 3.9 1.15 2 3.5 0.82 5

homepage design as a learning playground where they could explore information in a

playful way.
Student self-reports of their interests in AJET activities revealed that most students
were most interested in creating personal web pages. Other AJET activities such as film
discussion, composition and pen pals received lower priority interest scores even though
students thought that these activities were very conducive to English learning. The varia-
tion between the perceived importance of activities and student willingness to put effort
into these activities also suggests something of a paradox when faced with this innovative
English learning method. This discrepancy may result from the high time commitment
required for the film discussion, composition and pen pal activities, or alternatively may
represent a need among certain groups of students for more personalized interaction with
an instructor.
The phenomenon appears opposite to video-conferencing. Although they found it inter-
esting, a handful of students thought that this activity had the least helpful design in terms
of improving their English ability. Problems included slow Internet connections, time lags,
slow transmission speed leading to the screen freezing, and interrupted connections. More-
over, 50 min of video-conferencing did not offer learners sufficient opportunity to intro-
duce themselves. Time was taken during class to set up the equipment. Hence, the effect
of video-conferencing was watered down. For students, the difficulties appeared to
outweigh the potential benefits. Furthermore, some learners were afraid of expressing
themselves in pubic, while for other learners their limited language skills limited their con-
tributions. Despite this, learners were excited and gained a feeling for the wonderful tech-
nology when talking directly to their peers, and could see, and were seen by, the
individuals they were addressing. The electronic network system provides opportunities
for ‘‘real world’’ communication, enabling immediate cross-cultural information and lan-
guage exchanges with native speakers around the world.
Regarding improving English abilities, most students thought that they had achieved
strong improvements in vocabulary (M = 4.0), reading (M = 3.9), writing (M = 3.7) and
listening (M = 3.6), with smaller improvements in oral expression (M = 3.3). The percep-
tion of improved reading skills with technology lends support to the findings reported by
Beauvois (1994) and Lunde (1990). This finding also verified, since most students believed
that they had learned how to independently find the meaning of difficult words or phrases.
Meanwhile, it is understandable that learners assign a low priority value to speaking skills,
since oral communication was not emphasized during the current semester in comparison
to other language skills. Regarding writing improvement, no explicit writing instruction
872 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879

was provided to the students in this study, nor was there any formal error correction, as in
Beauvois (1998). The writing activity in this course is more experiential and process nat-
ure. In the e-mail project, online chatting and film discussion activities, communication of
meaning and content prevailed over error avoidance, grammatical accuracy, and other
components of writing practice. Notably, while students in this study reported the
improvement in the writing skills, the procedural aspects of writing needed to be empha-
sized via an explicit process-centered approach, and this should be the focus of the next
project.
With respect to other gains from activities, 85% of students agreed that they had
learned computer skills, and that this learning had broadened their horizons. More-
over, 80% of students believed that they had learned fields of knowledge they would
not have otherwise been able to learn, including knowledge of the people, food, cus-
toms, culture, history, and resorts of a country. Students learned to locate and read
English resources on the Internet. Roughly 50% of students agreed that they found
English interesting, and that they had made many friends through the group-emailing
activities.

4.3. Learner evaluations and suggestions for designing and implementing learning activities

An investigation into the reasons for learners liking or disliking an activity from the
survey (see Table 2) shows that the reasons for student fondness for web page design
included: wide visibility, novelty, obvious enhancement of computer skills, and so on.
Meanwile, reasons that students disliked web page design were too time consuming,
incompatibility between the system and software, and other technical difficulties. More-
over, reasons that students liked the pen pal activity were a feeling of warmth and excite-
ment, enhanced writing skills, making friends, and so on. Meanwhile, reasons that
students disliked the activity included too much junk mail, disappointment a lack of
response or feedback from pen pals, boring content, having inadequate due to skills in
English for replying to partners, taking too much time to write English, and not knowing
how to start or maintain a conversation.
While participating in the AJET project, students experienced problems related to
learning support, learning interaction, equipment, the arrangement of activity schedules,
the activity themes, etc. For example, 46% of students mentioned their poor English, with
some specifically indicating insufficient vocabulary, which hindered them from under-
standing the articles or dialogue. The following are student responses regarding their poor
English:

! I am not very good at English. Paul is very good at English, and he actively participated
in chats. When discussing via the Web, other students used difficult words that I did not
understand. (S1)
! As a person who has poor English, I do not know how to express my opinions and thus
I cannot exert myself. My study load is also heavy, and I cannot participate in too many
extra activities. (S25)

Thirty-four percent of the students mentioned computer skills and indicated that they
had difficulties with Web design and information searching. These students tended to
solve problems they encountered by themselves or seek help from friends, and some
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 873

Table 2
Reasons for learners favoring and disliking AJET activities
Activity Reasons for liking activity Reasons for disliking activity
Web page design Showing myself to others Requiring excessive time and energy
Fresh and interesting Incompatible with system and format
Improving personal computer skills
Improving personal knowledge of English
Gaining a sense of accomplishment
Being able to review and learn from the
work of others
Group e-mailing Feelings of warmth and excitement Excessive junk mail
Being able to improve personal English No response from pen pals
ability
Ability to privately express ideas without Boring and non-useful responses from
fear of others R reactions pen pals
Ability to exchange information Inadequate English for express personal
opinions
Improved English writing skills from Writing in English is too time consuming
using the computer to post-e-mail and
bulletin messages
Film discussion/ The movie was great Insufficient English for personal thoughts
composition clearly
Broadening ones’ horizons from Preference for science fiction of action
exchanging thoughts and information movies over romantic movies
Videoconference The new technology was fresh and Too many participants and inadequate
attractive time for the activity
Interesting and stimulating Difficulty in listening to or speaking
English
Very interactive Poor English prevents expression of
personal thoughts
No ideas about what to say in the activity
Lack of courage to speak out
Web-based course The varied information and numerous Report writing required too much time
project resources illustrated by the quality and
vivid images makes reading and learning
English more fun and interactive
Learning many new technical terms
Learned how to search for information
on the Net, and how to organize and
write a report
On-line discussing New and exciting The line on the computer screen is
cluttered, making it unreadable during
online chatting
Fun Too many people were talking
simultaneously, causing the frame to
change fast and causing disconnection
problems
Active, interesting, diverse Some students were ignored because of
the diverse range of subjects and
numerous participants
Increased typing speed
874 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879

students sought the advice of teachers. Furthermore, a further 20% of students high-
lighted the problem of time shortages: five of these students solved the problem by work-
ing through the night. These findings show a conflict between the e-learning project and
the daily school life of the participating students. Regarding equipment, slow Internet
connection, poor quality video equipment, circuit instability, and so on, were frequently
mentioned problems. Learners noted that the rate of transmission of the videoconference
was slow and the screen frequently froze of lagged. The first two themes of the video-
conference, Earthquakes and Animal Protection, failed owing to equipment problems.
Moreover, students hoped that activity design and arrangement would avoid conflicts
with the dates of their school examinations. Students also hoped that the project
N could reduce some activities and provide increased opportunities to work with over-
seas projects. Regarding the themed selection, students were less interested in topics such
as New Year’s resolutions, and the final exam. Some students thought that these topics
were clichéd and suggested using topics that were more diverse, more closely related to
their lifestyle, and more suitable for their age group. Although the topic of animal
protection was thought-provoking and educational, students found that it involved
vocabulary that was too difficult. Students wished to discuss fashionable and practical
topics.

4.4. Overall learner attitudes regarding technology-enhanced language learning of AJET

During the activity, students indicated the difficulties and challenges they faced in work-
ing on the AJET activities. Students also expressed their feelings and difficulties during
interviews. From the questionnaire results, student feelings toward AJET were mostly
positive. Half of the students regarded writing or chatting with pen pals as productive
and enjoyable, though they also saw it as demanding. Few of the respondents felt pres-
sured, frustrated and nervous. When utilizing the Internet for other AJET activities,
46.3% of students felt satisfied, while 34% of students experienced enjoyment and expec-
tation. The percentages of learners who felt pressured, uncertain, or nervous were almost
identical.
Compared with writing or chatting with pen pals, individuals seem to experience stron-
ger negative feeling when participating in other AJET activities (such as, online discussions
and videoconferences). This may be attributed to deadline pressures and other learning
difficulties that students mentioned previously. As one student remarked in responding
to an open-ended question, ‘‘I feel pressured and nervous about speaking over video-con-
ferencing because of my poor English.’’ Meanwhile, other learners remarked on their
learning difficulties, including lack of computer skills, time shortages, lack of passion,
and so on (see Table 3).
When asked if they enjoyed the technology-enhanced language learning approach of
the AJET program, 84% of students agreed that AJET made the course more interesting
and rewarding. Regarding student opinions before and after the project, 80% of students
displayed ‘‘great expectations toward AJET’’ and believed that it would be ‘‘helpful for
learning English.’’ However, this percentage reduced to below 66% following the project,
subsequently rising to 78% when students were asked if they would take another technol-
ogy-enhanced class in English. Most students initially displayed strong expectations and
interest; however, students later encountered difficulties or challenges. Some students
may not have adjusted to the self-directed learning style. Some learners, despite the
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 875

Table 3
Learners feelings toward AJET activities
Writing or chatting with pen pals Joining other AJET activities
Number of student % Rank Number of student % Rank
Enjoyable 20 48.8 3 14 34.1 2
Productive 22 53.7 1 19 46.3 1
Certain 14 34.1 5 11 26.8 4
Enthralled 12 29.3 6 8 19.5
Expecting 17 41.5 4 13 31.7 3
Demanding 21 51.2 2 11 26.8 4
Relaxed 9 22.0 3 7.3
Frustrated 2 4.9 4 9.8
Pressured 8 19.5 10 24.4 5
Nervous 5 12.2 9 22.0 6

learning experience not always being pleasant and enjoyable, still maintained a positive
attitude toward AJET, and believed that the value of the project could not be denied based
on ‘‘small faults’’.
Compared with traditional language learning styles of lecturing, 85% of students
favored technology-enhanced language learning. The reasons for favoring the TELL
innovative learning approach include the active learning style, interactivity, self-control,
motivation and immediate feedback, and ability to learn more diverse and practical
knowledge. Reasons for favoring a traditional teaching style include preference for direct
learning from teacher lectures, traditional learning habits, and regarding traditional
lecturing as much more effective than TELL, time pressures, etc. Sixty-three percent
of students believed that the TELL approach was much more effective than traditional
lecturing approach, 15% preferred a traditional learning style, and the remainder consid-
ered both methods to be effective. Slightly less than half of the learners commented that,
given a choice between a regular class and a TELL approach class such as AJET, they
would favor the latter. Therefore, despite approximately two-thirds of students express-
ing strong interest in the AJET program, some learners still preferred traditional lecture-
style instruction. This discrepancy may result from the high time commitment associated
with the AJET program, or may represent the need of certain students for additional
guidance within their zones of proximal literacy development, more personalized
interaction with an instructor, or more scaffolding to help passive learners become
self-directed.
Generally, most students welcomed the active TELL approach, but they still realized
the value of traditional learning. Student opinions regarding the two different styles of lan-
guage learning are presented below:

! E-learning is motivating and vivid, and traditional teaching styles can help to establish
foundations.

I truly enjoy e-learning. However, e-learning cannot be used alone without traditional
learning styles. Like those learners who cannot use the Internet, e-learning alone feels like
building a house without first building the foundation. Traditional learning styles are still
necessary. (S1)
876 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879

! E-learning is attractive, but I remain attached to traditional learning.

I like e-learning more than traditional learning, and find it much more attractive. How-
ever, traditional learning is more helpful and effective, owing to being a deep-rooted con-
cept. Learning in the classroom is habitual. (S21)

! Favor e-learning, but traditional style is still much effective.

I like e-learning more than traditional learning, and find e-learning more fun and moti-
vating. I believe that e-learning will be adopted in the future. I am a relatively passive lear-
ner, and I must be lectured to. (S3)
I am not saying AJET is ineffective. Maybe it is owing to the pressure we now face as we
have other learning tasks to work with. I cannot become deeply involved in its event. If I
become too involved, I will be unable to focus on other subjects such as mathematics and
physics. (S35)

5. Summary and conclusions

The study investigates student opinions and attitudes toward Internet English learning.
The authors took a critical perspective as observers and researchers and probed the advan-
tages and deficiencies of the technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) project, hop-
ing to learn more about the difficulties of practicing and feasible ways of implementing
Internet English teaching in high schools.
The analytical results indicate that most students liked and approved of English learn-
ing via the Internet, but differed in their opinions regarding its benefits to English learning.
The TELL project enabled the students to experience new technologies, feel the pleasure of
learning and increase their learning opportunities. The TELL project improved student
knowledge of computers and other fields, developed their English abilities, expanded their
interests, and broadened learning range and possibilities. Most learners were positive
about the potential of the Internet and believe that it can promote and enhance language
learning by blending synchronous and asynchronous communications tools, given appro-
priate design and proper functioning. Owing to time limitations, technological malfunc-
tions, a lack of collateral support from administration, channels of communication and
the variety of resources offered by the Internet, the technology was not fully exploited.
The study was significant in that TELL project provides an innovative and creative way
to nurture student language learning, yet not all student participation was highly interac-
tive and assiduous, and the design was not implemented optimally. Although the investi-
gation reveals some areas of weakness in the initial course design, these weaknesses should
not be construed as negative, but rather should be construed as a guide to future curric-
ulum development and as a guide for teachers to help with designing improved activities to
foster collaboration, reflection and dialogue. For example, this study showed that some
students with low language proficiency remained in the stage of absorbing English input
and had difficulties in expressing themselves in English within the short response time
of on-line chat, video-conferencing and other activities. These students needed longer time
to adapt themselves to the environment. While some students enjoyed innovative, high-
tech learning, others preferred a traditional, spoon-fed, lecturing style of learning and
did not make the required effort to benefit from Internet learning.
 S.C. Yang, Y.-J. Chen / Computers in Human Behavior 23 (2007) 860–879 877

Given that students bring differing perspectives to language learning, learners with a
passive or maladjusted orientation toward Internet English learning require careful guid-
ance and intervention from pedagogical applications to this approach. Helping students
understand how technology-based learning differs from the more traditional lecture
approach should be a critical consideration. Moreover, making students aware that learn-
ing English through multimedia technology demands new learning strategies and self-
directed learning may also be a useful first step. Instructors should make students aware
that beneficial intellectual experiences occur owing to their own engagement, negotiation,
efforts, and interest in the learning process. Teachers might promote amicable group
dynamics and support learner initiatives to amplify learner confidence and motivation
to participate.
For the web page design activity, students built artifacts reflecting their learning from the
Internet English project. Students were also encouraged to publish their electronic project
on the Web by incorporating text, graphics, animation, audio, or motion video into their
designs. This activity had the dual advantage of having students learning with technology
as a cognitive tool and allowing them to share what they learned with the rest of the learn-
ing community. However, most students appeared to place more emphasis on the technol-
ogy than on language learning. Possibly operating high-tech equipment such as digital cam
recorders and building Web sites was new and intriguing to them, and so they diverted more
of their energy towards technology learning, or maybe they just found this easier or ‘lower
risk’ than focusing on language learning. Alternatively, students with lower competency in
language and information literacy may have needed further scaffolding to develop their lan-
guage learning skills. Therefore, future designs of computer-mediated language projects
should assign language inquiry precedence over simple technological learning. The TELL
project should enhance student mindfulness and motivation to learn language by designing
appropriate handouts, assignments and assessments to maximize the connection between
language and learning in computer learning environments. Furthermore, the teacher must
be sensitive to the role of background knowledge and be careful in providing coaching and
scaffolding for student language instruction.
Finally, the process of successfully integrating technology into the curriculum begins
with an instructor becoming familiar with the computing infrastructure and collateral sup-
port in the integration process. This study demonstrated that the instructors devoted con-
siderable time and effort to designing Internet applications suited to their course objectives
and requirements. The teacher was committed to the TELL approach, but not yet profi-
cient with workstations and Internet technology, reducing the effectiveness of the language
activities to varying degrees. Given this, collateral support from administration or other
teachers, as well as access to a network of users for supporting and sustaining effective
computer learning, and to help in setting up equipment can help ensure effective use of
computer technology in language instruction.

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