Lesson 4

Classification of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It includes all
things – both living and nonliving as well as naturally occurring and
manmade.
• Examples: plants, soil, rocks, air, bacteria, plastics

Various forms of energy such as heat, light, and electricity are not
considered to be matter. The universe is composed entirely of matter
and energy.
What are the particles composing
matter?
According to origin or source
a. Organic compounds - so called because many of them were originally isolated
from living organisms, typically containing chains or rings of carbon atoms.
Because of the great variety of ways that carbon can bond with itself and other
elements, there are more than nine million organic compounds.
b. Inorganic compounds – compounds other than organic compounds that do not
contain carbon
Subclasses of inorganic compounds:
• Oxide – compounds that contain O2− ions or oxygen atoms
• Acids – compounds that contain hydrogen ions replaceable by metals. They are
characterized by their sour taste and change blue litmus paper to red.
• Bases – hydroxides of metals. The soluble bases are called alkalis. They are
characterized by their bitter taste and slippery or soapy feeling and change red
litmus paper to blue
• Salt – the neutralization product of the reaction of an acid with a base
According to physical state or phase
The classification of a given matter sample in terms of physical state is based on
whether its shape and volume are definite or indefinite. Matter exists in three physical
states:

a. Solid - Physical state characterized by a definite shape and a definite volume.

b. Liquid - Physical state characterized by an indefinite shape and a definite volume.
- Always takes the shape of its container to the extent that it fills the container.
c. Gas - Physical state characterized by an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume.
- Always fills its container, adopting both the container’s volume and its shape.
The state of matter observed for a particular substance depends on its:
– Temperature
– Surrounding pressure
– Strength of the forces holding its structural particles together
Physical properties are characteristics of a substance that can be observed or
measured without changing the substance’s chemical identity.

Chemical properties describe the behavior of a substance when it undergoes a

chemical change or reaction, changing its chemical identity.

Physical properties Chemical properties

Example: Example:
Color Reactivity with Oxygen
Density Flammability
Melting point Acidity/Basicity
Boiling point Toxicity
Hardness Oxidation state
Solubility Corrosion
Intensive properties are Extensive properties are
properties that do not depend properties that do depend on
on the amount of matter the amount of matter present.
present. They are intrinsic to They change as the quantity of
the material, meaning they the substance changes.
remain the same regardless of
the sample size.

Example: Example:
Density Mass
Temperature Volume
Color Length
Boiling Point Total Energy
Hardness Total Charge
 You are given a sample of a colorless liquid in a beaker.
What type of information could you gather to determine if
the liquid is a water?

A student checks the volume, melting point, and shape of

two unlabeled samples of matter and finds that the
measurements are identical. He concludes that the
samples have the same chemical composition. Is this a
valid conclusion? What additional information might be
collected to test this conclusion?
According to composition
 How do pure substances
differ from mixtures?

What is the difference

What is the difference between between homogeneous and
elements and compounds? heterogeneous mixtures?
 PURE SUBSTANCES

Elements are pure substances that are made up of only

one kind of atoms.
Other elements exist as molecules
consisting two or more of the same
atom.

For example:
Nitrogen in the air (𝑁2 )
Oxygen in the air (𝑂2 )
Ozone (𝑂3 )
 An element is a metal if it has the following properties.

1) It is lustrous i.e. it has shining of surface.

2) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
3) It is ductile i.e. it can be drawn into wires.
4) It is malleable i.e. it can be beaten into thin sheets.
5) It has a tendency to lose one or more electrons.
6) It is solid at room temperature.

Exceptions: Mercury and Gallium are liquids at room

temperature. Zinc is not malleable and ductile.
 An element is a non-metal if it has the following properties.
1) It has no luster.
2) It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
3) It is not ductile.
4) It is not malleable, it is brittle i.e. it can be broken into pieces when
beaten
5) It has a tendency to gain one or more electrons.
6) It is a liquid or gas or a brittle solid at room temperature.
A metalloid is an element which exhibits
both metallic and non-metallic properties.
Ex. boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium.

• 118 known elements:

 88 of the elements occur naturally
 30 of the elements have been synthesized
 PURE SUBSTANCES

Compounds are pure substances made up of two or more kinds

of atoms.

Compounds are represented by formulas.

Element symbol
Molecular Formulas
give information only
𝐻2 𝑂2 Subscript indicates
the number of
about what makes
up a compound
atoms of an element
in a molecule
 Aspirin

Myers, R. T., Oldham, K. B., & Tocci, S. (2006). Chemistry. Holt, Rineheart and Winston.
 MIXTURES

Mixture is a sample of matter that contains two or more pure

substances that are not chemically bonded.

Air is a mixture, mostly of nitrogen and Mixture can vary in

oxygen. Water is not a mixture of composition and properties.
hydrogen and oxygen for two reasons. - a mixture does not
First, the H and O atoms are chemically always have the same
bonded together in water molecules, not balance of ingredients. The
just physically mixed. Second, the ratio of proportion of materials in a
hydrogen to oxygen atoms is always mixture can change. Because
exactly two to one. In a mixture, such as of this, the properties of a
air, the proportions of the ingredients mixture may vary.
can vary.
Myers, R. T., Oldham, K. B., & Tocci, S. (2006). Chemistry. Holt, Rineheart and Winston.
 MIXTURES

Homogenous mixture is a mixture with

substances evenly and uniformly distributed.
Gasoline, syrup, and air are homogeneous mixtures.
Their components cannot be seen – not even using a
microscope.

Any two samples taken from the

mixture will have the same
proportions of ingredients, and as a
result, its properties are the same
throughout.
Homogenous mixture Heterogenous mixture
 MIXTURES

Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that contains

substances that are not evenly mixed.

Different regions of a heterogeneous

mixture have different properties.
Distinguishing Mixtures from Compounds
A compound is composed of two or more types of elements chemically
joined together. A mixture is composed of two or more substances physically
mixed together but not chemically joined. As a result, there are two major
differences between mixtures and compounds.

First, the properties of a mixture Second, a mixture’s components can

reflect the properties of the be present in varying proportions,
substances it contains, but the but a compound has a definite
properties of a compound often are composition in terms of masses of its
very different from the properties of elements.
the elements that make it up.
BASIS FOR COMPARISON MIXTURES COMPOUNDS
Meaning Mixtures are the impure substances, made up of two Compounds are the pure form, made up of two or
or more physically mixed substances. They can be more chemically mixed elements. These are
homogeneous or heterogeneous by nature. generally homogeneous.
Composition The substances which are found in the mixtures are But in the case of compounds, the elements are
not in fixed quantity, that means their ratio varies. present in fixed quantity, that means their ratio is
fixed.
Properties The properties of the mixtures also vary (not fixed) For the particular type of compound, the properties
as it depends on the type of substances and the are fixed and do not vary, as the elements present in
quantity by which these are being mixed. the compounds are fixed and are in the fixed ratio.
Formula Mixtures do not have a certain formula. Compounds have a specific formula, depending on
the constituents present.
Separation The substances of the mixtures are easy to separate The elements are not easy to separate and if done
by different physical methods like filtration, than it is by chemical methods.
chromatography, evaporation
Substances No new substances are formed from the mixtures, There is always formation of the new substances,
due to the unchangeable properties of its due to the mixing of the chemical properties of the
constituents. different constituents.
Melting/Boiling Mixtures do not have fixed melting or boiling point. The compound once formed, have fixed melting and
point boiling point.
Heat change There is no heat change, or involvement of energy is There is a heat change, and energy is used or
observed when mixtures are made. released during the formation of the compounds, as
it is a chemical reaction.
Examples Alloys like brass, bismuth, chromium, oceanic water Compounds like Baking soda, Methane, Salt, etc.
(salt and water), mixtures of gases, etc.
Myers, R. T., Oldham, K. B., & Tocci, S. (2006). Chemistry. Holt, Rineheart and Winston.
Determine if each
material represented (on
the right) is an element,
compound, or mixture,
and whether the model
illustrates a solid, liquid
or gas.
Lesson 5

Methods of
Separating Mixtures
Comprehensive Guide to Separating Mixtures

Separating mixtures is a fundamental concept in

chemistry and materials science. Mixtures consist of two or
more substances that are combined physically, not chemically,
which means their individual properties are retained. Separation
techniques exploit the physical differences between
components to isolate them. Understanding these techniques is
essential for various applications, from laboratory research to
industrial processes.
Filtration
Principle: Separates solids from liquids or gases
using a filter medium that allows only the liquid
or gas to pass through while trapping solid Applications:
particles.  Removing sand from water.
 Filtering coffee grounds from
Procedure: brewed coffee.
1. Prepare the filter: Place a filter paper or mesh
in a funnel.
Limitations:
2. Pour the mixture: Slowly pour the mixture into  Effective only if the solid
the funnel. particles are large enough to
3. Collect filtrate and residue: The liquid that be trapped by the filter.
passes through the filter is called the filtrate,
while the solid left on the filter is the residue.
Distillation
Principle: Separates components of a mixture
based on differences in their boiling points. It
involves heating the mixture to vaporize the Applications:
more volatile component and then cooling the Purifying drinking water.
vapor to condense it back into a liquid. Separating alcohol from a
fermented solution.

Procedure: Limitations:
1. Heat the mixture: The component with the Not effective for mixtures with
lower boiling point vaporizes first. very similar boiling points.
2. Condense the vapor: Use a condenser to
cool and collect the vapor as a liquid.
3. Collect the distillate: The condensed liquid
is called the distillate.
Evaporation
Principle: Separates a solid dissolved in a liquid
by heating the mixture until the liquid
evaporates, leaving the solid behind. Applications:
Recovering salt from seawater.
Concentrating solutions in
Procedure: laboratories.
1. Heat the mixture: Place it in an open dish
and apply heat. Limitations:
2. Allow evaporation: The liquid evaporates, Only suitable for mixtures where
leaving the solid residue. the solid does not decompose
upon heating.
Centrifugation
Principle: Uses centrifugal force to separate
components of a mixture based on their
densities. The denser components move to the Applications:
outer edge of the centrifuge tube. Separating blood components.
Purifying nanoparticles.

Procedure: Limitations:
1. Place the mixture: In a centrifuge tube. Requires specialized equipment
2. Spin the tube: At high speeds in a and is typically used for small-
centrifuge. scale separations.
3. Collect separated components: Denser
components form a pellet at the bottom,
while lighter components remain in the
supernatant.
Chromatography
Principle: Separates components of a mixture based on their
different affinities for a stationary phase and a mobile phase.
Applications:
Types: Analyzing plant
a) Paper Chromatography: Uses paper as the stationary phase pigments.
and a solvent as the mobile phase. Purifying chemicals in
b) Column Chromatography: Uses a column filled with a laboratories.
stationary phase and a solvent that flows through it.
Limitations:
Procedure: Requires careful setup
1. Prepare the stationary phase: Set up the chromatography and interpretation of
medium. results.
2. Apply the mixture: Place a small amount of the mixture on
the medium.
3. Allow separation: The components move at different rates
and separate.
Column
Chromatography
Magnetic Separation
Principle: Uses a magnet to attract magnetic
materials from non-magnetic ones.
Applications:
Separating iron filings from sand.
Procedure: Recycling processes to remove
1. Apply a magnet: Pass the mixture over a metal contaminants.
magnet or use a magnetic separator.
2. Collect separated materials: Magnetic Limitations:
materials are attracted to the magnet, Only effective for magnetic
while non-magnetic materials remain. materials.
Magnetic Separation
Sedimentation and
Decantation
Principle: Separates components based on
Applications:
their densities and sedimentation rates.
Separating sand from water.
Sedimentation involves allowing particles to
Clarifying liquids in chemical
settle at the bottom of a container, and
processes.
decantation involves pouring off the liquid
while leaving the sediment behind.
Limitations:
Requires sufficient time for
particles to settle.
Procedure:
1. Allow sedimentation: Let the mixture stand
until particles settle.
2. Decant the liquid: Carefully pour off the
liquid, leaving the solid behind.
Practical
Considerations:

 Selection of Technique: The choice of separation method

depends on the physical properties of the components and
the nature of the mixture.
 Purity of Components: Some techniques can yield highly
pure components, while others may require additional
steps.
 Equipment: Some methods require specialized
equipment, while others use common laboratory tools.
Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., & Murphy, C. J. (2014). Chemistry: The Central Science
(13th ed.). Pearson.
Petrucci, R. H., Harwood, W. S., Herring, F. G., & Madura, J. D. (2011). General Chemistry:
Principles and Modern Applications (10th ed.). Pearson.
Skoog, D. A., Holler, F. J., & Crouch, S. R. (2017). Principles of Instrumental Analysis (7th ed.).
Cengage Learning.
Skoog, D. A., West, D. M., Holler, F. J., & Crouch, S. R. (2013). Fundamentals of Analytical
Chemistry (9th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Lesson 6

Changes in Matter
and Energy
CHANGES IN MATTER
• Physical Change affects a substance’s physical properties and does
not cause a substance to become a fundamentally different
substance. Many physical changes are reversible (such as heating and
cooling)
• Ex. Cutting, tearing, shattering, grinding, and mixing are further types
of physical changes because they change the form but not the
composition of a material.
• Phase changes are changes that occur when substances are melted,
frozen, boiled, condensed, sublimated, or deposited.
Chemical Change causes a substance to change into a new substance
with a new chemical formula. It is a process involving the breaking or
making of interatomic bonds and the transformation of a substance (or
substances) into another. Chemical changes are often irreversible or
only reversible with an additional chemical change.

Evidences of chemical change:

a. The formation of gas bubbles is often the result of a chemical
change.
b. A chemical change might also result in the formation of a
precipitate, such as the appearance of a cloudy material when
dissolved substances are mixed.
c. An unexpected color change or release of odor also often
indicates a chemical change.
Phase and Energy Change in Matter
• Every change in matter (phase change) involves a change in energy

All physical and chemical changes involve a change in energy.

Sometimes energy must be supplied for the change in matter to occur.

• Example:
For the ice to melt, energy must be supplied so that the particles can
move past one another. If more energy is supplied and the boiling point
of water is reached, the particles of the liquid will leave the liquid’s
surface through and form a gas
• Sometimes energy is released when a change in matter occurs.

• For example, energy is released when a vapor turns into a liquid or

when a liquid turns into a solid. Some chemical changes also release
energy. The explosion that occurs when hydrogen and oxygen react to
form water is a release of energy.
When heat energy is applied or absorbed by the
matter, the kinetic energy of the molecules
increases allowing them to move faster or escape
Each molecules of matter has kinetic energy,
as a gas.
meaning they are in constant motion. In solids,
they vibrate in place, while in liquids and gases,
they vibrate and move in random motion. When heat energy is released by the matter, the
kinetic energy of the molecules decreases, allowing
them to slow down or go back to their natural
state.
Endothermic and Exothermic Processes

• Any change in matter in which energy is absorbed is known as an

endothermic process. The melting of ice and the boiling of water are
two examples of physical changes that are endothermic processes.

• Any change in matter in which energy is released is an exothermic

process. The freezing of water and the condensation of water vapor
are two examples of physical changes that are exothermic processes.
Endothermic reactions: Heat is absorbed.
Photosynthesis: Plants absorb heat energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen.
6CO2 + 6 H2O + heat ---> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cooking an egg: Heat energy is absorbed from the pan to cook the egg.

Exothermic reactions: Heat is released.

Combustion: The burning of carbon-containing compounds uses oxygen, from air, and produces
carbon dioxide, water, and lots of heat. For example, combustion of methane (CH4​) can be
represented as follows:
CH4 + 2(O2) ---> CO2 + 2H2O + heat

Rain: Condensation of water vapor into rain releasing energy in the form of heat is an example of
an exothermic process.