PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

MODULAR APPROACH

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE TOPICS PAGE

NO./EXERCISE NO NUMBER
MODULE 1 Electronic Communication 2
EXERCISE NO. 1 5
MODULE 2 Noise 6
EXERCISE NO. 2 10
MODULE 3 Resonance, Filters, Impedance 11
Matching
EXERCISE NO. 3 15
MODULE 4 Amplitude Modulation 16
EXERCISE NO.4 23
MODULE 5 Angle Modulation 24
EXERCISE NO. 5 29
MODULE 6 Pulse Modulation 30
EXERCISE NO.6 31

Miscellaneous Topics:

 Broadcasting
 AM
 FM
 TV

 Acoustics

Disclaimer:

The professor does not own some contents, illustrations, and pictures of this module.
Full credits are given to the sources.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 MODULE 1
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

OBJECTIVES:

Define key terms in electronic communication.

Revisit the history of electronic communication.
Identify the different transmission modes.
Familiarize the types of multiplexing and multiple access.

ELECTRONIC COMMMUNICATION

 It is the transmission, reception, and processing of information between 2 or more

locations using electronic circuits.

Ex: TV broadcasting

 BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

o 1837 – Samuel Morse invented the telegraph system.
o 1866 – James Maxwell discovered the electromagnetic waves
o 1876 – Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone
o 1886 – Heinrich Hertz discovered radio waves
o 1896 – Guglielmo Marconi conducted the first transatlantic communication by
radio
o 1936 – Edwin Armstrong invented FM radio

 RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

RANGE DESIGNATION APPLICATION

30-300 Hz ELF Power transmission
300-3kHz VF telephony
3kHz- 30kHz VLF
30k- 300kHz LF
300k-3MHz MF AM
3M- 30MHz HF
30M-300MHz VHF TV/FM
300M-3GHz UHF CELLULAR
3G- 30GHz SHF RADAR
30G-300GHz EHF

 BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

o TRANSMITTER – converts the information into a signal suitable for transmission

o RECEIVER – accepts the information and converts it back to its original form
o CHANNEL – the medium of the signal.
o NOISE – any unwanted signal that interferes the communication signal.
o BANDWIDTH – the range of frequencies occupied by a signal.
o BASEBAND – the frequency band of the information
o BROADBAND – the frequency band occupied by a modulated signal
o DISTORTION- any undesirable change in the information during reception of the
signal

 TRANSMISSION MODES

 SIMPLEX – one- way only

Ex: AM/TV broadcasting

 HALF DUPLEX – two -way but not simultaneous.

EX: citizen’s band (CB) radio

 FULL DUPLEX – two- way and simultaneous

EX: cellular radio

 FULL/FULL DUPLEX – It can be received and transmitted using different stations.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

MULTIPLEXING

 It is the process of simultaneously transmitting two or more individual signals over a

single communications channel.
 It is the transmission of information from one or more source to one or more destination
over the same transmission medium.

Ex: telephone systems

 MULTIPLEXER (MUX)

 It is the circuit that accepts n inputs and only one output. It is usually seen at the
transmitter side.
 It is called as the “data selector” or “combiner”.

 DEMULTIPLEXER (DEMUX)

 It is a circuit that accepts one input and has 2 or more outputs.

 It is usually seen at the receiver side.
 It is called as the “data distributor”or “splitter”.

 TYPES OF MULTIPLEXING
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)

 Transmissions from multiple sources occur on the same facility but not at the
same time.
 Transmissions are interleaved in the time domain.
Ex: TV programming

 DIGITAL CARRIER SYSTEM

 It is a communication system that uses digital pulse rather than analog signals to
encode information.

Note: T- stands for TRANSMISSION

 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM)

 It is a multiplexing technique wherein the multiple signals are transmitted

simultaneously but the entire bandwidth is divided into several frequency
channels.
 Each frequency channel is called as subdivision.
 Each carrier is of different frequency.
 It used to deal with analog information.
Ex.TV channels

TYPES OF MULTIPLE ACCESS

 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (FDMA)

 A method of multiple earth stations accessing technique where a given RF

bandwidth is divided into smaller frequency bands called subdivisions.

 TYPES OF FDMA

1. Fixed Assignment Multiple Access

 The assignment of capacity is distributed in a fixed manner among multiple

stations.

2. Demand Assignment Multiple Access

 Capacity assignment is changed as needed to respond optimally to demand

changes among multiple stations

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA)
 Each earth station is allotted a fixed time slot (epoch) within a TDMA time
frame, occupying essentially the entire wideband frequency spectrum for the
allocated time.

 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

 It is referred to as the spread spectrum multiple access.
 Each station’s transmission is encoded with a unique word called CHIPs.

 TYPES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES

1. DIRECT SEQUENCE
 A pseudorandom code is generated in the transmitted as chips and is added
to the information signal.
2. FREQUENCY HOPPING
 A sequence of code is assigned to different carrier frequencies.

Note: The purpose of spread spectrum techniques is to secure the communication link

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 EXERCISE NO. 1

Name: __________________ Date: __________

Course & Year: __________ Instructor:___________

Encircle the LETTER of the BEST answer. No erasure. Show all solutions for problems.

1. If the measured wavelength is 6m, solve the frequency in MHz.

a. 25MHz c. 10MHz
b. 50Mhz d. 100MHz
2. If several musical instruments are playing the same note, you should be able to
distinguish one instrument from another because of which characteristic?
a. Frequency c. intensity
b. Overtones d. quality
3. _____ is a multi-channel capacity that is between 1.544Mbps and 45Mbps according to
US standards.
a. Wideband c. baseband
b. Narrowband d. broadband
4. What percentage of the audio passband does a high fidelity CD quality music occupy?
a. 66.67% c. 43.25%
b. 74.82% d. 50%
5. What is the wavelength for a color in the middle of the visible light band if the visible light
frequency range is from 0.39PHz to 0.79PHz?
a. 5000nm c. 50nm
b. 5nm d. 500nm
6. What percentage of the VHF band does a 6-MHz TV occupy?
a. 2.2% c. 8.8%
b. 4.4% d. 1.1%
7. The transmission of radio waves was first done by.
a. Marconi c. Bell
b. Maxwell d. Hertz
8. In FCC former designation, P0 means ______.
a. Telephony, Pulse width modulated
b. Telephony, amplitude-modulated
c. Digital voice modulation
d. RADAR
9. In FCC former designation, A9B means ______.
a. Facsimile c. telephony or telegraphy with ISB
b. TV with vestigial sideband d. telephony;SSBRC
10. The operational word “I have completed my communication and do not expect to
transmit again”means
a. Over c. copy
b. Out d. roger

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 MODULE 2
NOISE

OBJECTIVES:

Identify the categories, classes, and types of noise.

Familiarize the parameters of noise analysis.
Solve problems related to noise.

NOISE

 It is any undesirable signal that falls within the pass band of the information
(intelligence).

 CATEGORIES OF NOISE:

o UNCORRELATED NOISE- it is present regardless of whether there is signal or

not.
o CORRELATED NOISE – it cannot be present in a circuit unless there is an input
signal.

 CLASSES OF UNCORRELATED NOISE

o EXTERNAL NOISE – it is generated outside the device itself.

Ex: lightning

o INTERNAL NOISE – it is generated inside the device or circuit.

Ex: noise from semiconductor device

 TYPES OF EXTERNAL NOISE

1. ATMOSPHERIC NOISE

Ex. Lightning

2. EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE

Ex: solar flares

3. MAN-MADE NOISE

Ex: running motor

 TYPES OF INTERNAL NOISE

1. Shot Noise – It is caused by the random arrival of the carriers at the output of the
element.

2. Transit Time Noise – it is due to the passing of carriers from the input to the
output.

3. Thermal Noise- It is associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons
within the conductor.

 TYPES OF CORRELATED NOISE

1. Harmonic Distortion – it is due to the unwanted harmonics of a signal caused by

nonlinear amplification.

2. Intermodulation Distortion –it is caused by the generation of unwanted sum and

difference frequency when 2 or more signals are amplified.

3. Impulse Noise – It is characterized by high amplitude peaks of short duration in the total
noise spectrum.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 4. Interference – signals from other sources produce frequencies outside their allocated
bandwith.

 PARAMETERS OF NOISE
 NOISE POWER

N= kTB

Where:

N= noise power, watts

K= Boltzman’s constant, 1.38x10-23 J/K
T= absolute temperature, Kelvin
B= bandwidth, Hz

 NOISE VOLTAGE

VN= √ (4kTBR)

Where:

VN= noise voltage

R = load resistance, Ω

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. For an electronic device operating at a temperature of 17 degrees Celsius with a

bandwidth of 10KHz, solve for:

a. Thermal noise power in dBm

b. rms noise voltage for a 100Ω load resistance.

2. Convert the power level of 13dBm to watts.

 SIGNAL- NOISE POWER (S/N)

S/N (dB) = 10log (S/N)

S/N(dB) = 20log (Vs/Vn)

Where:
S= signal power Vs= signal voltage
N= noise power Vn= noise voltage

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. For an amplifier with an output signal power of 10W and an output noise power of 0.01W,
solve the S/N (dB).

2. For an amplifier with an output signal voltage of 4V, an output noise voltage of 0.005V, solve
the S/N (dB).

3. The resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series at 300K and 400K respectively. If R1 is 200
Ω and R2 is 300Ω, solve the total noise voltage. The bandwidth is 10MHz.

4. An amplifier operating over a 5MHz bandwidth has 100Ω input resistance. It is operating at
27◦C.It has a voltage gain of 200 and an input signal of 6𝛍Vrms. Solve the output noise voltage
in rms.

 NOISE FACTOR & NOISE FIGURE

 NOISE FACTOR (F) = it is the ratio of the S/N at the input to the S/N at the output of
a circuit.

F= (S/N )i/ (S/N)o

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  NOISE FIGURE (NF) =the figure of merit of a communication system with respect to
noise.

NF= 10log F

 FRIISS’ FORMULA

F = F1+( F2-1)/A1+(F3-1)/A1*A2+….. + (Fn-1)/A1*A2*….*An

Where: F= total noise factor,dB

F1,F2,Fn = noise factors, unitless
A1,A2, An = power gains, unitless

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

For 3 cascaded amplifier stages each with noise figure of 3dB and power gains of 10dB,
determine the total noise figure.

 EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPERATURE

Te= 290 (F-1)

Where:
Te= equivalent noise temperature
F= noise factor

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Determine the equivalent noise temperature for a noise figure of 6dB.

 SHOT NOISE CURRENT

IN = √(2q*IDC*B)

Where:

IN = shot noise current, A

IDC = DC bias current, A

q=1.69x10-19 C

B= bandwidth, Hz

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1.A diode noise generator is required to produce 10𝛍W of noise in a receiver with an input
impedance of 75Ω and a bandwidth of 20KHz. Solve the DC bias current of the diode.

2. Given an amplifier with a signal of -3dBm with a noise of -48dBm. What is the signal to noise
in dB?

3.The signal power at the input to the amplifier is 100𝛍W and the noise power is 1𝛍W. At the
output, the signal power is 1W and the noise power is 30mW. What is the amplifier’s noise
figure?

INFORMATION THEORY

 HARTLEY’S LAW – a law which states that the information capacity is directly related to
bandwidth of the signal.

I∞bandwidth* time

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  SHANNON-HARTLEY’S LAW- for any noiseless channel, the channel capacity is:

C= 3.32B*log (1+S/N)

Where: C= channel capacity, bps

B= bandwidth, Hz
S/N = signal to noise ratio

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1.A telephone channel (300-300MHz) has a signal to noise ratio of 32dB. What is the channel
capacity?

2. If the bandwidth in example 15 is doubled, what is the channel capacity needed in keeping
the signal power constant?

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 EXERCISE NO. 2

Name: __________________ Date: __________

Course & Year: __________ Instructor:___________

Solve the given problems. Show all solutions.

1. The noise produced by a resistor is to be amplified by a noiseless amplifier having a

voltage gain of 75 and a bandwidth of 100KHz. A sensitive meter at the output reads
240µVrms. Assuming operation at 37°C, solve the resistor’s resistance. If the bandwidth
were cut to 25KHz, solve the expected output meter reading.
2. Solve the noise current and equivalent noise voltage for a diode with forward bias
current of 1mA over a 1MHz bandwidth.
3. A 3-stage amplifier has an input stage with noise ratio of 5 and power gain of 50. Stages
2 & 3 have noise ratio of 10 each and power gain of 1000 each. Solve the noise figure
for the overall system.
4. A 2-stage amplifier has a 3-dB bandwidth of 150KHz determined by an LC circuit at its
input and operates at 27°C.The first stage has power gain of 8dB and noise NF=2.4dB.
The second stage has power gain of 40dB and NF= 6.5dB. The output is driving a load
of 300Ω. In testing this system, the noise of a 100kΩ resistor is applied to its input. Solve
the input and output noise voltages, noise power, and system noise figure.
5. A microwave antenna (Teq = 25K) is coupled through a network (Teq = 30K) to a
microwave receiver with Teq= 60K referred to its input. Solve the noise power at its
input for a 2-MHz bandwidth. Solve the receiver’s noise figure.

Solutions:

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 MODULE 3

RESONANCE, FILTERS, & IMPEDANCE MATCHING

OBJECTIVES:

Identify the types of resonance.

Solve problems related to resonance.
Familiarize the types of filters.
Design an impedance matching networks.

RESONANCE

 It is a condition wherein the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive

reactance (XL=XC).

 Tuned Circuit
 A circuit made up of inductors and capacitors that resonate at a specific
frequency.
 It is also called as a “resonant circuit”.

TYPES OF RESONANCE

 SERIES RESONANCE
 Series resonance can be achieved by using the series resonant circuit.
R1 L1
1 2

C1

V1
1Vac
0Vdc

QUALITY FACTOR – the figure of merit of a tuned circuit.

Formula:

fr=

Q=

BW=

Where:
fr= resonant frequency,Hz
XL= inductive reactance
BW= bandwidth
Q= quality factor

FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE

fL= fr-

fH= fr+

fr=√(fL*fH)

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  PARALLEL RESONANCE
 It is achieved by using a parallel resonant circuit wherein the inductor and
capacitor are connected in parallel.

L1

C1
V1 1
1Vac R1
0Vdc

Formula

fr=

Q=

Z= Q2R

BW=

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. What is the resonant frequency of 2.7pF capacitor and a 33nH inductor?

2. What value of inductance will resonate with a 12pF capacitor at 49MHz?
3. What is the bandwidth of a resonant circuit with a frequency of 28MHz at a quality factor of
70?
4. The upper and lower cut-off frequencies of a resonant circuit are found to be 8.07MHz and
7.93MHz. Solve each of the ff:
a) Bandwidth c) quality factor
b) Resonant frequency

5. What are the approximated -3dB frequencies of a resonant circuit with a Q of 200 at 16MHz?
6. A series resonant circuit has a Q=150 at 3.5MHz. The applied voltage is 3𝛍V. What is the
voltage across the capacitor?
7. A parallel LC tank circuit is made up of an inductor of 3mH and a wiring resistance of 2Ω. The
capacitor is 0.47𝛍F. Solve each of the ff:
a) fr b) quality factor c) bandwidth

FILTERS

 These are frequency selective circuit designed to pass some frequencies and
reject others.

 General Classes of Filters:

o Active Filters – use active components such as op-amps.
o Passive Filters- use passive components such as resistor, capacitor, inductor.

 TYPES OF FILTERS
o LOW PASS FILTER ( LPF) – it passes signals below its cut-off frequency.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 R1
L1
2 1

1k 10uH
V1
1Vac V2
0Vdc C1 1Vac
1n 0Vdc R2
1k

0
0

o HIGH PASS FILTER (HPF) – it passes signals above its cuf-off frequency.

C1 R2

1
1n 1k
V1
1Vac V2 L1
0Vdc R1 1Vac 10uH
1k 0Vdc

0
0

o BAND PASS FILTER (BPF) –it passes signals within the operating bandwidth

L1 C1
1 2
10uH 1n

V1
1Vac R1
0Vdc 1k

o BANDSTOP FILTER (BSF) – it passes signals outside the operating bandwidth.

L2
1 2
10uH

C2
C1 2
1n 1n
L3
10uH

2 L1
1
10uH C3
1n

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. What is the cut-off frequency of an RC section low pass filter with R=8.2k and C=0.0033𝛍F.

2. What is the closest standard EIA resistor value that will produce a cut-off frequency of 3.4kHz
with a 0.047𝛍F capacitor in a high pass RC filter?

3. For a series band pass filter, solve the value of C if L=33𝛍H at 30kHz.

IMPEDANCE MATCHING

 In order to achieve maximum power transfer from the transmitter to the receiver,
impedance matching must be attained.

 In order to achieve impedance matching, the generator/source’s impedance must be

equal to the load impedance.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  This can be done by inserting an impedance matching network between the source and
the load.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
A 110V generator delivers energy to a load whose values of R and X are adjustable. If the line
impedance is 30+j120 at maximum power transfer, determine each of the ff:
a. receiving load impedance
b. load current
c. power at the load
d. size of the load reactance at f=30kHz

 IMPEDANCE MATCHING NETWORK

 L-MATCHING NETWORK:

Case 1: Rr>Rg
X1

Rg Rr
X2

Case 2: Rg>Rr

X1
Rg Rr
X2

0
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Design an L-matching network that will match the 50Ω coaxial cable and the 1500kHz
antenna whose impedance is 25+j10.

2. A short antenna has an input impedance 20-j5 at 795.77kHz. Design an L-section to match
the antenna to a 600 ohm line.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 EXERCISE NO. 3

Name: __________________ Date: __________

Course & Year: __________ Instructor:___________

Solve the given problems. Show all solutions.

1. Solve the inductor’s Q at 100Mhz. It has an inductance of 6mH and a series resistance
of 1.2KΩ. Also, solve its power dissipation.
2. Solve the capacitor’s Q at 100MHz given 0.001µF and a leakage resistance of 0.7MΩ.
Solve also the dissipation factor for the same capacitor.
3. An FM audio receiver uses an LC bandpass filter with resonant frequency of 10.7MHz
and requires a BW of 200KHz. Solve the Q of this filter.
4. A parallel LC tank circuit has a Q of 60 and coil winding resistance of 5Ω.Solve the
circuit’s impedance at resonance.
5. A parallel tank circuit had L= 27mH, C= 0.68µF, and a coil winding resistance of 4Ω.
Solve the ff:
a. Resonant frequency, fr
b. Quality factor, Q
c. Maximum impedance , Zmax
d. Bandwidth
e. Lower and upper cut-off frequencies

Solutions.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 MODULE 4
AMPLITUDE MODULATION

OBECTIVES

Identify the types of modulation.

Define the parameters of amplitude modulation.
Specify the advantages and disadvantages of AM.
Define key terms of AM
Study the different types of AM
Familiarize the design of the different AM transmitters and receivers.
Solve problems related to AM.

MODULATION

 In the modulation process, some characteristic of a high-frequency carrier signal

(bandpass), is changed according to the instantaneous amplitude of the information
(baseband) signal.

 Why apply MODULATION?

 Suitable for signal transmission at farther distances.

 Multiple signals transmitted on the same channel
 Capacitive or inductive devices require high frequency AC input (carrier) to
operate.
 Stability and noise rejection

 Application Examples

 Broadcasting of both audio and video signals.

 Mobile radio communications, such as cell phone.

 Basic Modulation Types

o Amplitude Modulation: changes the amplitude.

o Frequency Modulation: changes the frequency.
o Phase Modulation: changes the phase angle.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 The amplitude of high-carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous

amplitude of the modulating message signal m(t).
Carrier Signal: cos(2 f ct ) or cos(ct )
Modulating Message Signal: m(t ) : cos(2 f mt ) or cos(mt )
The AM Signal: s AM (t )  [ Ac  m(t )]cos(2 f ct )
 Basic Amplitude Modulation
 The information signal varies the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier .

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 ADVANTAGES OF AM

 Simplicity of design
 Cheaper
 Can propagate through obstacles

DISADVANTAGES OF AM

 More susceptible to noise

 Larger bandwidth
 Requires more power

 MODULATION INDEX

 It is the amount of amplitude change present in an AM signal.

 Modulation index is a measure of the extent to which a carrier voltage is varied by

the modulating signal. When k=0, no modulation, when m=1, 100% modulation,
when k>1 over modulation.

m=

o Highlights of AM
 The AM signal is generated using a multiplier.
 All info is carried in the amplitude of the carrier, AM carrier signal has time-
varying envelope.
 In frequency domain the AM waveform are the lower-side frequency/band (fc -
fm), the carrier frequency fc, the upper-side frequency/band (fc + fm).

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  Total AM Voltage

Vt  Vc 1
m2
2

 Total AM Power

 m2 
Pt  P c

1  

 2 

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. An AM signal has the ff. characteristics: carrier frequency is 150MHz, modulating frequency is
3MHz, peak carrier voltage is 40V, peak modulating voltage is 30V. Calculate the peak voltage
of the lower sideband.

2. Calculate the modulation index for a standard AM transmission if the maximum peak voltage
of the modulated wave is 150V and the modulating signal voltage is 50V peak.

3. An AM transmitter is modulated by 2 sine waves at 1.5kHz and 2.5KHz with modulation of

20% and 80% respectively. Solve the effective modulation index.

TYPES OF AM

 DOUBLE SIDEBAND FULL CARRIER (DSB-FC)

o AM Bandwidth, BW = 2fm

o Sideband Frequency,fsb =fc± fm

o Transmit Power, Pt = Pc (1+ )

o Sideband Power, PUSB = PLSB =

o Transmit Voltage, Vt = Vc √

o Transmit Current, It = Ic √

o Load Voltage, VL = √

o Modulation Index, m= √

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Find the modulation index if a 10V carrier is amplitude modulated by 3 different

frequencies with amplitudes of 1V, 2V, and 3V respectively.

2. A carrier wave with an rms voltage of 2V and a frequency of 1.5MHz is modulated by a sine
wave with a frequency of 500Hz and an amplitude of 1Vrms. Write the equation of the AM
signal.

3. A 1MHz carrier with an amplitude of 1V peak is modulated by a 1KHz signal with m=0.5.
Sketch the voltage spectrum of the AM signal.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

4. CB radio channels are 10KHz apart. What is the maximum modulating frequency that can be
used if a signal is to remain entirely within its assigned channel?

5. An AM broadcast transmitter has a carrier power output of 50kW. What total power would be
produced with 80% modulation?

6. Find the rms voltage and current at the output of a transmitter that has a carrier power of
500W into a load impedance of 50Ω if

a. Without modulation
b. With modulation with m=0.6

7. An RF ammeter in the transmission line from the transmitter to the antenna measures 5A
without modulation and 5.5 A with modulation. What is the modulation index?

8. What will be the total sideband power of an AM transmitting station whose carrier power is
1200W and modulation index of 95%?

9. Calculate the power in one sideband of an AM signal whose carrier power is 50W. The
unmodulated current is 2A while the modulated current is 2.4A.

10. The output voltage of an AM transmitter is 40V when sinusoidally modulated to a depth of
100%. Solve the voltage at each frequency when the modulation depth is reduced to 50%.

11. Solve the modulating voltage of an audio signal necessary to provide 100% modulation of a
100V carrier that is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio waves with m1=75% and m2= 45%.

 DOUBLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC)

o VAM(t) =

o Transmit Power, Pt =

o Sideband Power, PLSB =PUSB =

o Transmit Voltage, VT =
o Transmit Current, IT =

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A DSB- SC system must suppress the carrier by 50dB from its original value of 10W. To
what value must the carrier be reduced?

2. Determine the power saving of a DSB-SC system when the modulation index is 80%.

 SINGLE SIDEBAND FULL CARRIER (SSB-FC)

o VAM(t) = Vc*sin 2¶fct +

o Pt= Pc +

o PLSB = PUSB =

o VT = Vc√

o IT = Ic √

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Assuming 100% modulation for SSB-FC AM system. What would be the transmitted power in
remaining sideband if the carrier is 1000W?

2. A transmitter generates a LSB signal with a carrier frequency of 8MHz. What frequencies will
appear at the output with a 2-tone modulating signal with frequencies 2KHz and 3.5KHz?

3. A certain SSB transmitter is required to transmit a USB signal at a carrier frequency of

21.5MHz. What must be the frequency of the local oscillator if the carrier oscillator’s frequency
is 8.9985MHz?

4. Solve the envelope peak power if the peak to peak voltage is 50V. The load resistance is 50
ohms.

5. A certain SSB Tx operating on the USB with a carrier frequency of 26.9MHz is modulated
with 2 tones at 1kHz and 1.6KHz respectively. Find the output frequencies and the frequencies
of the 3rd order intermodulation products.

 AM TRANSMITTERS

KEY TERMS:

 FREQUENCY AGILITY- the ability of the transmitter to change the operating

frequency rapidly without extensive returning.
 AUTOMATIC LEVEL CONTROL – a circuit for keeping the amplitude of a signal
within prescribed limits.
 DRIVER – the amplifier which supplies the required input power for a power
amplifier.
 DYNAMIC RANGE – the ratio between the largest and smallest signal present in
the transmitter.
 HIGH LEVEL MODULATION – the amplitude modulation of the output element of
the output stage of a transmitter.
 LOW LEVEL MODULATION- the modulation of the Tx at any point before the
output element

 DSB-FC AM TRANSMITTER

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  SSB TRANSMITTER

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. An AM transmitter has an output power of 10W at an efficiency of 70%. How much power
must be supplied by the modulating amplifier for 100% modulation?

2. A collector modulated class C amplifier has a carrier power of 100W and an efficiency of
70%. Calculate the input power and the power dissipation by the transistor with 100%
modulation.

3. An AM Tx is required to produce 10W of carrier power when operating from 15V supply.
What is the required load impedance as seen from the collector?

4. A transistor RF power amplifier operating class C is designed to produce 40W output with a
supply voltage of 60V. If the efficiency is 70%, what is the average collector current?

5. The power amplifier of an AM transmitter has an carrier power of 25W and an efficiency of
70% and is collector modulated. How much audio power will have to be supplied to this stage
for 100% modulation?

 TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (TRF) RECEIVER

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

 IMAGE FREQUENCY – any frequency other than the selected RF carrier that if allowed
to enter will produce a cross product frequency that is equal to the intermediate
frequency.

High Side Injection:

IM = LO+IF

IM= RF + 2IF

Low Side Injection:

IM = LO-IF

IM= RF-2IF

 IMAGE FREQUENCY REJECTION RATIO (IMRR)

IMRR = √

P=

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. An AM receiver has 2 uncoupled tuned circuit before the mixer with Q of 75. The signal
frequency is 100.1MHz. The IF is 10.7MHz. The local oscillator uses a high side
injection. Solve the total image rejection ratio in dB.
2. An AM Rx is tuned to a broadcast station at 600KHz. Solve the IMRR in dB assuming
that the input filter is consists of a tuned circuit with Q of 60.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 EXERCISE NO. 4

Name: __________________ Date: __________

Course & Year: __________ Instructor:___________

Answer each of the following:

1. A 1500KHz radio wave is modulated by a 2KHz sine wave tone, what frequencies are
contained in the modulated wave?
2. If the carrier is amplitude modulated, what causes the sideband frequencies?
3. A 100V carrier is modulated by a 1KHz sine wave. Determine the side frequency
amplitudes when m=0.75.
4. The AC rms antenna current of an AM transmitter is 6.2A when unmodulated and rises
to 6.7A when modulated. Solve the %m.
5. During 100% modulation, what % of the average output power is in the sidebands?
6. An AM transmitter has a 1-kW carrier and is modulated by 3 different sine waves having
equal amplitudes. If the effective modulation index is 0.8, solve the individual values of m
and the total transmitted power.
7. A TRF receiver is to be tuned over the range 550 to 1550KHz with a 25µH inductor.
Solve the required capacitance range. Also, solve the tuned circuit’s necessary Q if a
10KHz bandwidth is desired at 1000Khz. Lastly, solve the receiver’s selectivity at 550
and 1550KHz.
8. If a superheterodyne receiver is tuned to a desired signal at 1000Khz and its conversion
(local )oscillator is operating at 1300Khz, what would be the frequency of an incoming
signal that would possibly cause image reception?
9. A receiver tunes from 20 to 30MHz using a 10.7MHz intermediate frequency. Solve the
required range of oscillator frequencies and the range of image frequencies.
10. A receiver has a dynamic range of 81dB. It has 0.55nW sensitivity. Determine the
maximum allowable input signal.
11. An AM transmission of 1000W is fully modulated. Solve the power transmitted if it is
transmitted as a SSB signal.
12. A SSB transmission drives 121Vpeak into a 50Ω antenna. Solve the peak envelope
power (PEP)

Solutions:

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 MODULE 5
ANGLE MODULATION

OBJECTIVES:

Identify the types of angle modulation.

Define key terms used in FM.
Analyze FM generation and FM reception.
Study phase modulation.
Familiarize a Phase Locked Loop (PLL).
Solve problems related to FM.

ANGLE MODULATION

 It is an analog modulation scheme in which the angle of the carrier is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

 Types of Angle Modulation

 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
 PHASE MODULATION (PM)

FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)\

 It is an angle modulation scheme in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept
constant while its frequency is varied by the modulating signal.

 BRIEF HISTORY OF FM
 1922 – John Carson pioneered the study of AM.
 1936 – Edwin Armstrong researched about FM.

 FM Equation
VT = Vc*cos (2¶ fc + )

Where: δ = frequency deviation, Hz

 FREQUENCY DEVIATION
 It is the amount of frequency shift that occurs when it is acted on by a modulating
signal.

where: kf = modulator’s sensitiivity, Hz/V

Vm= modulating signal peak voltage, V

Signal Frequency of FM:

fsig= fc + sin 2πfmt

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 Note:

1. The amount of frequency shift of an FM signal is directly proportional to the amplitude of

the modulating signal.

2. The rate of frequency shift is proportional to the frequency of the modulating signal.

 FM GENERATION

o REACTANCE MODULATOR – it uses a reactance tube which presents either

inductive or capacitive reactance.

o VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR- it uses a varicap voltage variable capacitor

diode.

o ARMSTRONG MODULATOR – it utilizes a crystal oscillator for frequency stability.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. An FM modulator has a sensitivity of 30kHz/V and operates at a carrier frequency of 175MHz.

Find the output frequency if the amplitude of the modulating signal is 150mV and the modulating
frequency is 10kHz.

2. The same FM signal in ex. 53 is modulated by a 3V sine wave. Solve the frequency deviation.

3. An FM broadcast Tx operates at its maximum deviation of 75kHz. Find the modulation index
if the modulating signal is 15kHz.

 FM RECEPTION

 PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL)

o It utilizes a voltage controlled oscillator.

 SLOPE DETECTOR – the FM signal is turned to the slope of the response curve.

 BALANCED SLOPE DETECTOR – it uses 2 slope detectors.

 RATIO DETECTOR – it uses amplitude limiter.

 FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR – it uses tuned transformer.

FM RECEIVER

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

KEY TERMS IN FM RECEPTION

 SENSITIVITY – it is the minimum RF signal which can be detected at the input of the
receiver.

 SELECTIVITY – the ability of the FM receiver to reject or accept a band of frequencies.

 FIDELITY – ability of the receiver to reproduce the input to the output.

 DYNAMIC RANGE – the input power range over which the receiver is useful.

BANDWIDTH:

BW = 2(δ + fm)

where: δ = frequency deviation

fm= modulating frequency

• DEVIATION RATIO, DR

 The maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the modulating signal.

DR=

CARRIER SWING (CS)

 The difference between the maximum positive and negative deviation of the carrier.
CS= 2δ

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A receiver has a sensitivity of 0.6microV and a blocking dynamics range of 60dB. What is the
strongest signal that can be present without blocking taking place?

2. A receiver has a dynamic range of 85dB. It has 1.5nW sensitivity threshold. Solve the
maximum allowable signal.

3. A PLL FM generator has a reference frequency of 100KHz. A multiplying factor of N=200 and
sensitivity of 50KHz/V. Solve the carrier frequency of the signal

4. What rms modulating voltage will be required for a frequency deviation of 10kHzof the carrier
frequency? The modulator sensitivity is 50Khz/V.

5. An FM system uses a deviation of 100kHz and a modulating frequency of 15kHz. Solve the
bandwidth.

6.Solve the deviation ratio and bandwidth if the maximum frequency deviation is 75kHz and the
modulating signal is 15KHz.

7.Solve the frequency deviation and %modulation under FCC standard for FM for a given
modulating signal that produces 100KHz carrier swing.

 ADVANTAGES OF FM/PM OVER AM

o Noise immunity
o Capture Effect – the receiver will capture the stronger signal.
o Higher power efficiency

 DISADVANTAGES OF FM
o Bandwidth utilization
o Circuit complexity

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

PHASE MODULATION

 It is an angle modulation technique wherein the phase angle of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Note: The maximum phase shift occurs during the zero crossing of the modulating signal.

 PARAMETERS OF PM

o PHASE DEVIATION (θ)

 It is the amount of phase shift that occurs when it is acted on by a
modulating signal.

θ= Vm* kpm

Where:

Kpm = phase deviation sensitivity, rad/V

Vm= modulating signal peak voltage
Modulation Index, m = θmax
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. A phase modulator has a kpm= 2rad/v. What rms voltage of a sine wave would cause a peak
phase deviation of the phase angle by 30˚.

2. A PM modulator has a phase deviation sensitivity of 2.5 rad/V and modulating signal Vm(t)=2
cos (400π t). Solve the maximum phase deviation and modulation index.

KEY TERMS:

 CAPTURE RANGE (ACQUIRE RANGE)

o It is a range of frequency over which the VCO can lock onto a new signal.

 LOCK RANGE (TRACK RANGE)

o It is the span of frequencies over which the phase locked loop (PLL) can
remained lock and track a signal.

 PREEMPHASIS
o The process of boosting the high frequency components of the modulating
signal.

 DEEMPHASIS
o The process of restoring the original level of the modulating signal.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

  PLL ELEMENTS:

 PHASE DETECTOR t is characterized by an output voltage proportional to the

difference in phase between the incoming frequency and the feedback signal.

 VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR (VCO)

o It produces an output signal whose frequency is directly proportional to its input

voltage.
 LOOP FILTER
o It helps establish the proper transient response and the required filtering.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A PLL has a VCO with a free running frequency of 10MHz. As the frequency of the
reference input is gradually raised from zero, the loop locks at 8MHz and comes out of
lock again at 14MHz. Solve the lock range.

2. A PLL has a VCO with a free running frequency of 14MHz. As the frequency is
increased from zero, the loop locks at 12MHz and comes out of lock again at 18MHz.
Solve the capture range.

3. Solve the range of frequencies will the PLL be able to capture and lock if it used a VCO
with a free running frequency of 100KHz. The PLL has a 10% capture range and 20%
lock range.

4. The capture range of a PLL and filter is 12% while the lock range is 18%. The VCO has
a center frequency of 20MHz. Solve the PLL output frequency with an 18.5MHz input.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 EXERCISE NO. 5

Name: __________________ Date: __________

Course & Year: __________ Instructor:___________

Provide each of the following.

1. What is the difference between frequency and phase modulation?

2. Explain what happens to the carrier in FM as the modulation index goes from 0 up to 15.
3. Explain the purpose of the guard bands for broadcast FM.
4. An FM broadcast transmitter is modulated 40% by a 5-KHz test tone. When the
percentage of modulation is doubled, what is the frequency swing of the transmitter?
5. If the output current of an FM broadcast transmitter is 8.5A without modulation, what is
the output current when the percentage of modulation is 90%?
6. What is the purpose of the limiter stage in an FM broadcast receiver?
7. Explain why narrowband FM systems have poorer noise performance than wideband
systems.
8. What is the purpose of the preemphasis in an FM broadcast transmitter?
9. What is the purpose of the deemphasis in an FM receiver?
10. Why is FM undesirable in the standard AM broadcast band?

Answers and solutions:

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 MODULE 6
PULSE MODULATION

OBJECTIVES:

Familiarize the different types of pulse modulation techniques.

Discuss the significance of pulse modulation in digital communication.

Pulse Modulation

 It is the conversion of information into pulse form for transferring pulses from a source to
a destination.
 Methods of Pulse Modulation

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2. Pulse Width /Duration Modulation (PWM/PDM)
3. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
4. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

o It is a method of converting information wherein the amplitude of a constant
width, constant position pulse is varied in accordance to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.

 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

o It is the process where the width of a fixed amplitude pulse varies proportionally
to the amplitude of the analog signal.

 PULSE POSITION MODULATION

o It is a form of pulse modulation where the position of a constant width pulse
within a prescribed timeslot is varied according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

 PULSE CODE MODULATION

o The analog signal is sampled and converted to a fixed length, serial binary
number for transmission. The binary number varies according to the amplitude of
the analog signal.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

 EXERCISE NO. 6

Name: __________________ Date: __________

Course & Year: __________ Instructor:___________

Provide each of the following:

1. Give applications for each of the 4 pulse modulation techniques.

2. Sketch the output waveform for each of the pulse modulation techniques if the input
signal is a sinusoidal wave.

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach

References:

1. Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy and Davis

2. Electronic Communications Systems Fundamentals Through Advanced by Tomasi
3. Electronic Communication by Blake
4. Communication Electronics by Frenzel
5. Electronic Communication by Miller

Principles of Communication: A Modular Approach