where

y– = fAx– 1 , x– 2 B

0f
K1 =
0x1 x1 = x– 1 , x2 = x– 2

0f
K2 =
0x2 x1 = x– 1 , x2 = x– 2

The linearization technique presented here is valid in the vicinity of the operating
condition. If the operating conditions vary widely, however, such linearized equations are
not adequate, and nonlinear equations must be dealt with. It is important to remember
that a particular mathematical model used in analysis and design may accurately rep-
resent the dynamics of an actual system for certain operating conditions, but may not be
accurate for other operating conditions.

EXAMPLE 2–5 Linearize the nonlinear equation

z=xy
in the region 5 x 7, 10 y 12. Find the error if the linearized equation is used to calcu-
late the value of z when x=5, y=10.
Since the region considered is given by 5 x 7, 10 y 12, choose x– = 6, y– = 11. Then
–z = x– y– = 66. Let us obtain a linearized equation for the nonlinear equation near a point x– = 6,
y– = 11.
Expanding the nonlinear equation into a Taylor series about point x = x– , y = y– and neglecting
the higher-order terms, we have

z - z– = aAx - x– B + bAy - y– B

where
0(xy)
a = = y– = 11
0x x = x– , y = y–

0(xy)
b = = x– = 6
0y x = x– , y = y–

Hence the linearized equation is

z-66=11(x-6)+6(y-11)
or
z=11x+6y-66

When x=5, y=10, the value of z given by the linearized equation is

z=11x+6y-66=55+60-66=49

The exact value of z is z=xy=50. The error is thus 50-49=1. In terms of percentage, the
error is 2%.

Section 2–7 / Linearization of Nonlinear Mathematical Models 45

 EXAMPLE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

A–2–1. Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 2–17.

Solution. First, move the branch point of the path involving H1 outside the loop involving H2 , as
shown in Figure 2–18(a). Then eliminating two loops results in Figure 2–18(b). Combining two
blocks into one gives Figure 2–18(c).
A–2–2. Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 2–19. Obtain the transfer function relating C(s) and
R(s).

H1

R(s) + C(s)
+ G +
–

Figure 2–17
Block diagram of a H2
system.

H1
G

R(s) + C(s)
(a) + G +
–

H2

R(s) G H1 C(s)
(b) 1+
1 + GH2 G
Figure 2–18
Simplified block
diagrams for the
R(s) G + H1 C(s)
system shown in (c)
Figure 2–17. 1 + GH2

R(s) X(s) C(s)

G1 + G2 +
+ +

Figure 2–19
Block diagram of a
system.

46 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

 R(s) C(s)
G1 + G2 +
+ +

(a)

R(s) C(s)
G1 + 1 G2 +
+

(b)

Figure 2–20 R(s) C(s)

Reduction of the G1G2 + G2 + 1
block diagram shown
in Figure 2–19. (c)

Solution. The block diagram of Figure 2–19 can be modified to that shown in Figure 2–20(a).
Eliminating the minor feedforward path, we obtain Figure 2–20(b), which can be simplified to
Figure 2–20(c). The transfer function C(s)/R(s) is thus given by
C(s)
= G1 G2 + G2 + 1
R(s)
The same result can also be obtained by proceeding as follows: Since signal X(s) is the sum
of two signals G1 R(s) and R(s), we have
X(s) = G1 R(s) + R(s)
The output signal C(s) is the sum of G2 X(s) and R(s). Hence
C(s) = G2 X(s) + R(s) = G2 C G1 R(s) + R(s) D + R(s)
And so we have the same result as before:
C(s)
= G1 G2 + G2 + 1
R(s)
A–2–3. Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 2–21. Then obtain the closed-loop transfer function
C(s)/R(s).

H3

R(s) + C(s)
+ G1 + G2 + G3 G4
– –

Figure 2–21
Block diagram of a H1 H2
system.

Example Problems and Solutions 47

 Openmirrors.com

1 H3
G1 G4

R(s) + C(s)
+ + G1 G2 + G3 G4
– –

H1 H2

(a)

H3
G1G4

R(s) G1 G2 G3 G4 C(s)
+
+
1 + G1 G2 H1 1 + G3 G4 H2
(b)
Figure 2–22
Successive R(s) C(s)
G1 G2 G3 G4
reductions of the
1+ G1 G2 H1 + G3 G4 H2 – G2 G3 H3 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1 H2
block diagram shown
in Figure 2–21. (c)

Solution. First move the branch point between G3 and G4 to the right-hand side of the loop con-
taining G3 , G4 , and H2 . Then move the summing point between G1 and G2 to the left-hand side
of the first summing point. See Figure 2–22(a). By simplifying each loop, the block diagram can
be modified as shown in Figure 2–22(b). Further simplification results in Figure 2–22(c), from
which the closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) is obtained as
C(s) G1 G2 G3 G4
=
R(s) 1 + G1 G2 H1 + G3 G4 H2 - G2 G3 H3 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1 H2
A–2–4. Obtain transfer functions C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/D(s) of the system shown in Figure 2–23.
Solution. From Figure 2–23 we have
U(s) = Gf R(s) + Gc E(s) (2–47)
C(s) = Gp C D(s) + G1 U(s)D (2–48)
E(s) = R(s) - HC(s) (2–49)

Gf D(s)

R(s) E(s) + U(s) + C(s)

+ Gc + G1 + Gp
–

Figure 2–23
Control system with
reference input and H
disturbance input.

48 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

 By substituting Equation (2–47) into Equation (2–48), we get

C(s) = Gp D(s) + G1 Gp C Gf R(s) + Gc E(s)D (2–50)

By substituting Equation (2–49) into Equation (2–50), we obtain

C(s) = Gp D(s) + G1 Gp EGf R(s) + Gc C R(s) - HC(s) D F

Solving this last equation for C(s), we get

C(s) + G1 Gp Gc HC(s) = Gp D(s) + G1 Gp AGf + Gc BR(s)

Hence
Gp D(s) + G1 Gp AGf + Gc BR(s)
C(s) = (2–51)
1 + G1 Gp Gc H

Note that Equation (2–51) gives the response C(s) when both reference input R(s) and distur-
bance input D(s) are present.
To find transfer function C(s)/R(s), we let D(s)=0 in Equation (2–51). Then we obtain

C(s) G1 Gp AGf + Gc B
=
R(s) 1 + G1 Gp Gc H

Similarly, to obtain transfer function C(s)/D(s), we let R(s)=0 in Equation (2–51). Then
C(s)/D(s) can be given by

C(s) Gp
=
D(s) 1 + G1 Gp Gc H

A–2–5. Figure 2–24 shows a system with two inputs and two outputs. Derive C1(s)/R1(s), C1(s)/R2(s),
C2(s)/R1(s), and C2(s)/R2(s). (In deriving outputs for R1(s), assume that R2(s) is zero, and vice
versa.)

R1 + G1 C1
−

G2

G3
Figure 2–24
System with two
−
inputs and two R2 + G4 C2
outputs.

Example Problems and Solutions 49

 Solution. From the figure, we obtain

C1 = G1 AR1 - G3 C2 B (2–52)

C2 = G4 AR2 - G2 C1 B (2–53)

By substituting Equation (2–53) into Equation (2–52), we obtain

C1 = G1 CR1 - G3 G4 AR2 - G2 C1 B D (2–54)

By substituting Equation (2–52) into Equation (2–53), we get

C2 = G4 CR2 - G2 G1 AR1 - G3 C2 B D (2–55)

Solving Equation (2–54) for C1 , we obtain

G1 R1 - G1 G3 G4 R2
C1 = (2–56)
1 - G1 G2 G3 G4

Solving Equation (2–55) for C2 gives

-G1 G2 G4 R1 + G4 R2
C2 = (2–57)
1 - G1 G2 G3 G4

Equations (2–56) and (2–57) can be combined in the form of the transfer matrix as follows:

G1 G1 G3 G4
-
C1 1 - G1 G2 G3 G4 1 - G1 G2 G3 G4 R1
=
C2 G1 G2 G4 G4 R2
-
1 - G1 G2 G3 G4 1 - G1 G2 G3 G4

Then the transfer functions C1(s)/R1(s), C1(s)/R2(s), C2(s)/R1(s) and C2(s)/R2(s) can be obtained
as follows:

C1(s) G1 C1(s) G1 G3 G4
= , = -
R1(s) 1 - G1 G2 G3 G4 R2(s) 1 - G1 G2 G3 G4

C2(s) G1 G2 G4 C2(s) G4
= - , =
R1(s) 1 - G1 G2 G3 G4 R2(s) 1 - G1 G2 G3 G4

Note that Equations (2–56) and (2–57) give responses C1 and C2 , respectively, when both inputs
R1 and R2 are present.
Notice that when R2(s)=0, the original block diagram can be simplified to those shown in
Figures 2–25(a) and (b). Similarly, when R1(s)=0, the original block diagram can be simplified
to those shown in Figures 2–25(c) and (d). From these simplified block diagrams we can also ob-
tain C1(s)/R1(s), C2(s)/R1(s), C1(s)/R2(s), and C2(s)/R2(s), as shown to the right of each corre-
sponding block diagram.

50 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

 R1 C1 C1 G1
(a) +
–
G1
R1
= 1 – G1 G2 G3 G4

G3 G4 –G2

R1 C2 C2 – G1 G2 G4
(b)
+
– G1 –G2 G4 R1
= 1 – G1 G2 G3 G4

G3

R2 C1 C1 – G1 G3 G4
(c) +
– G4 –G3 G1
R2
= 1 – G1 G2 G3 G4

G2

Figure 2–25
R2 C2 C2 G4
Simplified block (d) + G4 =
diagrams and – R2 1 – G1 G2G3 G4
corresponding
closed-loop transfer G2 G1 –G3
functions.

A–2–6. Show that for the differential equation system

% $ # % $ #
y + a 1 y + a 2 y + a 3 y = b0 u + b1 u + b2 u + b3 u (2–58)

state and output equations can be given, respectively, by

#
x1 0 1 0 x1 b1
#
x2 = 0 0 1 x2 + b2 u (2–59)
#
x3 -a 3 -a2 -a1 x3 b3
and
x1
y = [1 0 0] x2 + b0 u (2–60)
x3

where state variables are defined by

x1 = y - b0 u
# # #
x2 = y - b0 u - b1 u = x1 - b1 u
$ $ # #
x3 = y - b0 u - b1 u - b2 u = x2 - b2 u

Example Problems and Solutions 51

 and
b0 = b0
b1 = b1 - a 1 b0
b2 = b2 - a 1 b1 - a 2 b0
b3 = b3 - a 1 b2 - a 2 b1 - a 3 b0

Solution. From the definition of state variables x2 and x3 , we have

#
x1 = x2 + b1 u (2–61)
#
x2 = x3 + b2 u (2–62)
#
To derive the equation for x3 , we first note from Equation (2–58) that
% $ # % $ #
y = -a1 y - a 2 y - a 3 y + b0 u + b1 u + b2 u + b3 u
Since
$ $ #
x3 = y - b0 u - b1 u - b2 u
we have
# % % $ #
x3 = y - b0 u - b1 u - b2 u
$ # % $ # % $ #
= A-a 1 y - a 2 y - a 3 yB + b0 u + b1 u + b2 u + b3 u - b0 u - b1 u - b2 u
$ $ # $ #
= -a 1 Ay - b0 u - b1 u - b2 uB - a 1 b0 u - a 1 b1 u - a1 b2 u
# # #
-a 2 Ay - b0 u - b1 uB - a 2 b0 u - a2 b1 u - a 3 Ay - b0 uB - a3 b0 u
% $ # % $ #
+ b0 u + b1 u + b2 u + b3 u - b0 u - b1 u - b2 u
% $
= -a 1 x3 - a 2 x2 - a 3 x1 + Ab0 - b0 B u + Ab1 - b1 - a1 b0 Bu
#
+ Ab2 - b2 - a 1 b1 - a 2 b0 Bu + Ab3 - a 1 b2 - a 2 b1 - a 3 b0 Bu
= -a 1 x3 - a 2 x2 - a 3 x1 + Ab3 - a 1 b2 - a2 b1 - a 3 b0 Bu
= -a 1 x3 - a 2 x2 - a 3 x1 + b3 u

Hence, we get
#
x3 = -a 3 x1 - a 2 x2 - a 1 x3 + b3 u (2–63)

Combining Equations (2–61), (2–62), and (2–63) into a vector-matrix equation, we obtain Equa-
tion (2–59). Also, from the definition of state variable x1 , we get the output equation given by
Equation (2–60).

A–2–7. Obtain a state-space equation and output equation for the system defined by

Y(s) 2s 3 + s2 + s + 2
=
U(s) s3 + 4s2 + 5s + 2

Solution. From the given transfer function, the differential equation for the system is
% $ # % $ #
y + 4y + 5y + 2y = 2 u + u + u + 2u

Comparing this equation with the standard equation given by Equation (2–33), rewritten
% $ # % $ #
y + a 1 y + a 2 y + a 3 y = b0 u + b1 u + b2u + b3 u

52 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

we find
a 1 = 4, a 2 = 5, a3 = 2
b0 = 2, b1 = 1, b2 = 1, b3 = 2

Referring to Equation (2–35), we have

b0 = b0 = 2

b1 = b1 - a 1 b0 = 1 - 4 * 2 = -7

b2 = b2 - a 1 b1 - a 2 b0 = 1 - 4 * (-7) - 5 * 2 = 19

b3 = b3 - a 1 b2 - a 2 b1 - a3 b0

= 2 - 4 * 19 - 5 * (-7) - 2 * 2 = -43

Referring to Equation (2–34), we define

x1 = y - b0 u = y - 2u
# #
x2 = x1 - b1 u = x1 + 7u
# #
x3 = x2 - b2 u = x2 - 19u

Then referring to Equation (2–36),

#
x1 = x2 - 7u
#
x2 = x3 + 19u
#
x3 = -a 3 x1 - a 2 x2 - a 1 x3 + b3 u
= -2x1 - 5x2 - 4x3 - 43u

Hence, the state-space representation of the system is

#
x1 0 1 0 x1 -7
#
x2 = 0 0 1 x2 + 19 u
#
x3 -2 -5 -4 x3 -43
x1
y = [1 0 0] x2 + 2u
x3
This is one possible state-space representation of the system. There are many (infinitely many)
others. If we use MATLAB, it produces the following state-space representation:
#
x1 -4 -5 -2 x1 1
#
x2 = 1 0 0 x2 + 0 u
#
x3 0 1 0 x3 0
x1
y = [-7 -9 -2] x2 + 2u
x3
See MATLAB Program 2-4. (Note that all state-space representations for the same system are
equivalent.)

Example Problems and Solutions 53

 MATLAB Program 2–4
num = [2 1 1 2];
den = [1 4 5 2];
[A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(num,den)

A=

-4 -5 -2
1 0 0
0 1 0

B=

1
0
0

C=

-7 -9 -2

D=

A–2–8. Obtain a state-space model of the system shown in Figure 2–26.

Solution. The system involves one integrator and two delayed integrators. The output of each
integrator or delayed integrator can be a state variable. Let us define the output of the plant as
x1 , the output of the controller as x2 , and the output of the sensor as x3 . Then we obtain
X1(s) 10
=
X2(s) s + 5
X2(s) 1
=
U(s) - X3(s) s
X3(s) 1
=
X1(s) s + 1
Y(s) = X1(s)

U(s) 1 10 Y(s)
+
– s s+5

Controller Plant

1
s+1
Figure 2–26
Control system. Sensor

54 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

 which can be rewritten as
sX1(s) = -5X1(s) + 10X2(s)
sX2(s) = -X3(s) + U(s)
sX3(s) = X1(s) - X3(s)
Y(s) = X1(s)
By taking the inverse Laplace transforms of the preceding four equations, we obtain
#
x 1 = -5x1 + 10x2
#
x 2 = -x3 + u
#
x 3 = x1 - x 3
y = x1
Thus, a state-space model of the system in the standard form is given by
#
x1 -5 10 0 x1 0
#
x2 = 0 0 -1 x2 + 1 u
#
x3 1 0 -1 x3 0
x1
y = [1 0 0] x2
x3
It is important to note that this is not the only state-space representation of the system. Infinite-
ly many other state-space representations are possible. However, the number of state variables is
the same in any state-space representation of the same system. In the present system, the num-
ber of state variables is three, regardless of what variables are chosen as state variables.
A–2–9. Obtain a state-space model for the system shown in Figure 2–27(a).
Solution. First, notice that (as+b)/s2 involves a derivative term. Such a derivative term may be
avoided if we modify (as+b)/s2 as
as + b b 1
= aa + b
s2 s s
Using this modification, the block diagram of Figure 2–27(a) can be modified to that shown in
Figure 2–27(b).
Define the outputs of the integrators as state variables, as shown in Figure 2–27(b).Then from
Figure 2–27(b) we obtain
X1(s) 1
=
X2(s) + a CU(s) - X1(s) D s
X2(s) b
=
U(s) - X1(s) s
Y(s) = X1(s)
which may be modified to
sX1(s) = X2(s) + aC U(s) - X1(s) D
sX2(s) = -bX1(s) + bU(s)
Y(s) = X1(s)

Example Problems and Solutions 55

 U(s) Y(s)
+ as + b 1
– s2

(a)

U(s) X2(s) + X1(s) Y(s)

+ b + 1
– s s

Figure 2–27
(a) Control system;
(b) modified block
diagram. (b)

Taking the inverse Laplace transforms of the preceding three equations, we obtain
#
x1 = -ax1 + x2 + au
#
x2 = -bx1 + bu
y = x1
Rewriting the state and output equations in the standard vector-matrix form, we obtain
#
x1 -a 1 x1 a
# = + u
x2 -b 0 x2 b
x1
y = [1 0]
x2

A–2–10. Obtain a state-space representation of the system shown in Figure 2–28(a).

Solution. In this problem, first expand (s+z)/(s+p) into partial fractions.
s + z z - p
= 1 +
s + p s + p
Next, convert K/ Cs(s+a)D into the product of K/s and 1/(s+a). Then redraw the block diagram,
as shown in Figure 2–28(b). Defining a set of state variables, as shown in Figure 2–28(b), we ob-
tain the following equations:
#
x 1 = -ax1 + x2
#
x 2 = -Kx1 + Kx3 + Ku
#
x 3 = -(z - p)x1 - px3 + (z - p)u
y = x1

56 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

 u s+z K y
+
– s+p s(s + a)

(a)

u z–p x3 + K x2 x1 y
1
Figure 2–28 + +
– s+p s s+a
(a) Control system;
(b) block diagram
defining state
variables for the
system. (b)

Rewriting gives
#
x1 -a 1 0 x1 0
#
x2 = -K 0 K x2 + K u
#
x3 -(z - p) 0 -p x3 z - p
x1
y = [1 0 0] x2
x3
Notice that the output of the integrator and the outputs of the first-order delayed integrators
C1/(s+a) and (z-p)/(s+p)D are chosen as state variables. It is important to remember that
the output of the block (s+z)/(s+p) in Figure 2–28(a) cannot be a state variable, because this
block involves a derivative term, s+z.
A–2–11. Obtain the transfer function of the system defined by
#
x1 -1 1 0 x1 0
#
x2 = 0 -1 1 x2 + 0 u
#
x3 0 0 -2 x3 1
x1
y = [1 0 0] x2
x3

Solution. Referring to Equation (2–29), the transfer function G(s) is given by

G(s) = C(sI - A)-1B + D

In this problem, matrices A, B, C, and D are
-1 1 0 0
A = 0 -1 1 , B = 0 , C = [1 0 0], D = 0
0 0 -2 1

Example Problems and Solutions 57

 Hence

-1
s + 1 -1 0 0
G(s) = [1 0 0] 0 s + 1 -1 0
0 0 s + 2 1

1 1 1
s + 1 (s + 1)2 (s + 1)2(s + 2)
0
1 1
= [1 0 0] 0 0
s + 1 (s + 1)(s + 2)
1
1
0 0
s + 2

1 1
= = 3
(s + 1)2(s + 2) s + 4s2 + 5s + 2

A–2–12. Consider a system with multiple inputs and multiple outputs. When the system has more than one
output, the MATLAB command

[NUM,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,iu)

produces transfer functions for all outputs to each input. (The numerator coefficients are returned
to matrix NUM with as many rows as there are outputs.)
Consider the system defined by

#
x1 0 1 x1 1 1 u1
# = +
x2 -25 -4 x2 0 1 u2

y1 1 0 x1 0 0 u1
= +
y2 0 1 x2 0 0 u2

This system involves two inputs and two outputs. Four transfer functions are involved: Y1(s) U1(s),
Y2(s) U1(s), Y1(s) U2(s), and Y2(s) U2(s). (When considering input u1 , we assume that input u2
is zero and vice versa.)

Solution. MATLAB Program 2-5 produces four transfer functions.

This is the MATLAB representation of the following four transfer functions:

Y1(s) s + 4 Y2(s) -25

= , =
U1(s) 2
s + 4s + 25 U1(s) s 2 + 4s + 25

Y1(s) s + 5 Y2(s) s - 25
= 2
, = 2
U2(s) s + 4s + 25 U2(s) s + 4s + 25

58 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

 MATLAB Program 2–5
A = [0 1;-25 -4];
B = [1 1;0 1];
C = [1 0;0 1];
D = [0 0;0 0];
[NUM,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,1)
NUM =
0 1 4
0 0 –25
den =

1 4 25

[NUM,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,2)
NUM =
0 1.0000 5.0000
0 1.0000 -25.0000

den =
1 4 25

A–2–13. Linearize the nonlinear equation

z = x2 + 4xy + 6y2
in the region defined by 8 x 10, 2 y 4.

Solution. Define
f(x, y) = z = x2 + 4xy + 6y2
Then
0f 0f
z = f(x, y) = f(x– , y– ) + c (x - x– ) + (y - y– ) d + p
0x 0y x = x– , y = y–

where we choose x– = 9, y– = 3.
Since the higher-order terms in the expanded equation are small, neglecting these higher-
order terms, we obtain
z - z– = K (x - x– ) + K (y - y– )
1 2

where
0f
K1 = = 2x– + 4y– = 2 * 9 + 4 * 3 = 30
0x x = x– , y = y–

0f
K2 = = 4x– + 12y– = 4 * 9 + 12 * 3 = 72
0y x = x– , y = y–

z– = x– 2 + 4x– y– + 6y– 2 = 92 + 4 * 9 * 3 + 6 * 9 = 243

Example Problems and Solutions 59

 Thus

z - 243 = 30(x - 9) + 72(y - 3)

Hence a linear approximation of the given nonlinear equation near the operating point is

z - 30x - 72y + 243 = 0

PROBLEMS

B–2–1. Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 2–29 B–2–2. Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 2–30
and obtain the closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s). and obtain the closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).
B–2–3. Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 2–31
and obtain the closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).

G1
R(s) C(s) G1
+
+
– +
R(s) + C(s)
G2 + + G2
–

+ G3
– H1

+
–
G4
H2

Figure 2–29 Figure 2–30

Block diagram of a system. Block diagram of a system.

H1

R(s) + C(s)
+ G1 + + G2 + G3
– – –

H2

H3

Figure 2–31
Block diagram of a system.

60 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

B–2–4. Consider industrial automatic controllers whose ing error signal. Sketch u(t)-versus-t curves for each of the
control actions are proportional, integral, proportional-plus- five types of controllers when the actuating error signal is
integral, proportional-plus-derivative, and proportional-plus- (a) e(t)=unit-step function
integral-plus-derivative. The transfer functions of these
(b) e(t)=unit-ramp function
controllers can be given, respectively, by
In sketching curves, assume that the numerical values of Kp ,
U(s) Ki , Ti , and Td are given as
= Kp
E(s) Kp = proportional gain=4
U(s) Ki Ki = integral gain=2
= Ti = integral time=2 sec
E(s) s
Td = derivative time=0.8 sec
U(s) 1
= Kp a 1 + b B–2–5. Figure 2–32 shows a closed-loop system with a ref-
E(s) Ti s
erence input and disturbance input. Obtain the expression
U(s) for the output C(s) when both the reference input and dis-
= Kp A1 + Td sB
E(s) turbance input are present.
U(s) 1 B–2–6. Consider the system shown in Figure 2–33. Derive
= Kp a 1 + + Td s b the expression for the steady-state error when both the ref-
E(s) Ti s
erence input R(s) and disturbance input D(s) are present.
where U(s) is the Laplace transform of u(t), the controller B–2–7. Obtain the transfer functions C(s)/R(s) and
output, and E(s) the Laplace transform of e(t), the actuat- C(s)/D(s) of the system shown in Figure 2–34.

D(s)

R(s) + C(s)
+ Gc (s) Gp(s) +
–

Figure 2–32 Controller Plant

Closed-loop system.

D(s)

R(s) E(s) + C(s)

+ G1(s) + G2(s)
–

Figure 2–33
Control system.
D(s)

R(s) + C(s)
+ Gc + G1 + G2 G
– – 3

H1

Figure 2–34 H2
Control system.

Problems 61
B–2–8. Obtain a state-space representation of the system B–2–11. Consider a system defined by the following state-
shown in Figure 2–35. space equations:
#
x1 -5 -1 x1 2
# = + u
u s+z 1 y x2 3 -1 x2 5
+
– s+p s2 x1
y = [1 2]
x2
Obtain the transfer function G(s) of the system.

Figure 2–35 B–2–12. Obtain the transfer matrix of the system defined by
Control system. #
x1 0 1 0 x1 0 0
# u1
x2 = 0 0 1 x2 + 0 1
# u2
B–2–9. Consider the system described by x3 -2 -4 -6 x3 1 0
% $ # x1
y + 3y + 2y = u y1 1 0 0
= x2
Derive a state-space representation of the system. y2 0 1 0
x3
B–2–10. Consider the system described by B–2–13. Linearize the nonlinear equation
# z=x2+8xy+3y2
x1 -4 -1 x1 1
# = + u
x2 3 -1 x2 1 in the region defined by 2 x 4, 10 y 12.

x1 B–2–14. Find a linearized equation for

y = [1 0]
x2 y=0.2x3
Obtain the transfer function of the system. about a point x=2.

62 Chapter 2 / Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems