PY 313: INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS

SCIENCE

By
Ms. Andongolile T
Dept. of Physics & Mathematics
 MODULE 1
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF
MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Materials Science and Engineering
• Materials science and materials engineering
are two sub related disciplines
• Materials science deals with the relationship
between the structures and properties of
materials
• Materials engineering deals with designing
or engineering the structure based on
structure-property relation of a material
Materials Science and Engineering
• The structure of a material is the
arrangement of its internal components.
• Internal components are arranged in
order of
subatomic ---- atomic level----
microscopic ----macroscopic
 Important properties of solid materials

Property are trait/characteristics which

are essential to understand materials
• Mechanical Properties
– These properties relate to the deformation of the
material when a load or force is applied
– Eg Elastic or Young modulus or Stiffness and
strength
• Electrical Properties
– Electrical conductivity and dielectric constant
 Important properties of solid materials
• Thermal Properties
– Heat capacity and thermal conductivity
• Magnetic Properties
– demonstrate the response of a material to the
application of a magnetic field
• Optical Properties
– electromagnetic or light radiation, index of refraction
and reflectivity
• Deteriorative Properties
– chemical reactivity of materials with environment
 Processing and Performance
• In addition to structure and properties,
there are two more components, namely,
processing and performance.
• These four are inter related.
• The structure of a material will depend
on how it is processed.
• The performance of a material is a
function of its properties.
• the photograph of three
thin disk specimens of
aluminum oxide

•These differences in optical properties (optical

performances) are a consequence of differences in
structures of these materials, which have resulted from the
way the materials were processed.
 Why study Materials Science
To solve design problem involving materials
by selecting right materials among many.
I. First of all look for the properties
required of the material
– The classic example involves strength and ductility
– normally, a material having a high strength will
have only a limited ductility.
– In such cases a reasonable compromise between
two or more properties may be necessary
 Importance of Materials Science
II. Second selection consideration is any
deterioration of material properties
that may occur during service
operation.
– For example, significant reductions in mechanical
strength may result from exposure to elevated
temperatures or corrosive environments.
 Importance of Materials Science
III. Finally, what will the finished product
cost?
• A material may be found that has the
ideal set of properties but is prohibitively
expensive. Here again, some compromise
is inevitable.
 Classification of Materials
Solid materials are generally grouped into three
classifications based on chemical nature and
atomic structures:
• metals
• ceramics
• polymers
– This grouping is based on chemical nature and atomic
structures of solids.
• composites
– combinations of two or more of the above three basic
material classes.
 Classification of Materials
Advanced materials
• semiconductors
• biomaterials
• smart materials
• nano materials
these used in high-technology applications
 Metals & Alloys
• These are composed of one or more metallic
elements such as iron, aluminum, copper,
titanium, gold, and nickel, and often also
nonmetallic elements (carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
• Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged
in a very orderly manner, and in comparison
to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively
dense (shown in Figure 1.2).
Metals

Fig.1.2
• these materials are relatively stiff (Figure 1.3)

Fig. 1.3
• These are strong (Figure 1.4)

Fig. 1.4
• ductile (capable of large amounts of
deformation without fracture), and are
resistant to fracture (Figure 1.5)

Fig. 1.5
• metals are very good conductors of electricity (Figure
1.6) and heat, and are opaque (not transparent) to
visible light.

Fig. 1.6
• A polished metal surface has a shiny appearance.
• Some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) possess magnetic
properties.
• Figure 1.7 is a photograph that shows several common and
familiar objects made of metallic metals

Fig. 1.7
 Ceramics
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and
nonmetallic elements.
• They are generally oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
• E.g aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon
dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon
nitride (Si3N4).
• In addition the traditional porcelain, cement, and
glass.
• The stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to
those of the metals (Figures 1.3 and 1.4).
• Ceramics are very hard but extremely brittle (lack
ductility), and are highly susceptible to fracture
(Figure 1.5).
 Ceramics

• Common objects that are made of

ceramic materials: scissors, a china
teacup, a building brick, a floor tile, and a
glass vessel
 Ceramics
• These materials are typically bad conductors
of heat and electricity (low electrical
conductivities, Figure 1.6)
• These are more resistant to high
temperatures and harsh environments than
metals and polymers.
• Ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or
opaque (Figure 1.1).
• Some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4)
exhibit magnetic behavior.
 Polymers
• Polymers include plastic and rubber materials.
• Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically
based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements (viz.O, N, and Si).
• They possess very large molecular structures, often chain-
like in nature, that have a backbone of carbon atoms.
• Some of the common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly vinyl chloride (PVC),
polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
• Densities of these materials are low (Figure 1.2).
• Mechanically these are very weak and non-stiff (Figures 1.3
and 1.4).
• Polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic),
which means they are easily formed into complex shapes.
 Polymers
• Relatively polymers are chemically inert and non-reactive in a
large number of environments.
• The main drawback to the polymers is their tendency to
soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures.
• Electrical conductivities of polymers are low (Figure 1.6) and
they are nonmagnetic.
• The photograph in Figure 1.9 shows several familiar articles
made out of polymers.

Fig. 1.9
 Composites
• Is composed of two or more individual materials,
which come from the combinations of metals,
ceramics, and polymers.
• The design goal of a composite is to achieve a
combination of properties to incorporate the best
characteristics of each of the component materials.
• Wood and bone are naturally-occurring composite
materials
• One of the most common and familiar composites is
fiberglass (glass fiber-reinforced materials or GFRP),
in which small glass fibers are embedded within a
polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester).
 Composites
• The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but
also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also
weak and flexible). Thus, the resulting fiberglass is
relatively stiff, strong, (Figures 1.3 and 1.4) flexible,
and ductile. In addition, it has a low density (Figure
1.2).
• Another of these technologically important materials
is the “carbon fiber reinforced polymer” (or “CFRP”)
composite—carbon fibers that are embedded within
a polymer. These materials are stiffer and stronger
than the GFRP (Figures 1.3 and 1.4).
• The CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and
aerospace applications, as well as high-tech sporting
equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets,
and skis/snowboards).
 Advanced Materials
• Materials that are used in high-technology
(or high-tech) applications are advanced
materials.
• Examples of the technology include
electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD
players, computers etc.), fiber-optic systems,
spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry.
• Advanced materials are typically traditional
materials (e.g., metals, ceramics, and
polymers) whose properties have been
enhanced, and sometimes newly developed.
• These materials are normally expensive.
 Advanced Materials

Advanced materials also include:

• semiconductors
• biomaterials
• materials of the future
– smart materials
– nanoengineered materials
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors have electrical properties that are
intermediate between the electrical conductors
(metals and metal alloys) and insulators (ceramics
and polymers) as shown in Figure 1.6.
• The electrical characteristics of these materials are
extremely sensitive to the presence of minute
concentrations of impurity atoms.
• Semiconductors are key materials in the integrated
circuitry that has totally revolutionized the
electronics and computer industries.
 Biomaterials
• Biomaterials are
employed in components
implanted into the
human body for
replacement of diseased
or damaged body parts.
• These materials must not
produce toxic substances
(i.e., must not cause
adverse biological
reactions) and must be
compatible with body
tissues.
• Materials like metals,
ceramics, polymers,
composites, and
semiconductors—may be
used as biomaterials.
 Materials of the Future
A. Smart Materials
• These materials are able to sense changes in
their environments and then respond to
these changes in predetermined manners.
• Components of a smart material (or system)
include some type of sensor (that detects an
input signal), and an actuator.
• Actuators may be called upon to change
shape, position, natural frequency, or
mechanical characteristics in response to
changes in temperature, electric fields,
and/or magnetic fields.
 Smart materisls
Types of materials are commonly used for
actuators:
– shape memory alloys,
– piezoelectric ceramics,
– magneto strictive materials, and
– electrorheological / magnetorheological fluids
 A. Smart Materials

• Shape memory alloys are metals that, after having been

deformed, revert back to their original shapes when
temperature is changed.

• Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in response to an

applied electric field (or voltage); conversely, they also
generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered.

• The behavior of magnetostrictive materials is analogous to

that of the piezoelectrics, except that they are responsive to
magnetic fields.
 Smart materials
• Electrorheological and magnetorheological
fluids are liquids that experience dramatic
changes in viscosity upon the application of
electric and magnetic fields, respectively.
• For example, one type of smart system is
used in helicopters to reduce aerodynamic
cockpit noise that is created by the rotating
rotor blades.
– Piezoelectric sensors inserted into the blades monitor
stresses and deformations and sends feedback signals
to a computer-controlled adaptive device, which
generates noise-canceling antinoise.
 B. Nanoengineered Materials
• Until very recent times the trend was to study
various properties of materials by beginning
from large and complex structures to the
smaller and simpler structures (fundamental
building blocks).
• This approach is called “topdown” science.
• Now with the help of scanning probe
microscopes it has become possible to
manipulate and move atoms and molecules
to form new structures and, thus, design new
materials that are built from simple atomic-
level constituents (i.e., "materials by design”).
 B. Nanoengineered materials
• This approach of science is called the
“bottom-up” science.
• The study of the properties of these
materials is termed “nanotechnology”.
• The “nano” prefix denotes that the
dimensions of these structural entities are in
the order of a nanometer (10-9 m).
• One of the examples of a material of this
type is the carbon nanotube.