COMPUTER GRAPHICS

38002

UNIT -1

1. (A) Difference between Raster scan and Random scan display system.

Ans- The main difference between a raster scan and a random scan display system
lies in the way they generate and display images.

1. Raster Scan Display System:

- In a raster scan system, the electron beam moves systematically across the screen
in a pattern of horizontal lines from top to bottom, covering the entire screen.

- The electron beam scans each line from left to right, illuminating phosphor dots
or pixels on the screen.

- This sequential scanning creates a series of scan lines that form a complete image
on the screen.

- Raster scan displays are commonly used in most computer monitors and
television screens.

- The image produced on a raster scan display appears stable and flicker-free due
to the continuous and regular scanning pattern.

2. Random Scan Display System:

- In a random scan system, also known as a vector display system, the electron
beam does not follow a fixed path across the screen.

- Instead of scanning the entire screen in a systematic manner, the electron beam
moves directly to specific points or coordinates in the screen's memory as instructed.

- These points are connected by straight lines, creating a series of line segments.

- Random scan displays were commonly used in early vector-based displays, such
as some computer graphics systems.

- They were suitable for generating and displaying wireframe models and line
drawings but were limited in their ability to display complex, filled-in images.
 - Random scan displays could produce flickering effects when the lines were
redrawn rapidly, leading to a less stable image compared to raster scan displays.

* the key difference is that raster scan displays scan the entire screen sequentially in a
fixed pattern of lines, while random scan displays move directly to specific points to
create line segments. Raster scan displays are more commonly used and provide
stable, flicker-free images, while random scan displays are suitable for generating
wireframe models but may produce flickering effects and have limitations in
displaying complex images.

(B) Explain the working of LCD and LED.

Ans:- Working of LCD and LED:

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. It is a flat-panel display technology that uses a
combination of liquid crystals and polarized light to produce images. Here is a
simplified explanation of how an LCD works:

1. Liquid Crystals: LCDs consist of a layer of liquid crystals sandwiched between two
transparent electrodes. Liquid crystals are organic compounds that have properties of
both liquids and solids. They can align themselves in different ways in response to
electric currents.

2. Polarized Light: Behind the liquid crystal layer, there is a backlight source that
emits unpolarized white light. This light passes through a polarizing filter, which
aligns the light waves in a specific direction, making the light polarized.

3. Electric Current Control: When an electric current is applied to the liquid crystal
layer through the transparent electrodes, the crystals realign themselves based on the
electrical charges. This alignment affects the polarization of light passing through
them.
4. Pixel Control: The liquid crystal layer is divided into thousands or millions of tiny
pixel-sized cells. Each cell acts as a light valve and can either block or allow light to
pass through based on the alignment of liquid crystals. This control of light
transmission allows for the creation of images.

5. Color Filters: To generate color images, color filters are placed on top of each pixel.
These filters selectively transmit red, green, or blue light, which combines to create a
full-color display.

6. Backlighting: In most LCDs, a backlight is used to illuminate the screen from

behind. The backlight is typically a fluorescent lamp or more commonly, an array of
white Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). The backlight provides the necessary
illumination for the liquid crystals to create visible images.

7. Image Display: By manipulating the electric currents applied to the liquid crystal
layer, the alignment of liquid crystals changes, controlling the amount of light that can
pass through each pixel. This modulation of light allows the display to create different
colors, shades, and brightness levels, forming the desired image on the screen.

Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

LED stands for Light-Emitting Diode. It is a semiconductor device that emits light
when an electric current passes through it. LEDs are commonly used as a backlight
source in LCD displays or as standalone lighting sources. Here's a simplified
explanation of how an LED works:

1. Semiconductor Material: An LED is made of a semiconductor material, typically a

compound of elements like gallium, arsenic, phosphorus, or nitrogen. The specific
composition determines the color of the emitted light.

2. Junction and Electrons: The semiconductor material is doped with impurities to

create a p-n junction. The p-side has positively charged holes, and the n-side has
negatively charged electrons.
3. Electron Movement: When a voltage is applied to the LED, electrons and holes
combine at the junction, releasing energy in the form of photons (light). This process
is known as recombination.

4. Energy Band Gap: The specific energy band gap of the semiconductor material
determines the wavelength (color) of light emitted. Different materials produce
different colors, such as red, green, blue, or white.

5. Efficiency: LEDs are highly efficient compared to traditional lighting sources

because they convert a significant portion of the electrical energy into light, rather
than heat. This efficiency contributes to their long lifespan and lower power
consumption.

6. Light Output Control: The intensity of light emitted by an LED can be controlled
by adjusting the current flowing through it. By varying the current, the brightness of
the LED can be increased or decreased.

7. Color Mixing: In displays or lighting applications that require multiple colors,

LEDs of different colors are combined to create the desired color mixing effect. This
can be achieved by using separate.

2. What do you mean by Refresh Rate ? Why we use frame buffer in

resolution devices. Discuss the name of some high resolution devices.

Ans- Refresh Rate:

Refresh rate refers to the number of times per second an image on a display device is updated
or refreshed. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) and indicates how many times the screen can
redraw the image it displays. A higher refresh rate results in smoother motion and reduced
motion blur, particularly noticeable during fast-paced content such as gaming or watching
videos. Common refresh rates for monitors include 60Hz, 120Hz, and 144Hz, with some
specialized gaming monitors offering even higher refresh rates like 240Hz.
Frame Buffer:

A frame buffer is a region of computer memory used to store and organize the display image
being shown on a screen. It holds the pixel values for each point on the screen, allowing
efficient manipulation and display of graphical content. The frame buffer is responsible for
storing the data required to draw images, text, and other visual elements on the screen. It acts
as a temporary storage area that is constantly updated to refresh the display image. Frame
buffers are used in resolution devices to store and manage the data necessary for rendering
images, videos, and user interfaces.

High-Resolution Devices:

Several high-resolution devices are available today, catering to different display needs and
purposes. Here are some examples:

1. Monitors: Monitors with high resolutions are common in computer graphics. Some popular
high-resolution monitors include:

- Dell UltraSharp UP3218K: A 32-inch monitor with an 8K resolution (7680x4320 pixels).

- LG UltraFine 5K Display: A 27-inch monitor with a 5K resolution (5120x2880 pixels).

- ASUS ROG Swift PG27UQ: A 27-inch gaming monitor with a 4K resolution (3840x2160
pixels) and a high refresh rate of 144Hz.

2. Televisions: TVs have also seen significant advancements in resolution. Examples of high-
resolution TVs include:

- LG OLED77C1PUB: A 77-inch OLED TV with a 4K resolution (3840x2160 pixels).

- Samsung QN90A Neo QLED: A 65-inch TV with a 4K resolution (3840x2160 pixels) and
a high refresh rate of 120Hz.

- Sony XBR-85Z9J: An 85-inch TV with an 8K resolution (7680x4320 pixels).

3. Virtual Reality (VR) Headsets: VR devices require high-resolution displays to provide an

immersive experience. Some notable examples are:
 - Oculus Quest 2: A standalone VR headset with a resolution of 1832x1920 pixels per eye.

- HTC Vive Pro 2: A PC-based VR headset with a resolution of 2448x2448 pixels per eye.

These are just a few examples, and there are numerous other high-resolution devices
available in the market, catering to different purposes and price ranges.

UNIT-2

3. (A) Explain midpoint circle drawing algorithm. Plot a circle by uc.ing midpoint
algorithm whose radius is 8 cm.

The midpoint circle drawing algorithm is a popular algorithm used in computer graphics to
efficiently draw circles. It determines the points on the circumference of a circle based on
their positions relative to a midpoint. Here's an explanation of the algorithm along with an
example of plotting a circle with a radius of 8cm:

1. Initialization:

- Set the center of the circle as the origin (0, 0) on the coordinate system.

- Set the radius of the circle. In this case, the radius is 8cm.

2. Calculation:

- Set the initial midpoint parameter as P = 1 - radius.

- Set two variables, x and y, as the coordinates of the current pixel. Initialize them as (0,
radius).

3. Plotting:
 - Start a loop until x is greater than y.

- Inside the loop, plot eight symmetric points on the circumference of the circle using the
current x and y values:

- Plot the points (x, y), (-x, y), (x, -y), (-x, -y), (y, x), (-y, x), (y, -x), and (-y, -x).

- Update the coordinates and the midpoint parameter as follows:

- If the midpoint parameter P is greater than or equal to 0, it means that the midpoint lies
inside or on the circumference of the circle. In this case, increment y and update P as P = P +
2 * y - 1.

- If the midpoint parameter P is less than 0, it means that the midpoint lies outside the
circle. In this case, increment x, increment y, and update P as P = P + 2 * x + 1.

4. Output:

- The algorithm continues plotting the points on the circumference until x becomes greater
than y, covering the entire circle.

Example: Plotting a Circle with Radius 8cm

Using the midpoint circle drawing algorithm, we can plot a circle with a radius of 8cm by
following the steps mentioned above:

1. Initialization:

- Center: (0, 0)

- Radius: 8cm

2. Calculation:

- Midpoint parameter P = 1 - radius = 1 - 8 = -7

- Coordinates: (0, 8)

3. Plotting:
 - Plot the eight symmetric points: (0, 8), (0, -8), (8, 0), (-8, 0), (8, 0), (-8, 0), (8, 0), (-8, 0).

4. Update:

- Increment x to 1.

- Update midpoint parameter: P = P + 2 * x + 1 = -7 + 2 + 1 = -4

5. Plotting:

- Plot the eight symmetric points: (1, 8), (1, -8), (-1, 8), (-1, -8), (8, 1), (-8, 1), (8, -1), (-8, -
1).

6. Continue the steps of updating and plotting until x becomes greater than y.

By following the algorithm and repeating the steps, you can plot the entire circle with a
radius of 8cm.

(B) What do you mean by 2D Transformation ? Explain

translation. shearing, rotating and scaling in matrix representation.

Ans- 2D transformation refers to the process of manipulating the position, size, orientation, or
shape of 2-dimensional objects in a coordinate plane. These transformations are commonly
used in computer graphics, image processing, and geometric modeling to modify and
manipulate graphical objects.

There are several types of 2D transformations commonly used:

1. Translation: Translation involves moving an object from one position to another without
changing its orientation or size. It is represented by a 2x2 matrix and can be defined as:

| 1 0 tx |

| 0 1 ty |

|0 0 1 |

Where `tx` and `ty` represent the amount of translation in the x and y directions,
respectively. To apply translation to a point `(x, y)`, we multiply it by this matrix.

2. Shearing: Shearing is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object along a particular
axis. It can be either horizontal or vertical shearing. Horizontal shearing skews the object
horizontally, while vertical shearing skews it vertically. Shearing is represented by a 2x2
matrix and can be defined as:

| 1 shx |

| shy 1 |

|0 0 |

The parameters `shx` and `shy` determine the amount of shearing along the x and y axes,
respectively. Applying this transformation to a point modifies its coordinates based on the
shearing factors.

3. Rotation: Rotation involves rotating an object around a fixed point called the origin or a
specified center point. It can be clockwise or counterclockwise and is typically measured in
degrees or radians. Rotation is represented by a 2x2 matrix and can be defined as:

| cosθ -sinθ |

| sinθ cosθ |

| 0 0 |

Where `θ` represents the angle of rotation. To rotate a point `(x, y)`, we multiply it by this
matrix.
4. Scaling: Scaling involves resizing an object by multiplying its coordinates by scaling
factors. It can either expand or shrink the object's size. Scaling is represented by a 2x2 matrix
and can be defined as:

| sx 0 |

|0 sy |

|0 0 |

The parameters `sx` and `sy` represent the scaling factors along the x and y axes,
respectively. Applying scaling to a point modifies its coordinates by multiplying them by the
scaling factors.

In matrix representation, each transformation is represented by a transformation matrix. By

multiplying the transformation matrix with the coordinates of the object's points, we can
achieve the desired transformation effect. These matrices can be combined to apply multiple
transformations sequentially, resulting in a composite transformation.

By utilizing these 2D transformations, we can create complex graphical effects, animations,

and manipulate objects in computer graphics and image processing applications.

4.What do you mean by clipping ? Explain CohenSutherland line clipping

algorithm with example.

Ans- Clipping refers to the process of removing portions of lines or polygons that are outside
of a specific region or viewport. It is commonly used in computer graphics to ensure that only
the visible portions of objects are displayed on the screen.

The Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm is a popular algorithm used for line clipping. It
divides the space into nine regions by creating a rectangle or viewport. These regions are
determined by using a binary code for each endpoint of the line. The code is calculated based
on the relative position of the endpoint with respect to the viewport.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of the Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm:

1. Define the viewport or clipping region. The viewport is usually defined as a rectangular
area.

2. Assign binary codes to both endpoints of the line. These codes indicate the position of the
endpoints with respect to the viewport. For example, a binary code of 0101 means that the
endpoint is below the viewport, inside the viewport, to the left of the viewport, and above the
viewport, respectively.

3. Perform bitwise logical operations (AND) on the binary codes of both endpoints. If the
result is not zero, it means that the line is completely outside the viewport. In this case, the
line is rejected.

4. If the result of the logical operation is zero, the line may partially or fully intersect the
viewport. Calculate the logical OR operation on the binary codes of both endpoints. If the
result is zero, the line is entirely inside the viewport, and it can be accepted.

5. If the logical OR operation result is not zero, the line may partially intersect the viewport.
Determine the position of the line segments that intersect the viewport boundaries.

6. Clip the line segments based on the intersection points calculated in the previous step. This
involves recalculating the endpoints of the line to ensure that they lie on the viewport
boundaries.

7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 until all lines have been processed.

Here's an example to illustrate the Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm:

Consider a viewport defined by the following coordinates: (x_min, y_min) = (50, 50) and
(x_max, y_max) = (200, 150).
Let's assume we have a line with endpoints A(30, 80) and B(180, 220).

1. Calculate the binary codes for endpoints A and B:

- Binary code for A: 0001 (to the left of the viewport)

- Binary code for B: 1010 (above and to the right of the viewport)

2. Perform bitwise logical AND operation on the binary codes: 0001 AND 1010 = 0000
(result is zero).

3. Perform bitwise logical OR operation on the binary codes: 0001 OR 1010 = 1011 (result is
not zero).

4. Since the result of the logical OR operation is not zero, the line may partially intersect the
viewport.

5. Determine the intersection points with the viewport boundaries:

- Left boundary (x_min): Calculate the intersection point using the equation (x_min, y) =
(50, y_min + (y_max - y_min) * (x_min - x_A) / (x_B - x_A)).

In this case, (50, y) = (50, 50 + (150 - 50) * (50 - 30) / (180 - 30)) = (50, 75).

- Top boundary (y_max): Calculate the intersection point using the equation (x, y_max) =
(x_A + (x_B - x_A) * (y_max - y_A) / (y_B - y_A), y_max).

UNIT-3

5(A) Explain various pointing and positioning devices. Explain the working
of light pen and digitizing tablet.

Ans- Various pointing and positioning devices are used in computer systems to interact with
graphical user interfaces and input data. Here are explanations of two commonly used
devices: the light pen and the digitizing tablet.
1. Light Pen:

A light pen is an input device that resembles a pen or a stylus. It contains a light-sensitive
photocell at its tip. The working principle of a light pen is based on the detection of changes
in light intensity.

Working:

- When the user touches the screen or surface with the light pen, the photocell detects the
sudden increase in light intensity at that particular point.

- The position of the light pen is determined by the screen's raster scan process. As the
electron beam scans the screen, it illuminates the pixels sequentially.

- When the light pen detects the light emitted by the illuminated pixel, it sends a signal to the
computer indicating the position of the pen.

- The computer processes this signal and interprets it as a user input event, such as a click or
movement.

- Light pens are typically used with cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, as the raster scanning
process is crucial for their operation.

Advantages:

- Light pens provide a direct and intuitive input method, similar to writing or drawing with a
pen.

- They can be used for precise positioning and interacting with graphical elements on the
screen.

- Light pens are relatively simple and do not require complex calibration.

Disadvantages:

- Light pens require direct contact with the screen or surface, which may cause smudging or
scratching.

- They are limited to CRT displays and may not work with modern LCD or LED screens.

- The accuracy of light pens may decrease towards the edges of the screen due to variations in
raster scanning.
2. Digitizing Tablet (Graphics Tablet):

A digitizing tablet, also known as a graphics tablet or a pen tablet, consists of a flat surface
and a specialized stylus or pen. The tablet's surface is sensitive to the pen's position and
pressure, allowing for precise input capture.

Working:

- The digitizing tablet has a grid of wires embedded in its surface, forming a coordinate
system.

- The stylus or pen used with the tablet contains an electromagnetic coil that emits a signal.

- When the pen touches the tablet's surface, the grid detects the pen's position by measuring
the signal's strength at various grid points.

- The tablet's controller processes these signals and calculates the pen's X and Y coordinates.

- Additionally, some advanced tablets can also detect pen pressure, tilt, and other parameters.

- The tablet transmits the captured data to the computer, where it is interpreted and used for
various applications, such as drawing, handwriting recognition, or navigation.

Advantages:

- Digitizing tablets offer precise and accurate input capture, enabling artists and designers to
create detailed drawings and illustrations.

- They provide pressure sensitivity, allowing for varying line thickness and shading effects.

- The tablets are versatile and can be used for various applications like graphic design, digital
art, handwriting input, and more.

Disadvantages:

- Digitizing tablets require an additional device (the tablet) in addition to the computer.

- There is a learning curve involved in getting accustomed to using the stylus on the tablet
surface.

- High-quality graphics tablets can be relatively expensive compared to other pointing

devices.
Overall, both light pens and digitizing tablets offer unique input capabilities, catering to
different use cases and user preferences.

(B) Explain Rubber Band Method for drawing a straight line segment.

Ans- In computer graphics, the Rubber Band Method is a technique used to visually represent
and interactively draw a straight line segment on a computer screen. The method derives its
name from the behavior of a stretched rubber band, which snaps back into place when
released, mimicking the motion of drawing a line.

The Rubber Band Method typically involves the following steps:

1. Initialization: The method requires the initial coordinates of the starting point and the
ending point of the desired line segment. These coordinates define the endpoints of the
rubber band.

2. Displaying the Rubber Band: Initially, a simple marker or a small line segment is drawn at
the starting point. This marker represents one end of the rubber band. The other end of the
rubber band is not yet displayed.
3. User Interaction: As the user moves the cursor or a pointing device (such as a mouse), the
position of the cursor is continuously tracked. This tracking allows for the interactive drawing
of the line segment.

4. Rubber Band Update: As the cursor moves, the position of the rubber band's other end is
dynamically adjusted to follow the cursor's position. This adjustment creates the illusion of a
rubber band stretching between the two endpoints.

5. Drawing the Line Segment: When the user decides to finalize the line segment, typically by
clicking a mouse button, the final position of the cursor becomes the new endpoint of the line
segment. At this point, the rubber band is "released," and the final line segment is drawn on
the screen.

6. Clearing the Rubber Band: Once the line segment is drawn, the rubber band representation
is usually removed from the screen, leaving only the finalized line segment.

By implementing the Rubber Band Method, computer graphics systems provide a real-time
visual feedback mechanism to users during the process of drawing straight line segments. This
method enhances the interactive nature of drawing tools and allows users to make accurate
adjustments before finalizing their drawings.

6.Discuss the various Zooming and Panning clipping techniques.

Ans- In computer graphics, zooming and panning are common operations used to manipulate
the view of an image or scene. These operations allow users to navigate and focus on specific
areas of interest. Clipping techniques are often employed in conjunction with zooming and
panning to ensure that only the relevant portion of the image is displayed, thus optimizing
rendering performance. Here are some common zooming and panning clipping techniques:

1. Window-to-Viewport Clipping: This technique involves defining a window or a rectangular

region in the world coordinate system that represents the desired view. The viewport, which
is a rectangular region on the screen, represents the portion of the window that is actually
visible. During zooming or panning, the window is adjusted to modify the view, and the
viewport is updated to show the corresponding portion of the window. Clipping is performed
by discarding or clipping geometry that falls outside the viewport boundaries.

2. Back-face Culling: Back-face culling is a technique used to determine which surfaces of a

3D object are not visible and can be discarded. It is based on the concept that surfaces facing
away from the viewer (opposite to the viewing direction) are not visible. Back-face culling is
particularly useful for optimizing rendering when zooming and panning, as it allows for the
removal of non-visible surfaces, reducing the amount of geometry that needs to be rendered.

3. Frustum Culling: Frustum culling is a technique that exploits the shape of the viewing
frustum (a truncated pyramid representing the visible portion of the scene) to eliminate
objects or portions of objects that are outside the frustum. By determining whether objects'
bounding volumes intersect or lie entirely outside the frustum, unnecessary geometry can be
culled, improving rendering performance during zooming and panning operations.

4. Level of Detail (LOD) Selection: LOD selection is a technique commonly used in complex
scenes to manage the amount of detail displayed based on the zoom level or distance from
the viewer. Different versions or levels of detail for objects or regions are precomputed, and
during zooming operations, the appropriate level of detail is chosen to balance visual quality
and performance. This technique allows for more efficient rendering by reducing the
complexity of the displayed geometry when zoomed out or panned to distant areas.
By employing these zooming and panning clipping techniques, computer graphics systems
can optimize rendering performance and provide a smooth and responsive user experience
when interacting with images and scenes, especially in cases where large or complex datasets
need to be displayed.

Unit IV

7. Discuss 3D transformation. Explain various 3D geometrical transformation.

Ans- 3D transformations are fundamental operations in computer graphics that allow us to

manipulate and position objects in three-dimensional space. They are essential for creating
realistic and interactive 3D graphics. Here, I will explain various 3D geometrical
transformations commonly used in computer graphics.

1. Translation:

Translation is a basic transformation that moves an object from one position to another in 3D
space. It involves shifting the coordinates of each point of the object by a certain distance
along the x, y, and z axes. The translation vector determines the amount and direction of the
shift. The transformation matrix for translation is:

[1 0 0 tx]

[0 1 0 ty]
[0 0 1 tz]

[0 0 0 1 ]

where (tx, ty, tz) represents the translation vector.

2. Rotation:

Rotation transforms an object by rotating it around an axis in 3D space. There are three types
of rotations: rotation around the x-axis (pitch), rotation around the y-axis (yaw), and rotation
around the z-axis (roll). Each rotation can be specified by an angle of rotation in degrees or
radians. The transformation matrices for rotation are:

Rotation around the x-axis:

[1 0 0 0]

[0 cosθ -sinθ 0]

[0 sinθ cosθ 0]

[0 0 0 1]

Rotation around the y-axis:

[cosθ 0 sinθ 0]

[ 0 1 0 0]

[-sinθ 0 cosθ 0]

[ 0 0 0 1]
Rotation around the z-axis:

[cosθ -sinθ 0 0]

[sinθ cosθ 0 0]

[ 0 0 1 0]

[ 0 0 0 1]

where θ represents the angle of rotation.

3. Scaling:

Scaling is a transformation that changes the size of an object by stretching or compressing it

along the x, y, and z axes. It involves multiplying the coordinates of each point of the object
by scale factors sx, sy, and sz. The transformation matrix for scaling is:

[sx 0 0 0]

[ 0 sy 0 0]

[ 0 0 sz 0]

[ 0 0 0 1]

where sx, sy, and sz represent the scale factors.

 These are some of the fundamental 3D transformations used in computer graphics. By
combining these transformations and applying them to objects, we can create complex and
dynamic 3D scenes. Other transformations, such as shearing and projection, are also
commonly used in computer graphics to achieve various effects and perspectives.

8. Write notes on the following :

(A)Hidden line-

Ans: Hidden line removal is a technique used in computer graphics to determine and eliminate the
lines that would be hidden or obscured by other objects in a 3D scene. When rendering a complex
scene with overlapping objects, it is essential to accurately represent the visibility of objects to
create a realistic and clear image.

Here's an overview of the hidden line removal process:

1. Scene Representation:
The 3D scene is typically represented using wireframe models or boundary representations (B-
reps). In wireframe models, objects are represented by their edges or lines, while B-reps include
both the boundary edges and the surface representation.

2. Visibility Determination:
The visibility of each line or edge in the scene is determined by analyzing its relationship with other
objects in the scene. Various algorithms can be used to perform visibility tests, such as depth-
buffering, z-buffering, or scan-line algorithms.

3. Depth-Buffering/Z-Buffering:
Depth-buffering or z-buffering is a widely used technique for hidden line removal. It involves
assigning a depth value (z-value) to each pixel in the scene. The z-value represents the distance
from the viewer's perspective. As objects are rendered, the z-buffer keeps track of the closest
object at each pixel. When a new object is rendered, the z-buffer is checked, and only the visible
portions are drawn. This process ensures that closer objects obscure the farther ones.

4. Scan-Line Algorithms:
Scan-line algorithms are another approach for hidden line removal. They involve scanning the
scene from one side to another, analyzing each line or edge to determine its visibility. The
algorithm compares the

(B) Concept of parallel projection.

Ans- Parallel projection is a technique used in computer graphics and 3D rendering to create a 2D
representation of a three-dimensional object or scene. Unlike perspective projection, which
simulates the way objects appear to the human eye by converging lines towards a vanishing point,
parallel projection maintains parallel lines throughout the projection process. This means that the
distance between two parallel lines in the 3D space remains constant in the resulting 2D image.

In parallel projection, the rays from each point on the object are projected onto a viewing plane or
image plane. These rays are parallel and do not converge towards a common point. As a result,
objects in the scene appear to have the same size and shape regardless of their distance from the
viewer.

There are different types of parallel projections commonly used in computer graphics:

1. Orthographic Projection: This is the simplest form of parallel projection. In orthographic

projection, the projection rays are perpendicular to the viewing plane. This means that all lines
parallel to each other in the 3D space remain parallel in the 2D image. Orthographic projection is
often used in technical drawings, architectural plans, and engineering diagrams.

2. Oblique Projection: In oblique projection, the projection rays are still parallel but are at an angle
other than 90 degrees to the viewing plane. This creates a more skewed representation of the 3D
object, with one set of parallel lines appearing to be shorter than the other set. Oblique projection
is commonly used for illustrations and visualizations where a sense of depth is desired.

3. Isometric Projection: Isometric projection is a specific type of oblique projection where the angle
between the projection rays and the viewing plane is 120 degrees. This projection technique
maintains equal foreshortening along each axis and provides a more realistic representation of the
object's shape and size. Isometric projection is often used in video games, technical illustrations,
and architectural designs.

Parallel projection is advantageous in certain applications, such as technical drawings or when

precise measurements are required since it preserves the true shape and size of objects. However,
it lacks the depth perception and realism provided by perspective projection, which mimics how
objects appear in the real world. The choice between parallel projection and perspective projection
depends on the specific requirements of the visualization or rendering task at hand.