LUSAKA BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE MANAGEMENT BOARD

LECTURER: Mr. Tembo C COURSE: Diploma Electrical

College: LBTC Class: Jan 2021

Subject: Electrical instrumentation Topic: Introduction to measuring instruments

Objective(s) At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. Define instrumentation correctly.

2. Define the performance parameters of an instrument correctly
3. Describe the basic elements of electronic instrument
INTRODUCTION
• Instrumentation is a technology of measurement, which serves sciences,
engineering, medicine etc.
• Measurement is the process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by
comparison with the accepted standards of the system units that is being used.
• Instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
• Electronic instrument is based on electrical or electronic principles for its
measurement functions.
FUNCTION AND ADVANTAGES
• The 3 basic functions of instrumentation :-
– Indicating – visualize the process/operation
– Recording – observe and save the measurement reading
– Controlling – to control measurement and process
• Advantages of electronic measurement
– Results high sensitivity rating – the use of amplifier
– Increase the input impedance – thus lower loading effects

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 – Ability to monitor remote signal
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
• Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the performance of an
instrument.
– Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.
• Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs.
• Two basic characteristics :
– Static – measuring a constant process condition.
– Dynamic - measuring a varying process condition.
TERMINOLOGIES
• Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement compared to
the expected (desired) value.
• Resolution – the smallest change in a measurement variable to which an
instrument will respond.
• Precision – a measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement, i.e
successive reading do not differ.
• Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output (response) of instrument to a change
of input or measured variable.
• Expected value – the design value or the most probable value that expect to
obtain.
• Error – the deviation of the true value from the desired value.

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MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Electrical and Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation
Before the operation of an electrical/electronic apparatus can be studied, it is necessary
to have instruments which will indicate the electrical quantities present. The
instruments used to measure these electrical quantities (e.g. current, voltage,
resistance, power, etc.) are called electrical/electronic instruments. These instruments
are generally named after the electrical quantity to be measured. Thus the instruments
which measure current, voltage, resistance, power are called ammeter, voltmeter,
ohmmeter, and wattmeter respectively. To be satisfactory, these instruments must be
reliable and easily read, as well as having little effect on the circuit to which they are
connected. It is important to appreciate the properties of each instrument and to know
the most suitable instrument for a given measurement or the likely accuracy of a given
instrument when used for a particular measurement. Measurement is a process in
which the property of an object or system under consideration is compared
to an accepted standard unit, a standard defined for that particular property.
In fact, measurement is simply the process by which one can convert physical
parameters to meaningful number. The measurement process involves the use of
an instrument as a physical means of determining the physical quantities. This
measuring instrument exists to provide information about the physical value of some
variable being measured. In general, measuring instruments are those
electromechanical and electronic devices usually employed for measurement of both
electrical and non-electrical quantities like current, voltage, resistance, capacitance,
inductance, temperature, displacement, etc.
Electromechanical Instruments
These comprises of electrical as well as mechanical system, the electrical system usually
depends upon mechanical meter movements as indicating devices and the mechanical
movement has some inertia, therefore these instruments have a limited time (and
hence, frequency) response e.g. recorders, galvanometers etc.
Electronic Instruments
These days most of the scientist and industrial measurements require very
fast response. The inability of the mechanical and electrical instruments to cope with
such requirements led to the design of today’s electronic instruments and their
associated circuitry. These instruments require the use of semi-conductor devices. Since
in electronic devices, the only movement involved is that of electrons, the response
time is extremely smaller account of very small inertia of electrons.

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The most important use of electronic instruments is their usage in measurement of non-
electrical quantities, where the non-electrical quantity is converted into electrical form
through the use of transducers. Electronic instruments have the following advantaged
over their electrical counterparts.

 High sensitizing
 A faster response
 A greater flexibility
 Lower weight
 They can monitor remote signal
 Lower power consumption and a higher degree of reliability than their
mechanical or purely electrical counterparts.

Methods of Measurement
There are a number of ways in which measuring instrument can be classified. One
useful way with electrical and electronic measuring instrument is by the way in which
the measured quantity is displayed as shown in (figure 1.3 a and b) and these are
broadly divided into two.
Analogue Instrument
An analogue instrument is one in which the magnitude of the measured quantity is
indicated by means of a pointer. Instruments of this category include moving coil
instruments, moving non-instruments, oscilloscope, d.c and a.c bridges, megger etc.
Analog instruments: An analog device is one which the output or display is a
continuous function of time and bears a constant relation to its input. Analog
instruments find extensive use in present day application although digital is instruments
are increasing in number and applications. The areas of application which are common
to both analog and digital instruments are fairly limited at present. Hence, it can safely
be predicted that the analog instruments will remain in extensive use for a number of
years and are not likely to be completely replaced by digital instruments for certain
applications. Classification of analog instruments, broadly the analog instrument (and
for that matter digital instrument) may be classified according to the quantity they
measure. For example an instrument meant for measuring of current is classified as an
ammeter while an instrument that measure voltage is classified as a voltmeter. In
addition to above instruments, we have wattmeter, power factor meters, frequency
meters etc. Electrical instruments may also be classified according to the kind of current
that can be measured by them. Electrical instruments may be classified as instrument
for
i. direct current
ii. Alternating current (a.c)
iii. both direct and alternating current instruments (d.c/ac)

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These instruments (e.g. oscilloscope), Analog instruments depend for their operation on
one of the many effects produced by current and voltage and this can be classified
according to which of the effects is used for their working. The various effects used are
listed in table 1.1 Analog instruments are also classified as:
a) Indicating
b) Recording
c) Integrating
The analog indicating instruments may be divided into two groups;
i. Electromechanical instruments,
ii. Electronic instruments.
Electric instrument are constructed by addition of electronic circuits to electromagnetic
indicators in order to increase the sensitivity and input impedance.

The analog instruments may also be classified on the basis of method used for
comparing the unknown quantity (measured) with the unit of measurement. The two
categories of instruments based upon this classification are:

I. Direct measuring instruments:

These instruments convert the energy of the measured directly into energy that
actuates the instrument and the value of the unknown quantity is measured or
displayed or recorded directly. The examples of this class of instruments are
ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeter and energy meters.
II. Comparison instruments:
These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison with a
standard. (Direct measuring instruments are the most commonly used in
engineering practice because they are the most suitable and inexpensive. Also
their use makes the measurement possible in the shortest time). The examples
of comparison types are d.c and A.c Bridge. Comparison type instruments are
used in cases where a higher accuracy of measurement is required. Electrical
instruments may also be classified according to their accuracy class. The limits of
intrinsic error in the measured quantity for instruments for various classes of
accuracy are:

Accuracy class 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.5 5

Limit of error (percent) ±2 ±0.5 ±1 ±1.5 ±2.5 ±5

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Principles of operation:
As mentioned earlier secondary analog instruments may be classified according to the
principle of operation they utilize. The effects they utilize are: (i) magnetic effect (ii)
heating effect (iii) electrostatic effect, (iv) electromagnetic effect and (v) hall effect.

Table 1.1

Effect Instruments

Magnetic effect Ammeter, voltmeters, wattmeter,

integrating meters

Electromagnetic effect Voltmeter

Hall effect
Flux meter, wattmeter, ammeter
Heating effect Ammeters and voltmeters, wattmeter’s

Digital Instruments
A digital instrument is one whose display is presented in the form of a series of decimal
values. Examples of such devices are digital AVOMETER, frequency counters,
inductance meter etc. the digital instrument have the advantages of indicating, the
readings directly in decimal numbers and therefore errors on account of human factors
like error due to parallax and approximation encounter in the analogue are eliminated.
Also power requirements of digital instruments are considerably smaller.

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Fig 1.3 (a) Analog Instrument (b) Digital Instrument
Functions of Electrical/Electronic Instruments
There is another way in which instruments or measurement systems may be classified.
This classification is based upon the functions they perform. The three main functions
employs in electrical and electronic instruments are explained below:

Function of Electrical Instruments

1. Indicating Instruments
These are the instruments which indicate the instantaneous value of quantity being
measured at the time it is being measured. The indication is in the form of pointer
deflection (analogue instrument) or digital readout (digital instrument). In analogue
instruments, a pointer moving over a graduated scale directly gives the value of the
electrical quantity being measured. Ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters are example
of such instruments. For example when an ammeter is connected in the circuit, the
pointer of the meter directly indicates the value of current flowing in the circuit at that
time. In most indicating instruments, three distinct forces are essential for the
satisfactory indicating of the pointer on a dial. These forces are:
1. A deflecting (or operating) torque
2. A controlling (or restoring) torque
3. A damping torque

Deflecting Torque (Td)

It is the torque which deflects the pointer on a calibrated scale according to the
electrical quantity passing through the instrument. This deflecting torque causes the
moving system, and hence the pointer attached to it, to move from its zero position, i.e.
its position when the instrument is disconnected from the supply. The deflecting torque
can be produced by utilizing any of the effects mentioned earlier. Thus the deflecting
system of an instrument converts the electric current or potential into a mechanical
force called deflecting torque
Controlling Torque (Tc)
It is the torque which controls the movement of the pointer on a particular scale
according to the quantity of electricity passing through it. The controlling forces are
required to control the deflection or rotation and bring the pointer to zero position when
there is no force, or stop the rotation of the disc when there is no power. Without such
a torque, the pointer would swing over to the maximum deflected position irrespective
of the magnitude of current or voltage being measured. The functions of the controlling
system are;
1. To produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting torque at the final
steady position of the pointer definite for a particular magnitude of current. In
the absence of a controlling torque, the pointer will shoot (swing) beyond the
final steady position for any magnitude of current and thus the deflection will be
indefinite.
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 2. To bring the moving system back to zero when the force causing the instrument
moving system to deflect is removed. In the absence of a controlling torque the
pointer will not come back to zero when current is removed.
In indicating instruments, the controlling torque, also called restoring or balancing
torque, is obtained by one of the following two methods:
i. Spring control
ii. Gravity control

Damping Torque
It is the torque which avoids the vibration of the pointer on a particular range of scale,
such a damping or stabilizing force is necessary to bring the pointer to rest quickly,
otherwise, due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer will oscillate about its final
deflected position for quite some time before coming to rest in the steady position.
When a deflecting torque is applied to the moving system, it deflects and it should
come to rest at a position where the deflecting force is balanced by the controlling
torque. The deflecting and controlling forces are produced by systems which have
inertia and, therefore the moving system cannot immediately settle at its final position
but overshoots or swings ahead of it. Consider fig 1.4 suppose 0 is the equilibrium or
final steady position. Because of inertia the moving system moves to position „a‟. Now
for any position „a‟ beyond the equilibrium position the controlling torque is more than
the deflecting torque and hence the moving system swings back. Due to inertia it
cannot settle at „0‟ but swings to a position say „b‟ behind the equilibrium position. At
„b‟, the deflecting torque is more than the controlling force and hence the moving
system again swings ahead. The pointer thus oscillate about its final steady
(equilibrium) position with decreasing amplitude till its kinetic energy (on account of
inertia) is dissipated in friction and therefore, it will settle down at its final steady
position. If extra force is not provided to “damp” these oscillations, the moving system
will take a considerable time to settle to the final position and hence time consumed in
taking readings will be very large. Therefore, damping forces are necessary so that the
moving system comes to its equilibrium position rapidly and smoothly without any
oscillations.

Fig. 1.4 Oscillations of pointer

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There are three types of damping:
 Air – friction damping
 Fluid – friction damping
 Eddy – current damping

2. Recording Instruments
Recording instruments are those instruments which give a continuous record of
variations of the electrical quantity being measured over a selected period of time. The
moving system of the instrument carries an inked pen which rests tightly on a graph
chart e.g. recording voltmeter are used in substations to record the variation of supply
voltage during the day. Also recording ammeters are employed in supply stations for
registering the amount of current taken from batteries.
3. Integrating Instruments
These are instruments which measure and register by a set of dials and pointers, either
the total quantity of electricity (in ampere – hours) of the total amount of electrical
energy (in watt hours or kilowatt hours) supplied to a circuit over a period of time e.g.
ampere – hour meters, watt-hour meters, energy meters etc.

Function of Electronic Instruments

Functionally, different instruments may be divided into the following three categories
1. Indicating Instruments
These are the instruments which indicate the instantaneous value of quantity being
measured at the time it is being measured. The indication is in the form of pointer
deflection (analog instruments) or digital readout (digital instruments). Ammeters and
voltmeters are examples of such instruments.

2. Recording Instruments
Such instruments provide a graphic record of the variations in the quantity being
measured over a selected period of time. Many of these instruments are
electromechanical devices which use paper charts and mechanical writing instruments
such as an inked pen or stylus.

Electronic recording instruments are of two types:

 Null type – which operate on a comparison basis e.g. Bridge circuit,
potentiometer (see fig 1.5a)

Fig 1.5a POTENTIOMETER

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  Galvanometer type – which operate on deflection type as shown in fig.1.5 a &
b e.g. ammeter, voltmeter

Fig.1.5 (a) AMMETER Fig. 1.5 (b) VOLTMETER

3. Controlling Instruments
These are widely used in industrial processes. Their function is to control the quantity
being measured with the help of information fed back to them by monitoring devices.
This employed in science and industry.
Essentials of an Electronic Instrument
As shown figure 1.6, an electronic instrument is made up of the following three
elements.
i. Transducer
It is the first sensing element and is required only when measuring a non-
electrical quantity say, temperature or pressure. Its function is to convert the
non-electrical physical quantity into an electrical signal. Of course, a transducer is
not required if the quantity being measured is already in the electrical form.
ii. Signal Modifier
It is the second element and its function is to make the incoming signal suitable
for application to the indicating device. For example, the signal may need
amplification before it can be properly displayed.
Other types of signal modifier are: voltage dividers for reducing the amount of
signal applied to the indicating device or wave shaping circuits such as filters,
rectifiers or choppers etc.
iii. Indicating Device
For general purpose instruments like voltmeters, ammeters or ohmmeters, the
indicating device is usually a deflection type meter as shown in figure 1.6. In
digital readout instruments, indicating device is of digital design.
Principles of Operating of Electrical Instruments
All electrical measuring instruments depend for their actions on one of the many
physical effects of an electrical current or potential and are generally classified
according to which of these effects is utilized in their operation. The effects generally
utilized are:
a. Magnetic Effects: - For ammeters, voltmeters, usually
b. Electrodynamics Effect: - For ammeters, voltmeters but particularly for
wattmeters.
c. Electromagnetic Effect: - For ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters and watt-hour
meters
d. Thermal Effect: - For ammeters and voltmeters
e. Chemical Effect: - For D.C ampere-hour meters

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 f. Electrostatic Effect: - For voltmeters only.

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