Table 1.3 shows the class limits for the ages of patients interviewed by a certain researcher.

Table 1.3

Class limits Frequency

30-39 11
40-49 46
50-59 70
60-69 45
70-79 16
80-90 1

Using the data in the table 1.3, calculate the true limits and use to:
a) Draw a histogram
b) On the histogram draw a frequency polygon
c) Draw a cumulative frequency curve (Ogive)

Diagrammatic Representation of Data

 Appropriately drawn graph allows readers to obtain rapidly an overall

grasp of the data presented.

 The relationship between numbers of various magnitudes can usually be seen more
quickly and easily from a graph than from a table.
 Figures are not always interesting, and as their size and number increase they become
confusing and uninteresting to such an extent that no one (unless he is specifically
interested) would care to study them.
 Their study is a greater strain upon the mind without, in most cases, any scientific
result. The aim of statistical methods, inter alia, is to reduce the size of statistical data
and to render them easily intelligible.
  To attain this objective the methods of classification, tabulation, averages and
percentages are generally used.
 But the method of diagrammatic representation (visual aids) is probably simpler and
more easily understandable. It consists in presenting statistical material in geometric
figures, pictures, maps and lines or curves.

Importance of Diagrammatic Representation

1. They have greater attraction than mere figures. They give delight to the eye and add a
spark of interest.

2. They help in deriving the required information in less time and without any mental strain.

3. They facilitate comparison.

4. They may reveal unsuspected patterns in a complex set of data and may suggest directions
in which changes are occurring. This warns us to take an immediate action.

5. They have greater memorising value than mere figures. This is so because the impression
left by the diagram is of a lasting nature.

Limitations of Diagrammatic Representation

1. The technique of diagrammatic representation is made use only for purposes of

comparison. It is not to be used when comparison is either not possible or is not necessary.

2. Diagrammatic representation is not an alternative to tabulation. It only strengthens the

textual exposition of a subject, and cannot serve as a complete substitute for statistical data.

3. It can give only an approximate idea and as such where greater accuracy is needed
diagrams will not be suitable.

4. They fail to bring to light small differences

Construction of graphs

The choice of the particular form among the different possibilities will depend on personal
choices and/or the type of the data.

• Bar charts and pie chart are commonly used for qualitative or quantitative discrete data.

• Histograms, frequency polygons are used for quantitative continuous data.

There are, however, general rules that are commonly accepted about construction of graphs.

1. Every graph should be self-explanatory and as simple as possible.

2. Titles are usually placed below the graph and it should again question what ? Where?
When? How classified?

3. Legends or keys should be used to differentiate variables if more than one is shown.

4. The axes label should be placed to read from the left side and from the bottom.

5. The units in to which the scale is divided should be clearly indicated.

6. The numerical scale representing frequency must start at zero or a break in the line should
be shown.

Examples of diagrams:

1. Histograms (quantitative continuous data)

A histogram is the graph of the frequency distribution of continuous measurement variables.

It is constructed on the basis of the following principles:

a) The horizontal axis is a continuous scale running from one extreme end of the
distribution to the other.

b) It should be labelled with the name of the variable and the units of measurement.

For each class in the distribution a vertical rectangle is drawn with

(i) its base on the horizontal axis extending from one class boundary of the class to
the other class boundary, there will never be any gap between the histogram
rectangles.

(ii) the bases of all rectangles will be determined by the width of the class intervals.
If a distribution with unequal class-interval is to be presented by means of a
histogram, it is necessary to make adjustment for varying magnitudes of the class
intervals.

2. FREQUENCY POLYGON:

If we join the midpoints of the tops of the adjacent rectangles of the histogram with line
segments a frequency polygon is obtained.
Note that it is not essential to draw histogram in order to obtain frequency polygon. It can be
drawn with out erecting rectangles of histogram as follows:

1) The scale should be marked in the numerical values of the mid- points of intervals.

2) Erect ordinates on the midpoints of the interval - the length or altitude of an ordinate
representing the frequency of the class on whose mid-point it is erected.

3) Join the tops of the ordinates and extend the connecting lines to the scale of sizes.

3. OGIVE OR CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE:

When the cumulative frequencies of a distribution are graphed the resulting curve is

called Ogive Curve.

To construct an Ogive curve:

 Compute the cumulative frequency of the distribution.

 Prepare a graph with the cumulative frequency on the vertical axis and the true upper
class limits (class boundaries) of the interval scaled along the X-axis (horizontal axis).
The true lower limit of the lowest class interval with lowest scores is included in the
X-axis scale; this is also the true upper limit of the next lower interval having a
cumulative frequency of 0.

4. The line diagram

The line graph is especially useful for the study of some variables according to the passage of
time. The time, in weeks, months or years is marked along the horizontal axis; and the value
of the quantity that is being studied is marked on the vertical axis. The distance of each
plotted point above the base-line indicates its numerical value. The line graph is suitable for
depicting a consecutive trend of a series over a long period.

Bar Chart

Bar diagrams are used to represent and compare the frequency

distribution of discrete variables and attributes or categorical series.

When we represent data using bar diagram, all the bars must have

equal width and the distance between bars must be equal.

There are different types of bar diagrams, the most important ones are:

 Bar Chart Bar diagrams are used to represent and compare the frequency
distribution of discrete variables and attributes or categorical series.

 When we represent data using bar diagram, all the bars must have equal width
and the distance between bars must be equal.

 There are different types of bar diagrams, the most important ones are:

 Simple bar chart: It is a one-dimensional diagram in which the bar

represents the whole of the magnitude. The height or length of each bar
indicates the size (frequency) of the figure represented.

Question 1.Table shows the overall immunization status of children in Adami Tullu Woreda,
Feb. 1995

Immunization Number Percent

status

Not immunized 75 35.7

Partially immunized 57 27.1

Fully immunized 78 37.2

Represent the data using a simple bar graph.

 Multiple bar chart: In this type of chart the component figures are
shown as separate bars adjoining each other. The height of each bar
represents the actual value of the component figure. It depicts
distributional pattern of more than one variable

Question 2.Table shows Tetanus Toxoid immunization by marital status of the women of
childbearing age, Assendabo town, Jimma Zone, 1996
 Immunization Status

Marital status Immunized Not Immunized

No. % No %

Single 58 24.7 177 75.3

Married 156 34.7 294 65.3

Divorced 10 35.7 18 64.3

Widowed 7 50.0 7 50.0

Present the above data using a multiple bar chart.

 Component (or sub-divided) Bar Diagram: Bars are sub-divided into

component parts of the figure. These sorts of diagrams are constructed
when each total is built up from two or more component figures. They
can be of two kind:

I) Actual Component Bar Diagrams: When the over all height of

the bars and the individual component lengths represent actual
figures

II) ii) Percentage Component Bar Diagram: Where the individual

component lengths represent the percentage each component
forms the over all total. Note that a series of such bars will all
be the same total height, i.e., 100 percent

2) Pie-chart (qualitative or quantitative discrete data):

 It is a circle divided into sectors so that the areas of the sectors are
proportional to the frequencies.
  The pie chart represents data in a circular graph. The pieces of the
chart or graph show the data size. The various components are
represented by the pieces of a circle and the whole circle is the sum of
the values of all components.

 A pie chart is also a graph and is a type of pictorial representation of

data. It divides the circle into various sectors in order to explain the
numeric values. Each section is a proportionate part of the whole
circle. We use a pie chart to find the composition of something. The pie
chart is also known as the circle chart.

 A pie chart is used for data representation.

 The total of all data in a pie is equal to 360° and the total value of a
pie is always 100%.

 The central angle for a component formula is given as

Central angle for a component = (Value of the component / Sum of the values of all
components) * 360°

Steps to Make a Pie Chart

1. Enter the given data into a table to make the process easy for you.

2. Find the sum of values in the table.

3. Divide each value in the table by sum and multiply the result with 100
to get the percent.

4. To get the degrees of each value, substitute the values in the formula
i.e (Value of each component/sum) * 360

5. Draw a circle and use a protractor to measure the degree of each

sector.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Pie Chart

Advantages

 It is simple and easy to understand

 Data can be represented visually as a fractional part of the whole.

  It helps in providing an effective communication tool for the
uninformed audience.

Disadvantages

 It can represent only one set of data. So, you need a series to compare
multiple sets.

 If you have too many pieces of data, and even you add labels and
numbers may not help here, they themselves may become crowded and
hard to read.