ELECTRONIC

DEVICES
COURSE CODE: 20EC1101

Lecture by
K. Naresh Kumar
Asst. Prof.
Dept. of ECE
GVPCE (A)
Difference Between Electrical
and Electronic Devices
The major difference between the electrical and electronic devices is that
the electrical devices convert the electrical energy into the other form of
energy like heat, light, sound, etc.

whereas the electronic device controls the flow of electrons for performing
the particular task.

The electrical and electronics both are interrelated with each other.
The electrical is the flow of electrons, and the electronics is the technique
of controlling the flow of electrons for doing the particular work.

The working principle of both of them are same, i.e., uses the electrical
energy for doing work.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 2

ELECTRONICS
The word electronics came from “ELECTRO MECHANICS” which means the
study of behaviour of electron under electric field.

The device which control the flow of electrons is called “ELECTRONIC

DEVICE”

These Devices are main building blocks of “ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS”

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 3

ELECTRONICS
Electronics is a branch of physics which studies the behaviour of
charged particle (electron, hole) under the influence of different fields
(electric field, magnetic field and electro-magnetic field) under different
circumstances (optical excitation, doping, temperature) in different
materials (semiconductors, metals, gases)

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 4

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
COMPONENTS
The key difference between active and passive components

Electronic components are categorized as active or passive depending on

the functions they are able to perform.

Active components can, generally speaking, inject power into a circuit and
are capable of electrically controlling and amplifying the flow of electrical
current, whereas passive components cannot.

Unlike active components, passive components either consume or stores

energy.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 5

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
COMPONENTS
All electronic circuits must contain at least one active component, and
most electronic devices contain both active and passive components.

Active components require a source of energy, typically in the form of a

direct current, in order to perform their specific function.

They are able to manipulate the flow of electricity in some way. Most
active components consist of semiconductor devices, such as diodes,
transistors and integrated circuits.
Passive components can influence the flow of electricity running through
them. For example, they can resist its flow, store energy for later use, or
produce inductance. However, they cannot control or amplify electricity
themselves.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 6

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
COMPONENTS
The most common components and their functions:
Resistor: Resists the flow of electrical current in a circuit; used to lower
voltage
Capacitor: Stores electrical energy electrostatically in an electric field
(known as ‘charging’), and can release it later when needed
Inductor: Stores electrical energy in a magnetic field; allows direct current
(DC) to flow through it, but not alternating current (AC)
Transducer: Converts an input signal from one type of energy into another
type; sensors are a type of transducer that convert physical action/input
into an electrical signal

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 7

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 8
K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 9
CLASSIFICATION OF
MATERIALS
Depending upon flow of electric current Materials are classified as

 Insulators
 Conductors
 Semi Conductors

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 10

Energy Band Diagrams

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 11

Insulators:
It is a material with large energy gap
Eg= several ev
ev= 1.6x10-19 joules
Due to large energy gap, an electron from valence band can’t move into
conduction band remains complete fill. Conduction band is completely
empty.
Does not conduct electricity.
Ex: glass, Diamond, Silicon di-oxide
Energy gap of diamond is ~6ev.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 12

Conductors:
It is a material having zero energy gap. The materials in which conduction
and valence bands are overlap to each other.
Valence electrons can move valence to conduction band without requiring
thermal energy. The overlapping indicates a large number of electrons
available for conduction. Hence the application of a small amount of
voltage results a large amount of current.
Ex: All metals.
Best conducting materials are
Silver is best, cupper is second best

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 13

Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie between
conductors & insulators.
The materials, in which the conduction and valence bands are separated
by a small energy gap (1eV) are called semiconductors.
A small energy gap means that a small amount of energy is required to
free the electrons by moving them from the valence band to the
conduction band.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 14

Semiconductors & Classification
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie between
conductors & insulators.
Types:
◦ Elemental semiconductors: Ge, Si
◦ Compound semiconductors: GaAs, GaAsP

Combination of atoms of column III and column V and some atoms from column II &
VI.

Group IV elements
C (Carbon) --- Non-metal
Si (Silicon) --- Semiconductor
Ge (Germanium) --- Semiconductor
Sn (Tin) ---- Metal
Pb (Lead) ----Metal

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 15

Elemental & Compound
Semiconductors

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 16

Need of Compound
Semiconductors
Electrons in compound semiconductors move much faster than electrons
in Si, enabling high speed-processing that’s over 100 times faster than Si.
However the compound semiconductors are widely used in high speed
devices and devices requiring emission and absorption of light.

Few compound semiconductors & uses:

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): Tunnel Diode, LED, LASER
Indium Antimonide (InSb): Light Detectors
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS): Burglar Alarm, Street Light Switching
Zinc Sulphide (ZnS): TV Screens (fluorescent)

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 17

Semiconductor materials used
for?
 Ge was widely used in the early days of semiconductor development
for transistors and diodes.
 Si is now used for the majority of rectifiers, transistors and integrated
circuits.
 Compounds are widely used in high-speed devices and devices
requiring the emission or absorption of light.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 18

Characteristics of
semiconductors
 Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance
(resistance decreases with increase in temperature).
 Behaves as insulator at 00K
 At room temperature i.e. 3000K it starts conducting by absorbing
thermal energy. (poor conductors)
 Electrical conductivity is much affected by addition of impurity.
(doping)
 They do not follow ohm’s law. (VI relationship is non-linear)

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 19

Why Si is preferred over Ge?
 The leakage current is less in Si (nA) as compared to that of Ge (μA)
 Ge becomes unstable at high temperatures.
 Si is more abundant on earth.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 20

Classification of
semiconductors
 Classification of semiconductors on the basis of purity.

 Intrinsic semiconductor (pure form of Ge, Si) n = p = ni

 Extrinsic semiconductor
 N - type semiconductor (pentavalent impurity P, As, Sb) ne > nh
 P - type semiconductor (trivalent impurity B, Al, Ga, In) nh > ne

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 21

Intrinsic semiconductor
 An intrinsic semiconductor is made to be very pure chemically. It is made up
of only a single type of element

 Generation of EHP
 Recombination
 Life time of charge carriers

 Germanium(Ge) and Silicon(Si) are the most common type of intrinsic

semiconductors
K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 22
Intrinsic semiconductor

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 23

Energy band diagram of
intrinsic semiconductor
In intrinsic
semiconductors, current
flows due to the motion
of free electrons as well
as holes

The total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to thermally
generated electrons and the hole current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 24

Fermi Level in intrinsic
semiconductor
In intrinsic or pure semiconductor,

At room temperature,
Number of holes in valence band =
number of electrons in conduction band

Hence the probability of occurrence of

energy levels in conduction band and
valence band are equal

Therefore, the fermi level for the intrinsic

semiconductor lies in the middle of
forbidden band.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 25

Doping
Process that adds a small amounts of impurities, dopants, to a
semiconductor, so that it can be made to contain a desired number of
either holes or free electrons.
After the doping process the materials generated are termed extrinsic
semiconductors. They are impure.
The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase
the number of free electrons or holes to make it conductive.
Impurities are classified as either:
◦ Donor.
◦ Acceptor.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 26

Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity
An extrinsic semiconductor can further be classified as
o N-type semiconductor
o P-type semiconductor

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 27

Types of Impurities
Two types of impurities are added to semiconductor. They are pentavalent
and trivalent impurities

Pentavalent impurity
atoms have 5 valence
electrons. Ex: P, As, Sb

Trivalent impurity atoms

have 3 valence electrons.
Ex: B, Al, Ga, In

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 28

Extrinsic Semiconductors

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 29

Donor Impurities
Donor impurities donate extra electron to the silicon lattice:
◦ Phosphorous, Antimony, Arsenic.

They have 5 electrons in their outer electron shell. Four of them will be
used in the covalent bonds to the neighboring silicon atoms, but the fifth
can be easily freed from their original atoms by thermal energy even at
room temperatures.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 30

N-Type Semiconductor
Semiconductor materials doped to
contain excess free electrons are
considered n-type semiconductors.
Even though the added impurity created
excess free electrons, the material is still
neutral in charge.
It has been found that in n-type materials
the free electron concentration is
approximately equal to the donor atom
doping density:
◦ n  ND

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 31

Fermi Level in N-type
semiconductor
Penta valent impurity creates large
number of free electrons in the
conduction band.

At room temperature,
Number of electrons in conduction band
> Number of holes in valence band

Therefore, the fermi level in the N-type

semiconductor lies close to the
conduction band.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 32

Acceptor Impurities
Acceptor impurities create a hole in the silicon lattice:
◦ Boron, Gallium and Indium.

They have 3 electrons in their outer electron shell, and they are not
enough to fill all the orbitals around it. This leaves a bond site empty, and
this empty place is called a hole.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 33

P-Type Semiconductor
Semiconductor materials doped to contain
excess holes are considered p-type
semiconductors.
Even though the added impurity created
excess holes, the material is still neutral in
charge.
It has been found that in p-type materials
the hole concentration is approximately
equal to the donor atom doping density:
◦ p  NA

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 34

Fermi Level in P-type
semiconductor
Tri valent impurity creates large number
of free holes in the valence band and
ready to accept an electron.

At room temperature,
Number of holes in valence band >
Number of electrons in conduction band

Therefore, the fermi level in the P-type

semiconductor lies close to the valence
band.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 35

Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductors can be doped with both types of impurities, and
their respective concentrations determine the type material they will
become:
◦ N-type when ND > NA
◦ Majority carriers are free electrons and minority carriers are holes.
◦ P-type when ND < NA
◦ Majority carriers are holes and minority carriers are free electrons.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 36

Difference between Intrinsic
and Extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Pure Semiconductor Impure Semiconductor
Electron concentration is equal to the Electron concentration is not equal to
hole concentration the hole concentration
Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high
Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as well
as on the amount of impurity
No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent
impurity

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 37

Review of Quantum
Mechanics

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 38

Bohr’s Model
• An electron can revolve around
the nucleus in certain fixed orbits
of definite energy without
emission of any radiant energy.
Such orbits are called stationary
orbits.
• As long as an electron remains in
a stationary orbit, there will be
no absorption or emission of
energy.
• The angular momentum (mvr) of an electron is equal to nh/2π. The
angular momentum of an orbit depends upon its quantum number(n)
and it is integral multiple of the factor h/2π i.e. mvr = nh/2 π Where, n
= 1, 2, 3, 4,…
K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 39
Bohr’s Model
• The gain or loss of energy occurs
within orbits, only due to jumping
of electrons from one energy
level to another energy level.
E2 – E1 = hf
where h: Planck’s constant
h = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 40

Electrons in periodic lattices
• Arrangement of atoms in solids
• Cubic lattices
• Band theory of solids
• Energy levels in an isolated atom
• Excitation and Ionization of atoms
• Energy spectra in atoms, molecules and solids
• Energy band of Si
• Energy bands in solid
• Formation of energy bands in solids
• Energy Band formation (Si)

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 41

Arrangement of atoms in
solids

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 42

Cubic lattices

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 43

Band theory of solids
• Energy band theory is used to study the behavior of solids.

Electron energy levels:

Electrons are arranged in specific

discrete energy levels that
• are labeled n=1, n=2, n=3 and so on.
• Increases in energy as n increases
• Have the electrons with the lowest
energy in the first energy level (n=1)
closest to the nucleus.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 44

Energy levels in an isolated
atom

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 45

Excitation and Ionization of
atoms

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 46

Excitation and Ionization of atoms

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 47

Excitation and Ionization of
atoms

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 48

Excitation and Ionization of atoms

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 49

Energy spectra in atoms, molecules and
solids
Let us see how the spectrum of Li (Z=3)
is gradually modified

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 50

Energy band of Si
Si atom has 14 electrons
K shell  2
L shell  8
M shell  4
1s22s22p63s23p2

The 3p shell is half filled because it

can accommodate a total of 6.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 51

Energy bands in solid
Example: consider a Si atom in the solid (assuming it contains 300 atoms).

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 52

Energy bands in solid
• It is obvious that there will be 300K shells differing in energy by extremely
small amounts.

• The reason behind is that no two electrons in this shell exactly the same
charge environment.

• The 300 K-shells, differing in extremely small amounts of energy are so

close so as to merge into one energy band.

• This is called first band as can be seen in the diagram also.

• Similarly second orbit electrons form second energy band and so on.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 53

Formation of energy bands in solids

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 54

Energy Band formation (Si)

Figure: Energy levels in Si as a function of interatomic spacing.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 55

E-k Diagrams
• E-K Diagram
• Direct and Indirect semiconductors
• Variation of energy bands with alloy composition

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 56

E-K Diagram
An E-K diagram shows characteristics of a particular semiconductor material.

 The Energy and wave vector diagram is a plot of total electron energy
(potential as well as kinetic) as a function of crystal-direction dependent
electron wave vector at some point in space.

 This electron wave vector (k) is proportional to the momentum and

therefore the velocity of the electron.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 57

E-K Diagram

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 58

E-K Diagram

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 59

E-K Diagram

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 60

E-K Diagram
Following points can be noted from the figure:

• Electron energy is conventionally defined as positive when measured

upwards whereas the hole energy is positive when measured downwards.

• In the valence band, hole energy increases opposite to that of electron

energy due to the fact that both have opposite charges.

• The hole energy increases downwards. Therefore holes are found to be at

the top of valence band as they seek the lowest energy level. The top of the
valence band corresponds to lowest kinetic energy.

• The bottom of the conduction band corresponds to lowest kinetic energy.

The conduction band electrons are found at the bottom of conduction
band.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 61

Direct and Indirect
semiconductors
In semiconductor physics, the band gap of a semiconductor is always one of
two types (it is based on E-K diagram).

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 62

Direct band gap semiconductors
The band gap is called “direct” if the
momentum of electrons and holes is
the same in both the conduction
band and the valence band; an
electron can directly emit a photon.

The band gap represents the

minimum energy difference between
the top of the valence band and the
bottom of the conduction band.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 63

Direct band gap semiconductors
If the k-vectors are same for
conduction band minima and valence
band maxima, it is called a “Direct
band gap semiconductor”.

• Little change in momentum is

required for recombination.

• Momentum is conserved by
photon (light) emission.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 64

Direct band gap semiconductors
• In case of “direct band semiconductor” electron in conduction band (CB)
minima, recombine directly with the holes in valence band (VB) maxima
without change in momentum as well as kinetic energy, so energy will be
emitted in the form of light, this phenomenon is called as “SPONTANEOUS
EMISSION”.

• In direct band gap semiconductor energy is conserved by means of emitting

a photon, such transitions are called as radiative transitions.

• Relative carrier life time is small in case of direct band gap semiconductor.

• Best examples of direct band gap semiconductors are GaAs, InAs, InSb,
GaN, InN, ZnO and ZnS.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 65

Indirect band gap semiconductors
In this case momentum is not same
for conduction band minima and
valence band maxima.

In an “indirect” gap, a photon can not

be emitted because the electron
must pass through an intermediate
state and transfer momentum to the
crystal lattice.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 66

Indirect band gap semiconductors
If the k-vectors (propagation
constant or wave vector) are
different for conduction band
minima and valence band maxima, it
is called a “Indirect band gap
semiconductor”.

• Large change in momentum is

required for recombination.

• Momentum is conserved by
mainly photon (vibration)
emission + photon emission.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 67

Indirect band gap semiconductors
• In case of indirect band gap semiconductors during excitation there is
change in momentum. K.E. as well as direction and path of electron.

• In indirect band gap semiconductors energy emits in the form of heat.

• Carrier life time in case of indirect band gap semiconductor is greater than
the carrier life time of direct band gap semiconductor.

• Best examples of indirect band gap semiconductors are Si, Ge, GaP etc.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 68

Variation of energy bands with
alloy composition
INTRODUCTION

 As III-V ternary and quaternary alloys are varied over their

composition ranges, their band structure changes.

 Example: Let us understand the band structure of GaAs and AlAs,

and the way in which the band change with composition x in
ternary compound AlXGa1-XAs.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 69

Variation of energy bands with alloy
composition
Fig. shows the band structure of
GaAs and the way in which the band
change with composition x in the
ternary compound AlXGa1-XAs.

• There are 3 valleys in the

conduction band: Γ (at k = 0), L,
and X.

• In GaAs, the Γ valley has minimum

energy (direct with Eg = 1.43 eV)
with very few electrons residing in
the L and X valleys (except for the
high field excitations).

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 70

Variation of energy bands with alloy
composition
Fig. shows the band structure of AlAs
and the way in which the band change
with composition x in the ternary
compound AlXGa1-XAs.

• In the ternary compound AlXGa1-XAs,

conduction band minima move up
relative to the valence band as the
composition of x varies 0 (GaAs) to 1
(AlAs).

• In the AlAs, X valley has minimum

energy(indirect with Eg = 2.16 eV).

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 71

Variation of energy bands with alloy
composition
• However, the indirect minimum X moves up less than the others for
composition above 38% Al this indirect minimum become the lowest lying
conduction band.
• Therefore the ternary alloy AlGaAs is a direct semiconductor for Al
compositions on the column III sub-lattice up to about 38%, and is indirect
semiconductor for higher Al mole fractions.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 72

Variation of energy bands with alloy
composition
• The variation of energy bands for the ternary alloy GaAs1-XPX is generally
similar to that of AlGaAs.

• GaAsP is a direct semiconductor from GaAs to about GaAs0.55P0.45 and is

indirect from this composition to GaP.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 73

Carrier Transport
• Charge carriers in semiconductor
• Fermi Dirac distribution
• Electron and hole concentration at equilibrium
• Compensation & Space charge neutrality
• Conductivity, resistivity and mobility
• Hall effect

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 74

Charge carriers in
semiconductor

• The empty states left in the valence band can also contribute to current
conduction.
• Also, introduction of impurities has an important effect on the availability
of the charge carriers.
• Thus, there is a considerable flexibility in controlling the electrical
properties of semiconductors.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 75

Charge carriers in
semiconductor
For a filled
band

In a unit volume,
Current density can be expressed as:

If a hole is created by moving jth electron, net current density in the valence
band can be written as:

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 76

Charge carriers in semiconductor –
Effective mass

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 77

Charge carriers in semiconductor –
Effective mass
The electron mass is inversely related to the curvature (second derivative) of
the (E-K) relationship, since

Electrons in solids are not free, most energy bands are close to parabolic at
their minima (for conduction band) or maxima (for valence bands).
The effective mass of an electron in a band with given (E,K) relationship is :-

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 78

Charge carriers in semiconductor –
Effective mass
• Electrons near the top of valence band maxima has negative effective
mass.

• Valence band electrons with negative charge and negative mass move in an
electric field in the same direction as holes with positive charge and
positive mass.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 79

Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor

n = p = ni

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 80

Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 81

Charge carriers in extrinsic
semiconductor
• In addition to thermally generated carriers, it is possible to create carriers
in the semiconductor by purposely introducing impurities into the crystal
doping.

• Most common technique for varying the conductivity of semiconductors is

doping.

• By doping, the crystal can be made to have predominantly electrons (n-

type) or holes (p-type).

• When a crystal is doped such that the equilibrium concentrations of

electrons (n0) and holes (p0) are different from the intrinsic carrier
concentration (ni), the material is said to be extrinsic.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 82

Charge carriers in extrinsic
semiconductor
Charge carriers in the semiconductor doped with acceptor impurities

p - type

If the temperature increases, electrons jump from the valence band to the
acceptor levels leaving holes in the valence band. So in the impurity
ionization range the density of holes increases with temperature.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 83

Charge carriers in extrinsic
semiconductor
Charge carriers in the semiconductor doped with donor impurities

n - type

If the temperature increases, unbound electrons obtain energy and jump to

the conduction band. So in the low temperature or impurity ionization range,
density of conduction electrons increases.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 84

Fermi Dirac Distribution

• The function f(E) is called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function.

• It gives the probability that an available energy state at E will be occupied
by an electron at absolute temperature T.
• The quantity EF is called the Fermi level.

For an energy E = EF, the occupation probability is:

This is the probability for electrons to occupy the Fermi level.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 85

Fermi Dirac Distribution

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 86

Fermi Dirac Distribution

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 87

Fermi Dirac Distribution to
semiconductors
Representation of Fermi Level

Intrinsic Extrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

semiconductor N-Type P-Type

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 88

Fermi Dirac Distribution to
semiconductors
In intrinsic material the Fermi level EF must lie at the middle of the
band gap.

In n-type material the distribution function f(E) must lie above its
intrinsic position on the energy scale. The energy difference (EC - EF)
gives a measure of n.

For p-type material the Fermi level lies near the valence band such
that the [1-f(E)] tail below EV is larger than the f(E) tail above EC. The
value of (EF - EV) indicates how strongly p-type the material is.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 89

Fermi Dirac Distribution to
semiconductors

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 90

Electron & hole concentration
at equilibrium
f(E) can be used to calculate the concentration of electrons and holes
in semiconductor if densities of available states in VB and CB are
known.

The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is:

N(E)dE: Density of states in the energy range dE

n0: equilibrium concentration of electrons

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 91

Electron & hole concentration at
equilibrium
From quantum mechanics and Pauli exclusion principle N(E) α E1/2

So the density of states increases with increase in energy and f(E) will
decrease.
Product f(E)N(E) decreases rapidly above EC, and very few electrons
occupy energy states far above the conduction band.

Similarly the probability of finding an empty state (hole) in the valence

band [1-f(E)] decreases rapidly below EV, and most holes occupy states
near the top of the valence band.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 92

Electron & hole concentration at
equilibrium

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 93

Electron & hole concentration at
equilibrium
Therefore the conduction band electron concentration is simply the
effective density of states at EC times the probability of occupancy at
EC.

Let us assume that fermi level EF lies much below than EC

Therefore

The effective density

of states is:

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 94

Electron & hole concentration at
equilibrium
Similarly the concentration of holes in the valence band is

where NV: the effective density of states in the valence band.

The probability of finding an empty state at EV is

Therefore

The effective density of states is:

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 95

Electron & hole concentration at
equilibrium
For intrinsic material EF lies at some intrinsic level Ei near the middle
of band gap. So intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are

The product of n0 and p0 at equilibrium is a constant for a particular

material and temperature, even if the doping is varied.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 96

Electron & hole concentration at
equilibrium
The intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are equal, ni = pi.
Therefore intrinsic concentration is

Mass action law

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 97

 Compensation & Space charge
neutrality
The concept of doping was introduced by assuming the material contained
either Nd donors or Na acceptors.
Extrinsic majority carrier concentration
For n-type n0 ≈ Nd
For p-type p0 ≈ Na
Nd >> Na (n-type)

Nd – Na  Number of electrons in CB

Compensation

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 98

Compensation & Space charge neutrality
SUMMARY

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 99

 Compensation & Space charge neutrality
The exact relationship among the electron, hole, donor and acceptor
concentrations can be obtained by considering the requirements for space
charge neutrality.
If the material is to remain electrostatically neutral, then:
Sum of positive charges = Sum of negative charges

If the material is doped n-type (n0 >> p0), and all the impurities are ionized

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 100

Conductivity and mobility
The electrons and holes generated due to thermal generation move
randomly and hence cannot constitute any current
Under the influence of applied voltage there is electron as well as hole
motion in one particular direction, causing flow of current
The free electrons which are available in conduction band are moved
under the influence of applied voltage
Thus there is an electric current due to movement of electrons in
conduction band, This is called electron current
The electrons as negatively charged get repelled from the negative
terminal of the battery and attracted towards positive terminal

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 101

 Conductivity and mobility
There are electrons present in valence band which are involved in forming the
covalent bonds.
Some holes are also present in valence band due to escape of electrons from
valence to conduction band
Such movement of holes in valence band constitute the current which is called
hole current.
The direction of motion of holes in the opposite direction to that of electrons
Total Current= Electron current+ Hole current
Free electron approaches a hole and falls into it.
The merging of free electron and hole is called recombination.
Due to recombination the no. of charge carriers decreases.
The amount of time between creation and disappearance of free electron is
called mean life time of carrier.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 102

Conductivity and mobility

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 103

Conductivity and mobility
Drift Current
Applied voltage makes electrons
drift towards positive terminal
This drift causes current to flow
in a semiconductor, under the influence of applied voltage
This current produced due to drifting of free electrons is called drift
current
Velocity with which electrons drift is called drift velocity

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 104

Conductivity and mobility
Mobility of Charged particle

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 105

Conductivity and mobility

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 106

Conductivity and mobility

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 107

Conductivity and mobility

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 108

Conductivity and mobility

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 109

Conductivity and mobility

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 110

Example-1: Find the resistivity of an intrinsic silicon at 3000K if intrinsic concentration of
silicon is 1.5X1010 per cm3 while μn = 1300cm2/V-sec and μp = 500cm2/V-sec. Assume
q=1.6X10-19C.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 111

Example-2: A bar of intrinsic silicon has a cross-sectional area of 2.5X10-4 m2. The
electron density is 1.5X1016 per m3. How long the bar be in order that the current in the
bar will be 1.2 mA when 9 volts are applied across it. Assume μn = 0.14 m2/V-s and μp =
0.05 m2/V-s

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 112

Example-3: Estimate the value of resistivity of intrinsic germanium at 3000K.
Given: Intrinsic concentration = 2.5X1013 /cm3 Electron mobility = 3800 cm2/V-s
Hole mobility = 1800 cm2/V-s Electron charge = 1.6x10-19 C.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 113

Hall effect
When a specimen carrying a current I is placed in a transverse
magnetic field B, then an electric field E is induced in the direction
perpendicular to both I and B. This phenomenon is known as Hall
Effect.

Importance of Hall effect:

 It tells about whether the semiconductor is p-type or n-type
 To measure carrier concentration
 To measure mobility by means of conductivity
 To measure magnetic flux density
 To measure power in an electromagnetic wave

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 114

Hall effect

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 115

Hall effect

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 116

Hall effect

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 117

Example-1: A sample of N-type semiconductor has a resistivity of 0.1 Ω-cm and Hall
coefficient of 100 cm3/coulomb. Assuming only electrons as carriers, determine the
electron density and mobility.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 118

Example-2: Calculate the hall voltage across the width of a semiconducting specimen
from the following data:
Width of specimen = 0.1 m, thickness of the specimen = 0.01 m, field applied
perpendicular to width and length = 0.6 T, current flowing lengthwise = 10 mA, Hall
coefficient = 3.8 x 10-4 m3/C.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 119

Drift current
The flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied voltage or
electric field is called drift current.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 120

Drift current

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 121

Drift current

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 122

 Diffusion current
In a semiconductor even in the absence of the applied voltage there will be
current flow if concentration gradient exist.
The process by which, charge carriers (electrons or holes) in a semiconductor moves
from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration is called diffusion.

Diffusion current depends on the

material of the semiconductor, type
of charge carriers and the
concentration gradient

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 123

Diffusion current

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 124

Diffusion current

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 125

 Total current: (Diffusion + Drift)
The total current in a semiconductor is the sum of drift current and diffusion
current. Therefore, for a P-type semiconductor, the total current per unit
area, i.e. the total current density is given by

Similarly, the total current density for an N-type semiconductor is given by

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 126

Diffusion and Drift Current Directions

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 127

 Einstein relationship for semiconductor
The equation which relates the mobility μ and the diffusion coefficient D is
known as the Einstein relationship. The higher the value of mobility of a
charge carrier, the greater will be its tendency to diffuse. The Einstein
relationship is expressed as -

where

The importance of Einstein relationship is that it can be used to determine Dp (or Dn), if the mobility of
holes (or electrons) is measured experimentally. For an intrinsic silicon, Dp = 13 cm2/s and Dn = 34 cm2/s.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 128

 Production or creation Annihilation or destruction or disappearance

Generation and Recombination of

carriers Free charge carriers or mobile charge carriers

Conduction band

EC

EV
Valence band

Electron and hole are created respectively in conduction band and valence band. It is
called carrier generation or EHP generation.

Carrier generation describes the process by which electrons gain energy and move
from the valence band to conduction band, producing two mobile carriers.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 129

 Generation and Recombination of
carriers
Recombination describes the process by which
a conduction band electron losses energy and EC
re-occupies the energy state of an electron
hole in the valence band
EV
A free electron in the conduction band fall into a hole (a vacant site) in valence band.
Recombination of electrons and holes is a process by which both moving charge
carriers annihilate (destroy or remove or disappear from their state) with each other.
The electrons fall in one or more multiple steps into the empty state which is
associated with the hole. Both moving charge carriers eventually disappear in the
valence band.
This leads to three possible classification of the recombination processes.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 130

 Generation and Recombination of
carriers
EC EC EC
ET

EV EV EV

Radiative Non-radiative Auger

Recombination Recombination Recombination

Direct Recombination
Indirect Recombination (Trapping)

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 131

Generation and Recombination of
carriers
Radiative recombination is a Direct recombination.
Direct recombination occurs spontaneously.
In case of radiative recombination energy is emitted in the form of a photon.
Non-radiative recombination (or) Trap-assisted recombination is an Indirect
recombination.
In case of non-radiative recombination energy is lost in the form of heat to the
lattice.
When a carrier is trapped temporarily at a center and then is re-excited
without recombination. This process is known as Temporary Trapping.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 132

 Continuity Equation
The equation that states a condition of dynamic equilibrium for the
concentration of mobile carriers in elementary volume of the semiconductor
is known as continuity equation.

Basic Principle of continuity equation: Conservation of charge – charge can

neither be created nor destroyed in a given volume and time

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 133

Continuity Equation

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 134

References
 G. Streetman, and S. K. Banerjee, Solid State Electronic Devices, 7th
Edition, Pearson, 2014.

 Millman Jacob Halkias C Christos, Electronic Devices and Circuits, 2nd

Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publications, 2007.

 S Salivahanan, N Suresh Kumar, and A Vallavaraj, Electronic Devices and

Circuits, 2nd Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2007.

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 135

K. NARESH KUMAR, ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ECE 136