1.

Python Basics

1.1. Python Syntax and Variables

 Python Syntax: Python uses indentation to define blocks of code

(instead of {} or ; in other languages).

 Variables: Used to store data values.

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# Example

x = 5 # Integer

y = "Hello, World!" # String

print(x, y)

1.2. Data Types

Python supports several data types:

 int: Integer numbers (1, 2, 3)

 float: Decimal numbers (1.2, 3.14)

 str: Strings ("Hello")

 list: Ordered, mutable collections ([1, 2, 3])

 tuple: Ordered, immutable collections ((1, 2, 3))

 dict: Unordered, mutable collections ({"name": "John", "age": 30})

 set: Unordered, unique items ({1, 2, 3})

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x = 10

y = 20.5

z = "Python"

my_list = [1, 2, 3]

my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 25}

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

my_set = {1, 2, 3}
1.3. Operators

 Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, %, ** (exponent), // (floor division)

 Comparison Operators: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=

 Logical Operators: and, or, not

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x = 10

y=5

print(x + y) # 15

print(x == y) # False

1.4. Control Flow

 if, else, elif: Conditional statements.

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x = 10

if x > 5:

print("x is greater than 5")

elif x == 5:

print("x is 5")

else:

print("x is less than 5")

1.5. Loops

 for loop: Iterates over a sequence.

 while loop: Repeats as long as the condition is true.

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# For loop

for i in range(5):

print(i)
# While loop

i=0

while i < 5:

print(i)

i += 1

1.6. Functions

Functions help to reuse code and break problems into smaller tasks.

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def greet(name):

print("Hello, " + name)

greet("Alice")

2. Intermediate Python

2.1. Lists, Dictionaries, Tuples

Python's built-in collections help store multiple items in a single variable.

 List: A mutable sequence of elements.

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my_list = [1, 2, 3]

my_list.append(4) # Add item

print(my_list) # [1, 2, 3, 4]

 Dictionary: A collection of key-value pairs.

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my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 25}

print(my_dict["name"]) # Alice
  Tuple: Immutable list of elements.

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my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

2.2. List Comprehensions

A concise way to create lists.

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# Create a list of squares

squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

2.3. Exception Handling

Used to handle errors gracefully.

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try:

print(10 / 0)

except ZeroDivisionError:

print("You can't divide by zero!")

finally:

print("This will always run.")

2.4. File Handling

Read and write files in Python.

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# Write to a file

with open("test.txt", "w") as file:

file.write("Hello, world!")

# Read from a file

with open("test.txt", "r") as file:

content = file.read()

print(content)

3. Advanced Python

3.1. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

OOP is a way of structuring code using classes and objects.

 Class: Blueprint for creating objects.

 Object: Instance of a class.

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class Person:

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name

self.age = age

def greet(self):

print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name}")

person1 = Person("Alice", 30)

person1.greet() # Hello, my name is Alice

 Inheritance: Allows one class to inherit properties from another.

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class Employee(Person):

def __init__(self, name, age, salary):

super().__init__(name, age)

self.salary = salary

3.2. Decorators
A way to modify or enhance functions.

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def decorator_function(original_function):

def wrapper_function():

print("Wrapper executed this before

{}".format(original_function.__name__))

return original_function()

return wrapper_function

@decorator_function

def display():

print("Display function ran")

display()

3.3. Generators

Generators yield values one at a time, making them memory efficient.

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def my_generator():

for i in range(5):

yield i

gen = my_generator()

print(next(gen)) # 0

print(next(gen)) # 1

3.4. Context Managers

Used to manage resources efficiently (e.g., file handling).

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with open("test.txt", "w") as file:

file.write("Hello, World!")

3.5. Regular Expressions

Used for string pattern matching.

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import re

text = "The rain in Spain"

result = re.search(r"\bS\w+", text)

print(result.group()) # Spain

3.6. Lambda Functions

Anonymous, short functions defined using lambda.

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add = lambda x, y: x + y

print(add(2, 3)) # 5

3.7. Modules and Packages

Modules are Python files that can be imported. Packages are directories
with multiple modules.

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# Importing modules

import math

print(math.sqrt(16)) # 4.0

3.8. Multithreading and Multiprocessing

Used for running tasks in parallel.

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import threading

def print_numbers():

for i in range(5):

print(i)

thread = threading.Thread(target=print_numbers)

thread.start()

4. Libraries for Advanced Python

 NumPy: For numerical computing.

 Pandas: For data manipulation and analysis.

 Matplotlib/Seaborn: For data visualization.

 Flask/Django: For web development.

 TensorFlow/PyTorch: For machine learning.

 Asyncio: For asynchronous programming.

full python functions

ChatGPT said:

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In Python, functions are blocks of reusable code that perform specific

tasks. Functions help break down complex programs into smaller,
manageable sections. Python functions can be either built-in or user-
defined.

1. Syntax of Python Functions

Defining a Function

Functions in Python are defined using the def keyword. Here’s the general
syntax:

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def function_name(parameters):

# Function body

return result

 function_name: Name of the function.

 parameters: Input values (optional).

 return: The value the function sends back after execution.

Example of a Simple Function

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def greet():

print("Hello, World!")

greet() # Output: Hello, World!

2. Function Parameters

Functions can take parameters that allow them to accept inputs.

2.1. Positional Parameters

Arguments are passed to the function in the order in which they are
defined.

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def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

greet("Alice") # Output: Hello, Alice!

2.2. Default Parameters

Default values can be set for function parameters, which are used if no
argument is passed.

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def greet(name="World"):

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

greet() # Output: Hello, World!

greet("Alice") # Output: Hello, Alice!

2.3. Keyword Arguments

Arguments can be passed using the parameter name.

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def describe_person(name, age):

print(f"{name} is {age} years old.")

describe_person(age=25, name="Bob") # Output: Bob is 25 years old.

2.4. Arbitrary Arguments (*args)

Functions can accept a variable number of positional arguments using

*args.

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def sum_all(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_all(1, 2, 3, 4)) # Output: 10

2.5. Arbitrary Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

Functions can accept a variable number of keyword arguments using

**kwargs.

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def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")
display_info(name="Alice", age=30, country="USA")

# Output:

# name: Alice

# age: 30

# country: USA

3. Return Statement

The return statement is used to send a result back from a function.

Without return, the function will return None by default.

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def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(2, 3)

print(result) # Output: 5

4. Lambda Functions

A lambda function is a small, anonymous function that can have any

number of arguments but only one expression. The syntax is:

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lambda arguments: expression

Example of a Lambda Function

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add = lambda a, b: a + b

print(add(2, 3)) # Output: 5

Lambda functions are often used for short, simple operations like in map(),
filter(), and sorted().

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numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

squared = list(map(lambda x: x ** 2, numbers))

print(squared) # Output: [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

5. Scope of Variables

5.1. Local Scope

Variables defined inside a function are local to that function.

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def func():

x = 5 # Local variable

print(x)

func() # Output: 5

5.2. Global Scope

Variables defined outside all functions are globally accessible within the
script.

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x = 10 # Global variable

def func():

print(x) # Accessing global variable

func() # Output: 10

5.3. The global Keyword

The global keyword is used to modify a global variable inside a function.

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x = 10

def modify():

global x

x = 20 # Modify the global variable

modify()

print(x) # Output: 20

5.4. The nonlocal Keyword

The nonlocal keyword is used to modify variables in the nearest enclosing

scope (but not global).

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def outer():

x = "outer variable"

def inner():

nonlocal x

x = "modified"

inner()

print(x)

outer() # Output: modified

6. Recursion
A function is recursive if it calls itself. Recursion is useful for tasks that
can be broken down into similar sub-tasks (like factorial or Fibonacci).

Example: Factorial Using Recursion

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def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

7. Higher-Order Functions

A higher-order function is a function that takes another function as a

parameter or returns a function.

Example: map() and filter()

 map() applies a function to all elements in an iterable.

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numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]

squared = list(map(lambda x: x**2, numbers))

print(squared) # Output: [1, 4, 9, 16]

 filter() filters elements in an iterable based on a function that

returns True or False.

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numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

even_numbers = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers))

print(even_numbers) # Output: [2, 4]

8. Function Decorators

A decorator is a function that takes another function and extends or

alters its behavior.

Example of a Decorator

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def decorator_function(original_function):

def wrapper_function():

print("Wrapper executed before", original_function.__name__)

return original_function()

return wrapper_function

@decorator_function

def display():

print("Display function executed")

display()

# Output:

# Wrapper executed before display

# Display function executed

9. Anonymous (Lambda) Functions

Lambda functions are small, unnamed (anonymous) functions defined

using the lambda keyword.

Syntax:

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lambda arguments: expression

Example:
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double = lambda x: x * 2

print(double(5)) # Output: 10

10. Built-In Functions

Python has many built-in functions like:

 len(): Returns the length of an object.

 max(), min(): Return the maximum and minimum values.

 sorted(): Sorts elements in an iterable.

 abs(): Returns the absolute value.

 sum(): Sums elements in an iterable.

Example:

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numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

print(len(numbers)) # Output: 5

print(max(numbers)) # Output: 5

print(min(numbers)) # Output: 1

11. Function Annotations

Function annotations provide a way to attach metadata to the parameters

and return value of a function.

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def add(x: int, y: int) -> int:

return x + y

print(add(2, 3)) # Output: 5

Let’s dive even deeper into Python, exploring more advanced concepts
and features beyond basic functions and syntax. We’ll cover topics such
as advanced data structures, functional programming, concurrency,
metaprogramming, and more, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of
Python.

12. Advanced Data Structures

12.1. Collections Module

The collections module provides specialized container data types.

 namedtuple: Creates tuple-like objects with named fields.

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from collections import namedtuple

Point = namedtuple('Point', 'x y')

p = Point(1, 2)

print(p.x, p.y) # Output: 1 2

 deque: Double-ended queue that allows appending and popping

from both ends.

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from collections import deque

d = deque([1, 2, 3])

d.append(4)

d.appendleft(0)

print(d) # Output: deque([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])

 Counter: Counts occurrences of elements in a collection.

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from collections import Counter

counter = Counter([1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3])

print(counter) # Output: Counter({3: 3, 2: 2, 1: 1})

 defaultdict: Returns a default value if the key is missing.

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from collections import defaultdict

dd = defaultdict(int)

dd['apple'] += 1

print(dd) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'apple': 1})

13. Iterators and Generators

13.1. Iterators

An iterator is an object that can be iterated over, meaning you can

traverse through all its elements. Iterators implement the __iter__() and
__next__() methods.

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my_list = [1, 2, 3]

it = iter(my_list)

print(next(it)) # Output: 1

print(next(it)) # Output: 2

print(next(it)) # Output: 3

13.2. Generators

A generator is a type of iterator that generates values on the fly and uses
yield instead of return. It is more memory-efficient for large data sets.

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def my_generator():

for i in range(5):

yield i

gen = my_generator()

for value in gen:

print(value) # Output: 0 1 2 3 4

14. Decorators (Advanced)

Decorators can be stacked and used to modify or extend the behavior of a

function or method. You can also pass arguments to decorators.

14.1. Stacked Decorators

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def bold_decorator(func):

def wrapper():

return f"<b>{func()}</b>"

return wrapper

def italic_decorator(func):

def wrapper():

return f"<i>{func()}</i>"

return wrapper

@bold_decorator

@italic_decorator

def greet():

return "Hello"
print(greet()) # Output: <b><i>Hello</i></b>

14.2. Decorators with Arguments

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def repeat(num):

def decorator(func):

def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):

for _ in range(num):

func(*args, **kwargs)

return wrapper

return decorator

@repeat(3)

def say_hello():

print("Hello")

say_hello()

# Output:

# Hello

# Hello

# Hello

15. Functional Programming

Python supports functional programming paradigms, including higher-

order functions, first-class functions, and common functional programming
techniques.

15.1. map(), filter(), reduce()

 map() applies a function to every element in an iterable.

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numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]

squared = list(map(lambda x: x ** 2, numbers))

print(squared) # Output: [1, 4, 9, 16]

 filter() filters elements based on a condition.

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numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

even = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers))

print(even) # Output: [2, 4]

 reduce() applies a function cumulatively to the items in an iterable.

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from functools import reduce

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]

product = reduce(lambda x, y: x * y, numbers)

print(product) # Output: 24

15.2. zip()

The zip() function combines two or more iterables element-wise.

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names = ["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"]

ages = [25, 30, 35]

combined = list(zip(names, ages))

print(combined) # Output: [('Alice', 25), ('Bob', 30), ('Charlie', 35)]

16. Concurrency and Parallelism

Concurrency involves running tasks in overlapping time periods, while
parallelism involves executing tasks simultaneously using multiple
processors or threads.

16.1. Multithreading

Multithreading enables running multiple threads concurrently in Python.

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import threading

def print_numbers():

for i in range(5):

print(i)

thread = threading.Thread(target=print_numbers)

thread.start()

thread.join() # Waits for the thread to complete

16.2. Multiprocessing

Multiprocessing involves running processes in parallel, taking advantage

of multiple CPUs.

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from multiprocessing import Process

def print_numbers():

for i in range(5):

print(i)

process = Process(target=print_numbers)

process.start()

process.join()
16.3. Asynchronous Programming (asyncio)

asyncio is used for asynchronous programming, allowing the code to

execute without blocking.

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import asyncio

async def say_hello():

print("Hello")

await asyncio.sleep(1)

print("World")

asyncio.run(say_hello())

17. File I/O (Advanced)

17.1. Reading and Writing Binary Files

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# Writing binary data

with open('binary_file', 'wb') as f:

f.write(b'Hello, World!')

# Reading binary data

with open('binary_file', 'rb') as f:

content = f.read()

print(content) # Output: b'Hello, World!'

17.2. Working with JSON

Python has built-in support for working with JSON.

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import json

data = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}

# Writing JSON to a file

with open('data.json', 'w') as f:

json.dump(data, f)

# Reading JSON from a file

with open('data.json', 'r') as f:

content = json.load(f)

print(content) # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}

18. Regular Expressions (Advanced)

Regular expressions (regex) are used for pattern matching in strings.

18.1. Searching for Patterns

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import re

text = "The rain in Spain"

pattern = r"\bS\w+"

match = re.search(pattern, text)

if match:

print(match.group()) # Output: Spain

18.2. Matching and Extracting Groups

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pattern = r"(\d+)-(\d+)"

match = re.search(pattern, "Phone number: 123-456")

if match:

print(match.group(1)) # Output: 123

print(match.group(2)) # Output: 456

19. Metaprogramming

Metaprogramming is the writing of programs that can manipulate or

generate other programs. This includes dynamic modification of classes
and objects.

19.1. type() Function

The type() function can dynamically create new types.

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# Create a new class dynamically

MyClass = type('MyClass', (object,), {'x': 10})

obj = MyClass()

print(obj.x) # Output: 10

19.2. getattr(), setattr(), hasattr()

These functions are used to dynamically interact with attributes of

objects.

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class Person:

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

p = Person("Alice")

print(getattr(p, "name")) # Output: Alice

setattr(p, "age", 30)

print(p.age) # Output: 30

20. Context Managers and with Statement

Context managers allow you to allocate and release resources precisely

when you need them.

20.1. Creating a Custom Context Manager

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class MyContext:

def __enter__(self):

print("Entering")

return self

def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):

print("Exiting")

with MyContext():

print("Inside")