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lecture3-mechanics-handout

The document discusses dimensional analysis and Newton's laws of motion, providing examples such as the period of a pendulum and Kepler's third law. It explains the importance of dimensional consistency in equations and introduces the concept of frames of reference in classical mechanics. Additionally, it covers the Principle of Equivalence, stating that inertial mass equals gravitational mass.

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6 views

lecture3-mechanics-handout

The document discusses dimensional analysis and Newton's laws of motion, providing examples such as the period of a pendulum and Kepler's third law. It explains the importance of dimensional consistency in equations and introduces the concept of frames of reference in classical mechanics. Additionally, it covers the Principle of Equivalence, stating that inertial mass equals gravitational mass.

Uploaded by

ajaykumargoalagoala
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Classical Mechanics

LECTURE 3:
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS &
NEWTON’S LAWS
Prof. N. Harnew
University of Oxford
MT 2016
1
OUTLINE : 3. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS & NEWTON’S
LAWS

3.1 Dimensional analysis


3.1.1 The period of a pendulum
3.1.2 Kepler’s third law
3.1.3 The range of a cannon ball
3.1.4 Example of limitations of the method

3.2 Newton’s Laws of motion

3.3 Frames of reference

3.4 The Principle of Equivalence

2
3.1 Dimensional analysis
I A useful method for determining the units of a variable in
an equation
I Useful for checking the correctness of an equation which
you have derived after some algebraic manipulation.
Dimensions need to be correct !
I Determining the form of an equation itself
Most physical quantities can be expressed in terms of
combinations of basic dimensions. These are certainly not
unique :
I mass (M)
I length (L)
I time (T)
I electric charge (Q)
I temperature (θ)
3
Note: The term "dimension" is not quite the same as "unit", but
obviously closely related.

Quantity Unit Dimension

Frequency Hertz (Hz) = (cycles) s−1 T −1


Force Newton (N) = kg m s−2 MLT −2
Energy Joule (J) = N m = kg m2 s−2 ML2 T −2
Power Watt (W) = J s−1 = kg m2 s−3 ML2 T −3
Current Ampere (A) = Cs−1 QT−1
EMF Volt (V) = Nm C−1 = kg m2 s−2 C −1 ML2 T−2 Q−1

Dimensional analysis is best illustrated with examples.

4
3.1.1 The period of a pendulum
How does the period of a pendulum depend on its length?
I Variables: period P, mass m, length l,
acceleration due to gravity g
I Guess the form: let P = k m a ` b g c
(k is a dimensionless constant)
I T 1 = M a Lb (LT −2 )c = M a Lb+c T −2c
I Compare terms:
a = 0, b + c = 0, −2c = 1
→ c = −1/2, b = 1/2
q
`
P=k g
q
`
We know that P = 2π g : we obtained this form using dimensions
and without using equation of motion: IMPRESSIVE !
5
3.1.2 Kepler’s third law
How does the period of an orbiting mass depend on its radius?
I Variables: period P, central mass M0 , orbit
radius r , Gravitational constant G
I Guess the form: let P = k M0a r b G c
(k is a dimensionless constant)
I Dimensions of G → (MLT −2 ).L2 M −2
I T 1 = M a Lb (M −1 L3 T −2 )c
= M (a−c) Lb+3c T −2c
GmM0 mv 2
I
r2
= r
I Compare terms:
2πr
a − c = 0, b + 3c = 0, −2c = 1 I v= P
4π 2 3
→ a = −1/2, c = −1/2, b = 3/2 I P2 = GM0 r
−1/2 3/2 k2 3 → k 2 = 4π 2
P = k M0 r G−1/2 → P2 = GM0
r
6
3.1.3 The range of a cannon ball
A cannon ball is fired with Vy upwards and Vx horizontally, assume no air resistance.
I Variables: Vx , Vy , distance travelled along
x (range) R, acceleration due to gravity g
I First with no use of directed length dimensions
I Let R = kVxa Vyb g c .
(k is a dimensionless constant)
I Dimensionally L = (L/T )a+b (L/T 2 )c
I Compare terms:
a + b + c = 1 and a + b + 2c = 0, which leaves one
exponent undetermined.
I x = vx t
I Now use directed length dimensions , then Vx will be
dimensioned as Lx /T , Vy as Ly /T , R as Lx and g as I y = vy t − 21 gt 2
Ly /T 2
=0
I The dimensional equation becomes:
Lx = (Lx /T )a (Ly /T )b (Ly /T 2 )c 2vy
→t = g
→ a = 1, b = 1 and c = −1.
2vx vy
I x= g
vx vy
R=k g
7
3.1.4 Example of limitations of the method

I Let y = f (x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) where x1 , x2 , . . . xn have


independent dimensions
I However in general y = (x1a x2b . . . x n ) φ(u1 , . . . uk ) where ui
are dimensionless variables

Extend to how the period of a rigid


pendulum depends on length pivot to CM.
I In actual fact P ≡ P(g, `, m, I) where I
is the moment of inertia
I [I] = ML2 → can define u = I
m`2
q
`
T = g
φ(u) q
I
T = 2π mg`
i.e. Equation is not reproduced
8
3.2 Newton’s Laws of motion

I NI: Every body continues in a state of rest or in uniform


motion (constant velocity in straight line) unless acted upon
by an external force.
I NII: The rate of change of momentum is equal to the
applied force; where the momentum is defined as the
product of mass and velocity (p = mv). [i.e. the applied
force F on a body is equal to its mass m multiplied by its
acceleration a.]
I NIII: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the
second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body [i.e.
action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.]

9
3.3 Frames of reference

I A frame of reference is an environment which is used to


observe an event or the motion of a particle.
I A coordinate system is associated with the frame to
observe the event (eg the body’s location over time).
I The observer is equipped with measuring tools (eg rulers
and clocks) to measure the positions and times of events.
I In classical mechanics, time intervals between events is
the same in all reference frames (time is absolute).
I In relativity, we will need to use space-time frames.
I A reference frame in which NI is satisfied is called an
inertial reference frame.
10
Inertial reference frames
A frame in which Newton’s first law is satisfied:
I Deep space
I The Earth? [Only in circumstances where we can ignore gravity
& the spin of the Earth.]
Principle of Relativity : The laws of Physics are the same in all
inertial frames of reference.

At t = 0, x = 0, x 0 = 0 and S and S 0 are coincident.

Galilean Transformation of coordinates:


I x 0 = x − v0 t, y 0 = y , z 0 = z, t 0 = t

I Velocity of a body v in S; velocity measured in S 0 v 0 = v − v0


I Acceleration measured in S 0 a0 = a
I Hence F 0 = F (consistent with the principle of relativity)
11
3.4 The Principle of Equivalence

I The Principle of Equivalence dictates that m = m∗ .


I Inertial mass = Gravitational mass
I This may seem obvious, but it was not an original postulate
of Newton

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