Activity II.

Data Collection and Sampling Techniques

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this activity, the learners will be able to:

1. Define parameter and statistics and differentiate samples from

population.
2. Identify data as either quantitative or qualitative.
3. Classify the different levels of measurements.
4. Determine and classify the different types of sampling
procedures.
5. Determine appropriate data gathering technique used in research
problems.
6. Perform sampling from any target population.

MOTIVATION
In this activity, you will know how to get a sample size out of a
population size. You will know what would be the appropriate sampling
technique and data gathering method you will use in your researches.

DISCUSSION
Before proceeding further, it is important to understand the basic
concepts about the set of observations to be gathered in a study. The
totality of the observation of which a study is concerned about is called the
population of the study.

Taking the whole population into the study is costly, laborious, time-
consuming and sometimes impossible. Suppose your study deals with the
opinion of the recipients on the 4P’s in the different barangays of your City
whether the program greatly helps their livelihood or not. Then this study is
too costly if you make census since you will need to go to each recipient in
each barangay and ask about their opinion. It is also very laborious and will
take you so long to finish. Perhaps, it will also be impossible to get the
opinion of all recipients because some of them might be in other places for
vacation when you conducted the study. Thus, there arises a need to study
only a part of the population which we call sample. Ideally, the sample
must be taken in such a way that it represents the population very well.
 Definitions:

Data are facts, or a set of

information gathered or under
Definitions: study.

Population refers to a large Quantitative Data are numerical

collection of objects, places or in nature and therefore meaningful
things. arithmetic can be done.

Parameter is any numerical value Example: age

which describes a population. Qualitative Data are attributes
Example: There are 8,756 which cannot be subjected to
students enrolled in Nursing meaningful arithmetic.

N=8,756 Example: gender

Sample is a small portion or a part

of a population; a representative of
the population in a research study. Definitions:

Statistic is any numerical value Discrete Data assume exact

which describes a sample. values only and can be obtained
by counting.
Example: Of the 8, 756
students enrolled in Nursing, 2,893 Example: number of students
are Male.
Continuous Data assume infinite
n=2, 893 values within a specified interval
and can be obtained by
measurement

Example: height
 It is important to know the kinds of variables you are dealing with, so
that the data gathered can be properly interpreted and the appropriate
statistics are used. For instance, you can talk about the average (mean)
grade or average (mean) price which are interval or ratio data, but not the
average size of shoes sold, which is ordinal data. These four types of
variables are sometimes referred to as levels of measurements.

Definitions:

Nominal numbers do not mean anything; they just label.

Example: SSS number
Ordinal numbers are used to label + rank.
Example: size of t-shirt
Interval numbers are used to label + rank; do not have a true zero.
Example: temperature
Ratio numbers are used to label + rank + equal unit of interval; have true
zero.
Example: number of votes

Sometimes , it’s hard to distinguish interval from ratio, because

they are used interchangeably. Don’t worry, it won’t make you lose
your grasp of other statistical terms…just remember that interval
has no true zero, while ratio has a true zero.
Next is the schematic diagram of the two types of sampling techniques,

Take
Types of Sampling Techniques Note!

Non- Probability Sampling Probability Sampling

Convenience Simple
Quota Systematic
Purposive Stratified
Snowball Cluster

Probability Sampling-samples are chosen in a such a way that each

member of the population has a known though not necessarily equal
chance of being included in the samples. It has two distinct advantages.
First, it avoids biases that might arise if samples were selected based on
the whims of the researcher. Second, it provides the basis for calculating
the margin of error.

(1) Simple Random Sampling

This is the simplest form of random sampling where every subset of

size n of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

A simple random sample can be done using the “fishbowl” method,

“draw lots” method or using random numbers. In drawing a simple random
sample, the researcher is in effect mixing up the units in the population
before a sample of n units is selected.
Example:

a) Lottery: This needs a complete listing of the members of the

population. You write the names or codes on a piece of paper or
cards, place them in a large container, then randomly draw the
desired number of samples. The process is relatively easy for
small populations but relatively complicated and time-consuming
for large populations.

b) Generation of random numbers/digits: This is a better and perhaps

more efficient method for selecting a simple random sample.
Computers and even your calculators can be used to generate
random digits. The randomly produced digits can be used to pick
your samples. However, a complete listing of the members of the
population is needed in this type of random selection.

(2) Systematic Sampling

This is also called interval sampling. It means that there is a gap or

interval between each selection. Samples are randomly chosen following
certain rules set by the researchers. This involves choosing the kth member
of the population, with , but there should be a random start.

Example: Choose a sample of size 10 from N= 500, using systematic

random sampling.

Step 1: Determine k (period); , so this means that you have to

include every 50th member of N after choosing a random start.

Step 2: Put the random start at 15.

Step 3: Include in the samples the following: 15,
65,115,165,215,265,315,365,415, and 465.

(3) Stratified Sampling

This method is used when the population is too big to handle,

thus diving N into subgroups, called strata, is necessary. Samples
per stratum are then randomly selected, but considerations must be
given to the sizes of the random samples to be selected from the
subgroups.

A process that can be used is proportional allocation. This

procedure chooses sample sizes proportional to the sizes of the
different subgroups or strata.

Proportional Allocation. If the size N of the population is divided into k

homogeneous subpopulations or strata of sizes , , then the
sample size to be taken from each stratum i is obtained using the formula

Note: If is not a whole number, then it is rounded-off to the nearest whole

number.
Example: A survey to find out if families living in a certain municipality are
in favor of Charter change will be conducted. To ensure that all income
groups are represented, respondents will be divided into high-income
(Class A), middle- (Class B) and low-income (Class C) groups. Below is the
distribution of income groups.

Strata Number of Families samples

Class A 1,000 =74

Class B 2,500 =185

Class C 1,500 =111

Total N=5,000 n = 370

Using a 5% margin of error, how many families should be included in the

samples?

Solution: By using Slovin’s formula: ;

thus at least 370 families should be included in the survey.

If we use proportional allocation to select stratified random sample of size n

= 370, how large a sample must be taken from each stratum?
(4) Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is sometimes called area sampling because it

is usually applied when the population is large. In this technique,
groups or clusters instead of individuals are randomly chosen. Recall
that in the simple random sampling, you select members of the
samples individually. In cluster sampling, you will draw the members
of the sample by group or cluster and then you select a sample from
each group or cluster individually.

To illustrate its use, for instance, you want determine the

average daily expenses of families living in Quezon City. Assume that
there are 300 barangays in Quezon City. You can draw a random
sample of 30 barangays using simple random sampling and then get
a certain number of families from each of the 30 barangays.

Non-probability sampling- is one in which individuals or items are chosen

in a manner that does not involve random selection process. This is usually
used when the size of the population is either unknown or cannot be
individually identified. Here, personal preferences are applied. Because
chance is not used to select items, the techniques are called non-
probability techniques and are not desirable for use in gathering data to be
analysed by the methods of statistical inference because the reliability of
the measures cannot be determined objectively.
 (1) Convenience Sampling

This type is used because of the convenience it offers to the

researcher.

Example: Gathering of data through the telephone.

(2) Quota Sampling

This is very similar to stratified random sampling. The only difference
is that the selection of the members of the samples in stratified
sampling is done randomly.

Example: To get the most popular noontime show, each field

researcher is given a quota of say 200 viewers per area.

(3) Purposive Sampling

Choosing the respondents on the basis of pre-determined criteria set
by the researcher.

Example: Suppose the research is all about the level of maturity of

teenage parents in a particular school. Of course only teenage
parents in that school will be the respondents.
(4) Snowball Sampling
The survey subjects of snowball sampling are selected based on
referral from other survey respondents or selecting a sample using
networks. The researcher identifies a person who fits the profile of
subjects for the study and that person who is being selected by
 researcher become a part of the sample. The researcher then asks
this person for the names and locations of others who would also fit
the profile of subjects for the study. This process is continued until the
required number in terms of the information being sought, has been
reached. Through these referrals, survey subjects can be identified
cheaply and efficiently, which is particularly useful when survey
subjects are difficult to locate. This sampling technique is useful if you
know little about the group or organization you wish to study, as you
only need to make contact with a few individuals, who can then direct
you to the other members of the group.

Example: A researcher wanted to study the factors why some

students occasionally use prohibited drugs. He intended to get 50
students, but he only knew 5 students who used it. By getting the
cooperation of these 5 students, he was referred to other drug users,
who in turn also provide additional contacts. In this way, he was able
to get sufficient number of students he needed.

Methods of Collecting Data

In the planning stage of a study, one of the critical things to be

decided upon is the method to be used in collecting the data. Five methods
or data collection are discussed below and each of them has their own
strengths and weaknesses. The choice will depend upon the availability of
time and resource, the appropriateness of the method, the type of sample
units to be studied and others.
 A. Interview Method

This is a person-to-person encounter between the one soliciting

information (also known as the interviewer) and the one supplying the
information (also known as the interviewee). It can be conducted in person
or through telephone conversation.

 Advantages:
1.) Questions can be repeated, rephrased, or modified for
better understanding.
2.) Answers may be clarified, thus ensuring more precise
information.
3.) Information can be evaluated since the interviewer can
observe the facial expression of the interviewee.

 Disadvantages:
1.) It is too costly because you might need to spend a lot for
transportation, aside from other incidental expenses.
2.) It can cover only a limited number of individuals in a
given period of time. Hence, you need longer time to
finish the data collection.
3.) Interviewees may feel pressured for on-the-spot-
responses.
4.) People may give different answers to different
interviewers.
5.) People may say what they think an interviewer wants to
hear or what they think will impress the interviewer.
 6.) A particular interviewer may affect the accuracy of the
response by misreading questions, recording responses
inaccurately, or antagonizing the respondent.

B. Questionnaire Method
This could be mailed or hand-carried (delivered in person).
 Advantages:
1.) It is less expensive and has a greater scope than the
interview method.
2.) Respondents have enough time to formulate appropriate
responses.

 Disadvantages:
1.) Low return rate. Only a few would care to mail back the
questionnaire.
2.) People do not always understand the questions or
sometimes, certain words mean different things to different
people. Hence, there is no way that they can make
clarification before they answer the questionnaire.
C. Observation Method

This is appropriate in obtaining data pertaining to behaviour of an

individual or group of individuals at the time of occurrence of a given
situation. Subjects may be observed individually or collectively.
D. Experimentation Method
This can be applied in obtaining data from the experiment.
 Advantage:
Experiment can be made again.
 Disadvantage:
It takes long time and great effort to wait for the result especially
when you failed in your first experiment because in that case, you
must repeat your experiment in order for you to have a good outcome
or result.

E. Use of Existing Data

The data are coming from:
(a) Documents (books and magazines, hospital records, public files,
registrations, etc.)
(b) From the internet
 Advantages:
1.) Provide information about the incidence (the number of new
cases), prevalence (the number of existing cases), and rate (the
proportion of a population with the particular concern in a
population (Rossi and Freeman, 1993).
2.) Aid in definition and selection of target population.
3.) Help improve the planning and design of new study.
 Disadvantages:
1.) If you are using agency records, your information will apply only to
those individuals participating in that program. Agency records
exclude data on individuals who are not participating.
2.) If you are using published reports or data collected by outside
sources, you will not have enough information about the
individuals involved in the specific study you are evaluating.
3.) It cannot give the precise information about the geographic area,
unless it was collected specifically in your area. For example, if
you access the records on teen pregnancy rates, those rates may
not accurately reflect the pregnancy rates in your own community.
4.) Published reports will not let you to determine the impact of your
study on its actual participants.