LECTURE NOTES: UNIT I

Basics of Computer and Programming

Languages
Engr. A.W BAH
Basics of Computer and Programming
Languages

• Introduction to Computer Fundamentals

• Programming Languages
• Evolution of Programming Languages
• Problem solution and software development
• Program Development Life Cycle
• Syntax and Semantics
• Formal Methods of Describing Syntax
• Fundamentals of Grammars in Programming Language

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1. Basic Computer Organization

• Computer organization refers to the way in which the

components of a computer system are arranged and how
they interact to perform tasks.

Figure: Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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Basic Computer Organization Cont...

• Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer,

responsible for executing instructions and processing data.
It consists of:
◦ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical
operations.
◦ Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor
and coordinates the activities of all components.
• Memory: Storage areas for data and instructions. Memory
can be categorized as:
◦ Primary Memory (RAM): Volatile memory used to store
data temporarily while the computer is running.
◦ Secondary Memory: Non-volatile storage used for
long-term data retention, such as hard drives and SSDs.
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Basic Computer Organization Cont...

• Input and Output Devices: Components that allow

interaction with the computer.
◦ Input Devices: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc., which allow
users to enter data.
◦ Output Devices: Monitor, printer, speakers, etc., which
display or produce results.

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2. Computer Hardware Components

• Understanding the key hardware components of a

computer is essential for both users and developers. The
main hardware components include:

Figure: Types of Computer Hardware

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2. Computer Hardware Components

• Keyboard: A primary input device used to enter text and

commands into the computer. It contains keys for letters,
numbers, and special functions.
• Mouse: A pointing device that allows users to interact with
the graphical user interface (GUI) of the computer. It
typically has buttons and a scroll wheel.
• Monitor: The display screen that visually presents the
output from the computer. Monitors come in various sizes
and resolutions, impacting clarity and detail

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2. Computer Hardware Components

• Printer: An output device that produces hard copies of

digital documents. There are several types of printers,
including inkjet, laser, and thermal.
• Disk Drives: Devices used to read and write data to
storage media. This includes:
◦ Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Traditional magnetic storage
devices used for long-term data storage.
◦ Solid State Drives (SSD): Faster, more reliable storage
devices using flash memory..
• CD/DVD Drives: Optical drives used to read and write data
to compact discs. They were once standard for software
installation and media playback.
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2. Computer Software

• Software refers to the set of instructions that tell the

computer how to perform specific tasks. It can be broadly
categorized into two types:

Figure: Computer Software

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Application Software

• Application Software: Application software is designed to

perform specific tasks for users. Examples include:
◦ Word Processors: Software like Microsoft Word for creating
and editing text documents.
◦ Spreadsheets: Programs like Microsoft Excel for performing
calculations and data analysis.
◦ Database Management Systems: Software for storing and
managing data, such as Microsoft Access

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System Software

• System software manages and supports computer

hardware and software resources. It includes:
◦ Operating Systems (OS): The primary system software that
manages hardware, software resources, and provides
services for application programs. Examples include
Windows, macOS, and Linux
◦ Device Drivers: Specialized software that allows the
operating system to communicate with hardware devices
◦ Compilers: Programs that convert high-level programming
languages into machine code for execution.
◦ Interpreters: Software that translates and executes code
line-by-line, allowing for real-time execution of programs.

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System Software

• System software manages and supports computer

hardware and software resources. It includes:
◦ Operating Systems (OS): The primary system software that
manages hardware, software resources, and provides
services for application programs. Examples include
Windows, macOS, and Linux
◦ Device Drivers: Specialized software that allows the
operating system to communicate with hardware devices
◦ Compilers: Programs that convert high-level programming
languages into machine code for execution.
◦ Interpreters: Software that translates and executes code
line-by-line, allowing for real-time execution of programs.

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System Software

• System software manages and supports computer

hardware and software resources. It includes:
◦ Operating Systems (OS): The primary system software that
manages hardware, software resources, and provides
services for application programs. Examples include
Windows, macOS, and Linux
◦ Device Drivers: Specialized software that allows the
operating system to communicate with hardware devices
◦ Compilers: Programs that convert high-level programming
languages into machine code for execution.
◦ Interpreters: Software that translates and executes code
line-by-line, allowing for real-time execution of programs.

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Number Systems

• A number system is a way to represent numbers in

different formats. The most commonly used systems in
computing are:

Figure: Number System

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Number System

• Binary (Base 2): Uses two symbols (0 and 1) and is the

fundamental language of computers. Each binary digit (bit)
represents a power of 2.
• Decimal (Base 10): The standard numbering system used
in daily life, using ten symbols (0-9).
• Octal (Base 8): Uses eight symbols (0-7) and is sometimes
used in computing as a shorthand for binary.
•
• Hexadecimal (Base 16): Uses sixteen symbols (0-9 and
A-F) and is often used in programming to represent binary
data more compactly.

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Computer Codes

• Computer codes are systems used to represent data in a

format that can be easily processed by computers. The
most widely used code is:
• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange)
• ASCII: A character encoding standard that represents text
in computers. It assigns a unique number to each
character (e.g., letters, digits, punctuation marks). ASCII
uses 7 bits to represent 128 different characters.

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Evolution of Programming Languages

• To build programs, people use languages that are similar

to human language. The results are translated into
machine code, which computers understand.
• Therefore, programming languages are the tools we use
to write instructions for computers to follow.
• Programming languages fall into two broad categories:
◦ Low-level programming languages
▶ First Generation Languages (Machine languages)
▶ Second Generation Languages (Assembly languages)

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Evolution of Programming Languages
Cont...

• High-level programming languages

◦ Third Generation Languages
◦ Fourth Generation Languages
◦ Fifth Generation Languages

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First-Generation Languages

• Machine languages are the most basic type of computer

languages, consisting of strings of numbers the computer’s
hardware can use.
• Machine languages are the lowest level of computer
languages. Programs written in machine language consist
of 1s and 0s.
• Programs in machine language can control directly to the
computer’s hardware.

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Machine languages Cont...

• A machine language instruction consists of two parts: an

instruction part and an address part.
• The instruction part (opcode) tells the computer the
operation to be performed.
• The address part specifies the memory address of the
data to be used in the instruction.

Figure: Machie Code

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Second-Generation Languages

• Assembly languages perform the same tasks as machine

languages, but use symbolic names for opcodes and
operands instead of 1s and 0s.
• An assembly language program must be translated into a
machine language program before it can be executed on a
computer.
• Assembler: An Assembler is a program for converting
instructions written in low-level assembly code into
relocatable machine code
• To create programs in assembly language, developers use
cryptic English-like phrases to represent strings of
numbers.
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Assembly Language Code

• Example:
◦ LOAD BASEPAY
◦ ADD OVERPAY
◦ STORE GROSSPAY

Figure: Assembly Code

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Third-Generation Languages

• High-level programming languages create computer

programs using instructions that are much easier to
understand.
• Programs in a high-level languages must be translated into
a low-level language using a program called a compiler.
• A compiler translates programming code into a low-level
format.

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Third-Generation Languages

• Third-generation languages, also known as procedural

languages, are programming languages designed to be
more user-friendly by utilizing syntax similar to human
language.
• This makes it simpler for programmers to create and
understand code.
• Some well-known examples are C, C++, Java, FORTRAN,
and PASCAL.

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Fourth Generation Languages

• Fourth-generation languages are created to simplify

programming by using syntax that is more similar to
everyday human language.
• They are widely used for tasks such as database
handling, generating reports, and building graphical
user interfaces (GUIs).
• Some well-known examples are SQL, Python, Perl, Ruby,
and MATLAB.

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Fifth Generation Languages

• Fifth-generation languages represent the latest stage in

programming evolution and focus on visual programming
and artificial intelligence.
• These languages use visual tools and constraint-based
logic to create programs.
• Examples of fifth-generation languages are Prolog, OPS5,
and Mercury.

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Conclusion

• The first two generations are called low-level languages.

• The other three generations are called high-level
languages.

Figure: Generations of programming languages

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Some key terminology

• A computer program is a set of instructions used to

operate a computer to produce a specific result.
• Writing computer programs is called computer
programming.
• The languages used to create computer programs are
called programming languages.
• Software means a program or a set of programs.

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Types of Programming Languages

• Procedural programming languages

• Functional programming languages
• Object-oriented programming languages (OOP)
• Scripting languages
• Logic programming languages

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Types of Programming Languages

• Procedural programming languages

◦ A procedural language follows a sequence of statements
or commands in order to achieve a desired output.
◦ It relies on the concept of dividing a program into reusable
blocks or functions.
◦ Functions can be reused, reducing redundancy.
◦ Control structures like loops and conditionals guide
program flow.
◦ Example: C and C++, Pascal, Fortran

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Types of Programming Languages

• Functional programming languages

◦ Functional programming emphasizes pure functions and
avoids changing states or mutable data.
◦ Each function–a reusable module of code–performs a
specific task and returns a result.
◦ The result will vary depending on what data you input into
the function.
◦ Example: Scala, Erlang, Lisp, Haskell

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Types of Programming Languages

• Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Languages

◦ This type of language treats a program as a group of
objects composed of data and program elements, known
as attributes and methods
◦ It focuses on reusability and modularity by representing
real-world entities.
◦ Objects can be reused within a program or in other
programs.
◦ This makes it a popular language type for complex
programs, as code is easier to reuse and scale.
◦ Example: Java, Python, PHP, Ruby, C++

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Types of Programming Languages

• Scripting languages
◦ Scripting languages are interpreted at runtime and are
designed to automate tasks, enhance existing systems, or
create dynamic functionality.
◦ Programmers use scripting languages to automate
repetitive tasks, manage dynamic web content, or support
processes in larger applications.
◦ Example: JavaScript, Python, PHP, Perl, Node.JS

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Types of Programming Languages

• Logic programming languages

◦ Instead of telling a computer what to do, a logic
programming language expresses a series of facts and
rules to instruct the computer on how to make decisions.
◦ Logic programming uses formal logic to express
computation.
◦ Ideal for AI, knowledge representation, and reasoning
tasks.
◦ Example: Prolog for AI and NLP, Datalog for database
queries and deductive reasoning, Absys, Alma-0

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Syntax in Programming

• Syntax refers to the set of rules and structure that define

how code must be written in a programming language.
• It ensures that a program is grammatically correct and
follows the language’s conventions.
• Rules of Syntax: These are predefined rules specifying
how to write keywords, variables, operators, and
expressions.

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Syntax in Programming

• Example: Every statement in Python or C++ or Java must

follow a specific structure, like indentation for blocks.
• If there is a syntax error, the code will not execute, and the
compiler or interpreter will throw an error.

Figure: Syntax

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Syntax in example in C and C++

Figure: C Programming Figure: C++ Programming

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Syntax in example in C and C++

Figure: C Programming Figure: C++ Programming

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Semantics in Programming

• Semantics refers to the meaning or logic behind the code.

It ensures that the written program behaves as intended
and produces the desired results.
• Even if the syntax is correct, the program might fail to
execute properly if the semantics are wrong.
• Semantics focuses on the logic and correctness of the
operations and their intended purpose.

Figure: Semantics

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Program Development Life Cycle

• The Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC) is a process

used in software engineering to manage the development
of software programs.
• It is a systematic process used to develop, maintain, and
enhance software programs.
• It consists of a series of stages to ensure that a program
meets user requirements is delivered on time, and
performs as expected.

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 Program Development Life Cycle

Phases of Program Development Life Cycle

1. Planning
2. Analysis
3. Design
4. Implementation
5. Testing
6. Deployment
7. Maintenance

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 Program Development Life Cycle

Steps in PDLC
1. Problem Definition
2. Feasibility Study &
Analysis
3. Program Design
4. Implementation (Coding)
5. Testing and Debugging
6. Deployment &
Maintenance
Figure: Program Development
Life Cycle
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 Program Development Life Cycle

1. Problem Definition
• To understand and clearly define the problem the program
is intended to solve.
• Key Activities:
◦ Identify the program’s purpose and scope.
◦ Gather and document requirements from stakeholders.
◦ Specify constraints and success criteria.

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 Program Development Life Cycle

2. Feasibility Study & Analysis

• Assess whether the project is viable in terms of technical,
financial, and operational aspects.
• Key Activities:
◦ Analyze cost, time, and resources required.
◦ Evaluate technical capabilities and tools.
◦ Identify risks and mitigation strategies.

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 Program Development Life Cycle

3. Program Design
• Plan how the program will function to meet requirements.
• Key Activities:
◦ Create algorithms, flowcharts, or pseudocode.
◦ Design the program architecture (e.g., modules, data flow).
◦ Specify user interfaces and interactions.
◦ Choose appropriate programming languages and
frameworks.

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 Program Development Life Cycle

4. Implementation(Coding)
• Write the program code based on the design
specifications.
• Key Activities:
◦ Develop code using the selected programming language.
◦ Adhere to coding standards and best practices.
◦ Incorporate version control for managing changes.

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 Program Development Life Cycle

5. Testing and Debugging

• Ensure the program is error-free and meets requirements.
• Key Activities:
◦ Perform unit testing, integration testing, and system testing.
◦ Identify and fix bugs or errors.
◦ Test for performance, security, and usability.

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 Program Development Life Cycle

6. Deployment & Maintenance

• Deliver the program to end-users and make it operational.
• Ensure the program continues to function correctly and
adapts to changing requirements.
• Key Activities:
◦ Prepare and execute deployment procedures.
◦ Provide user training and documentation.
◦ Configure the program in the live environment.
◦ Monitor program performance and address issues.
◦ Apply updates and upgrades as needed.

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Benefits of PDLC

• Facilitates communication
• Identifies and manages risks
• Improves quality
• Increases efficiency

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Limitations of PDLC

• Can be time-consuming
• Can be inflexible
• Can be costly
• Can be complex
• May not be suitable for smaller projects

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