LECTURE NOTE ON BASIC COMPUTER AND OPERATING SYSTEM

LIS 118
DEFINITION AND COMPONENT OF COMPUTER
Definition of Computer
While you may have seen and used a computer, you may still be unable to
answer what is computer correctly. There are many ways of defining a
computer. The first and most standard definition is that a computer is a
machine or device that takes in raw data and performs some calculations on
it and gives us the formed output in the desired format.
Computer is also a device that stores as well as processes information
electronically.

A computer is a device that accept information (in the form of digitalized data)
and manipulates it for some result based on a program, software or sequence
of instructions on how the data is to be processed.

A computer is an electronic device capable of accepting data and prescribed

operation on data and brings desire information to the user with great speed
and accuracy. It is a programmable, automatic, electronic machine, capable
of processing data sent to it, producing an output, which could be stored for
future retrieval.

Brief history of computer

The journey of computers began in 1822 with Charles Babbage’s analytical
engine, which was used to compute the product of numbers. Lady Ada
Lovelace, considered to be the world’s first programmer, helped with the
programming of the analytical engine.
Around a hundred years later, Alan Turing presented a concept of a universal
machine which could theoretically compute anything.
Then J.V. Atanasoff, from the University of Iowa, actually made the first attempt
to build a computer. But the first concrete effort came from two University of
Pennsylvania professors who built the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator) which filled an entire room and had around 18,000 vacuum
tubes.
Two years later, a green light for building UNIVAC came from the US
government to make the first computer for commercial and business
applications. Then came a fundamental design switch to transistors a year
later when transistors replaced vacuum tubes. This paved the way for
integrated circuits which form the processor chip of modern computers.
In 1953, the first programming language COBOL was developed, and FORTRAN
followed it up. But the shift of computers beyond the scientific world came in
1964 when Douglas Engelbart showed a computer prototype with a mouse and
a Graphical User Interface. It made computers user friendly and made them
favourable for general use.
Following this, there was a parabolic rise in the development of computers with
Bell Laboratories, IBM and Apple Inc. They made significant headways into the
development of computers.
Apple announced the new personal computers that eventually took over the
market in 1976. This was followed up by Microsoft’s Windows. These two
significant companies prove to be the game changers in the personal
computer field, and the rest is history.

Types of Computers
Computers can be differentiated based on their modes of functioning as
well as their size and functionality. Here they have been divided into
different types of computers without considering any of these factors.

1. Analogue
These are old models of computers that work on the continuous
analogue signals rather than discrete signals. They are not very accurate
but extremely fast.

2. Digital
Computers that use binary system of counting using electrical pulses of
ON and OFF are known as digital computers. They function on discrete
values and are generally more accurate.
3. Hybrid
Computers that have features of both digital and analogue computers
are known as hybrid computers. The analogue part of a computer
handles very complicated mathematical computations while digital
components handle these numerical and logical systems.

4. Mainframes
Mainframe computers are computers that are accessed simultaneously
by several thousands of people at once. They are used in fields of
banking and telecom where they have to handle millions of requests
together in minimal time.

5. Supercomputers
These massive computers are used in the fields of engineering and
scientific computations. They usually perform over a million instructions
per second.

6. Servers
Servers are large repositories of information. They supply information to
any computer that is on the same network as them. Many people access
servers at the same time so servers need to handle large amounts of
traffic.

7. Workstation
This type of computer that scientists and engineers may be familiar with
is called the workstation. It is generally used in scientific applications and
has a faster microprocessor along with a spacious memory.

8. Microcomputer
This is the smallest types of computers by size. A microcomputer has a
small computer microprocessor. It is mostly used at home, in the office
to browse the internet, this kind of computers are built for light, cheaper,
and easy to use.
 BASICS OF A COMPUTER
Computer basics should be known to everybody who has ever used a
computer. A computer is a device that computes some raw data and
turns it into meaningful information.
Computer systems consist mainly of two parts. They are hardware and
software. The hardware is electronic circuitry that helps to compute the
mathematical computations, and the software is the programs that help
the hardware to compute. Software is further subdivided into two parts,
the operating systems and applications programs. The operating system
runs the computer hardware and helps us to communicate with the
computer while software applications that we run further perform useful
tasks for us.

Hardware and Software

These are the primary divisions of the computer system.
While discussing the computer definition, we understand that there are
two broad divisions of the computer. They are the hardware and the
software. The hardware is that part of the computer that we can
physically see, feel, touch. They include the input and output devices as
well as the processor chip itself.

While the software is a program which perform tasks. They are collection
of instructions or program written in computer language, which the
computer understands and execute. Software is of two types. One is the
operating system like Windows and LINUX, and the other part is the
application software like MS Office, games, internet browsers etc. The
computer without the software is nothing but a dumb machine. The
software is what makes the computer useful to humans.

Hardware
Computer hardware is the physical parts of a computer device.
Hardware can be replaced if broken or as per needs. Hardware can also
be seen as the machinery or primary electronic part of the computer
devices. These are used to build up the computer and bring it into a
usable condition. For Example- Monitors, Central Processing Unit (CPU),
etc.

Software
Software in a computer system is a programming code that is executed
on a computer processor to fulfill the required task. It is a set of programs
and procedures that can perform the given tasks. Software is generally
written or designed in high-level programming languages which are also
readable by non-technical people and the user of the computer.

The high-level languages of software are converted to machine

language instructions which can be understood by the computer to
follow. These are represented in the form of binary code (0s and 1s) which
is understood by the device. The installation of software occurs in the
machine language or binary code.

Types of Software
Software in a computer is divided into THREE parts. They are as follows-

• System Software – System software is software in a computer that

operates directly on hardware gadgets of the computer. The
system software in a computer can be seen as a platform to use or
run an application. It helps to use the system itself and run the
hardware of the computer. System software is mostly pre-installed
on the new computers by the manufacturer. For Example- UNIX
Windows, Android, IOS, MS/DOS etc.
• Application Software – Application Software are software that is
created for users to complete different tasks on the given computer
system. Application Software can either be already installed in the
computer device or can be installed later from to web or other
sources. For Example- Games, Microsoft Word, WhatsApp, Word
 processing, spreadsheet, presentation, Database management
etc.

• Utility Software- Application software that assist system software in

doing their work is called utility software. Thus, utility software is actually
a cross between system software and application software. Examples of
utility software include −

• Antivirus software
• Disk management tools
• File management tools
• Compression tools
• Backup tools

COMPONENT OF A COMPUTER
The key components of a computer are the CPU, input and output
devices, memory, storage devices and the mother board. Knowing what
a computer is impossible without knowing its structural basics. Hence
here is a brief look at the various components that make up a computer.
 • Input Unit

A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device. These
commands can be given using the input unit or the input devices.

For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the
computer processes the entered data and then displays the output of the
same of the screen.

The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We
enter the information using an input device, the processing units convert it into
computer understandable languages and then the final output is received by
a human-understandable language. Example of input devices are Keyboard,
Mouse (pointing device), Microphone, Touch screen, Scanner, Webcam,
Touchpads, MIDI keyboard, Graphics Tablets, Cameras, Pen Input, Video
Capture Hardware, Microphone, Trackballs, Barcode reader, Digital camera,
Joystick.

• Output Unit

When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts for the action

performed and gives us a result. This result is called output. There are various
output devices connected to the computer. The most basic of which is a
monitor. Whatever we write using a keyboard or click using a mouse, is all
displayed on the monitor.

Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done
within the mechanism of a device.

For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, pin,
amount to be withdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the cash
dispenser releases are our outcome. In this case, the cash dispenser acts as
an output unit. Examples of output devices are Monitor, All types of printer,
plotter, projector, speakers, LCD projection films, computer output microfilms
(COM).
 • Memory Unit

A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to store
the data, which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different
sizes (16-bit, 32-bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a
specific function, like storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a
location in memory etc. The user registers can be used by an assembly
language programmer for storing operands, intermediate results etc.
Accumulator (ACC) is the main register in the ALU and contains one of the
operands of an operation to be performed in the ALU.

Memory attached to the CPU is used for the storage of data and instructions,
and is called internal memory The internal memory is divided into many
storage locations, each of which can store data or instructions. Each memory
location is of the same size and has an address. With the help of the address,
the computer can read any memory location easily without having to search
the entire memory. When a program is executed, its data is copied to the
internal memory and stored in the memory till the end of the execution. The
internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This
memory is also called RAM, i.e., Random Access Memory. The time of access
of data is independent of its location in memory, therefore, this memory is
also called Random Access memory (RAM).
• Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.
• It stores both data and instructions.
• Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they
are available whenever required.

Primary Memory: -
1. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM): is a memory scheme within the
computer system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that
it can be promptly accessed by the processor as and when needed. It is
volatile in nature, which means that data will be erased once supply to the
storage device is turned off. RAM stores data randomly and the processor
accesses these data randomly from the RAM storage. RAM is considered
"random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you
know the row and column that intersect at that cell.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays
active regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices
do not allow data stored on them to be modified.

Secondary Memory: -
Stores data and programs permanently: it’s retained after the power is turned
off
1. Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard
drive," or "hard disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to
large amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of
surfaces.

2. Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light
as part of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some
drives can only read from discs, but recent drives are commonly both readers
and recorders, also called burners or writers. Compact discs,
DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media which can be
read and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is the generic name; drives
are usually described as "CD" "DVD", or "Blu-ray", followed by "drive", "writer",
etc. There are three main types of optical media: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc.
CDs can store up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data and DVDs can store up to
8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical media, can
store up to 50 GB of data. This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the
floppy disk storage media (a magnetic media), which only has a capacity of
1.44 MB.

3. Flash Disk: A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks
have no mechanical platters or access arms, but the term "disk" is used
because the data are accessed as if they were on a hard drive. The disk
storage structure is emulated.

• Control Unit

The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the CPU,
and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also
input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions
stored in the program. It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and
sends control signals to input/output devices until the required operation is
done properly by ALU and memory.

• The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a

computer that directs the operation of the processor.
• It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and
input and output devices on how to respond to the processor’s
instructions.
• In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer
receive signals from the control unit.
• It is also called the central nervous system or brain of the computer.

• Arithmetic & Logical Unit

As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic

operations are performed in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.

It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making

actions. The ALU comprises circuits using which addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and other numerical based calculations can be
performed.

• Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU

• It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
• Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform
arithmetic and logical operations .

• Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit is the core of any computer devices. It comprises
three major components of the computer which have been discussed above:

• Memory Unit
• Control Unit
• Arithmetic and Logical Unit
All these three units are elements of CPU and together help in the efficient
working and processing of data. It is also known as the “Brain of Computer” and
no action can be conducted by a device without the execution and permission
of the Central Processing Unit.

The device is a close-knit circuit comparison microprocessor which helps in

fetching the data and proving suitable results to the user. Thus, CPU is the main
processing unit of the computer.

Also, while discussing the various components of computers, it must be known

that a device which is so complex and intricately made using circuits and wires
comprises various other elements, which affects its overall programming and
performance.

Characteristics of a Computer
1. Speed: Computers can perform millions of calculations per second. The
computation speed is extremely fast.
2. Accuracy: Because computers operate on pre-programmed software,
there is no space for human error.
3. Diligence: They can perform complex and long calculations at the same
time and with the same accuracy.
4. Versatile: Computers are designed to be versatile. They can carry out
multiple operations at the same time.
5. Storage: Computers can store a large number of data/ instructions in its
memory, which can be retrieved at any point of time.

COMPUTER APPLICATION

Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business,
educational institutions, research organizations, medical field, government
offices, entertainment, etc.

Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment,
watching movies or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access,
playing games, internet access, etc. They provide communication through
electronic mail. They help to avail work from home facility for corporate
employees. Computers help the student community to avail online
educational support.

Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history,
diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use
robotic surgical devices to perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries
remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used for training purposes. It also
helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.

Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual
entertainer in playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly
help people in the entertainment industry in recording music with artificial
instruments. Videos can be fed from computers to full screen televisions. Photo
editors are available with fabulous features.

Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing
inventory, designing purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior
designing, video conferencing, etc. Online marketing has seen a great
revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible corners like
interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from
different levels of people through the use of computers.

Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online
examinations, referring e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use
of audio-visual aids in the education field.

Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a
database of citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s
defense organizations have greatly benefitted from computers in their use for
missile development, satellites, rocket launches, etc.
Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and
conduct transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs.
Banks have reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through
extensive use of computers.

Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective
of business is transaction processing, which involves transactions with
suppliers, employees or customers. Computers can make these transactions
easy and accurate. People can analyze investments, sales, expenses, markets
and other aspects of business using computers.

Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to
save money and improve performance. Video conferencing through
computers allows saving of time and travelling costs by being able to connect
people in various locations.

Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The
fluid movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be
digitized using computers.

Science and Engineering

Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in
Science and Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in
area of Research and Development (R&D). Topographic images can be
created through computers. Scientists use computers to plot and analyze data
to have a better understanding of earthquakes.
 OPERATING SYSTEM

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and

computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the
basic tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.

An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a

computer's hardware. The software that contains the core components of the
operating system is called the kernel.

An operating system is a system software that manages computer hardware,

software resources and provides common services for computer programs.

Function of Operating System

1. Memory Management

It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever program is

executed, it has to be present in the main memory. Main memory is a quick
storage area that may be accessed directly by the CPU. When the program is
completed, the memory region is released and can be used by other programs.
Therefore, there can be more than one program present at a time. Hence, it is
required to manage the memory.

The operating system:

• Allocates and deallocates the memory.

• Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by whom

and how much.

• Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.

• In multiprogramming, the operating system selects which processes

acquire memory when and how much memory they get.
2. Processor Management/Scheduling

Every software that runs on a computer, whether in the background or in the

frontend, is a process. Processor management is an execution unit in which a
program operates. The operating system determines the status of the processor
and processes, selects a job and its processor, allocates the processor to the
process, and de-allocates the processor after the process is completed.

When more than one process runs on the system the OS decides how and when
a process will use the CPU. Hence, the name is also CPU Scheduling. The OS:

• Allocates and deallocates processor to the processes.

• Keeps record of CPU status.

Certain algorithms used for CPU scheduling are as follows:

• First Come First Serve (FCFS)

• Shortest Job First (SJF)

• Round-Robin Scheduling

• Priority-based scheduling etc.

Purpose of CPU scheduling

The purpose of CPU scheduling is as follows:

• Proper utilization of CPU. Since the proper utilization of the CPU is

necessary. Therefore, the OS makes sure that the CPU should be as
busy as possible.

• Since every device should get a chance to use the processor. Hence,
the OS makes sure that the devices get fair processor time.

• Increasing the efficiency of the system.

3. Device Management

An operating system regulates device connection using drivers. The processes

may require devices for their use. This management is done by the OS. The OS:

• Allocates and deallocates devices to different processes.

• Keeps records of the devices.

• Decides which process can use which device for how much time.
4. File Management

The operating system manages resource allocation and de-allocation. It

specifies which process receives the file and for how long. It also keeps track of
information, location, uses, status, and so on. These groupings of resources are
referred to as file systems. The files on a system are stored in different directories.
The OS:

• Keeps records of the status and locations of files.

• Allocates and deallocates resources.

• Decides who gets the resources.

5. Storage Management

Storage management is a procedure that allows users to maximize the utilization

of storage devices while also protecting data integrity on whatever media on
which it lives. Network virtualization, replication, mirroring, security, compression,
deduplication, traffic analysis, process automation, storage provisioning, and
memory management are some of the features that may be included. The
operating system is in charge of storing and accessing files. The creation of files,
the creation of directories, the reading and writing of data from files and
directories, as well as the copying of the contents of files and directories from one
location to another are all included in storage management.
The OS uses storage management for:

• Improving the performance of the data storage resources.

• It optimizes the use of various storage devices.

• Assists businesses in storing more data on existing hardware,

speeding up the data retrieval process, preventing data loss, meeting
data retention regulations, and lowering IT costs

What are the functions of Operating System

• Security – For security, modern operating systems employ a firewall.

A firewall is a type of security system that monitors all computer
activity and blocks it if it detects a threat.
• Job Accounting – As the operating system keeps track of all the
functions of a computer system. Hence, it makes a record of all the
activities taking place on the system. It has an account of all the
information about the memory, resources, errors, etc. Therefore, this
information can be used as and when required.

• Control over system performance – The operating system will collect

consumption statistics for various resources and monitor
performance indicators such as reaction time, which is the time
between requesting a service and receiving a response from the
system.

• Error detecting aids – While a computer system is running, a variety

of errors might occur. Error detection guarantees that data is
delivered reliably across susceptible networks. The operating system
continuously monitors the system to locate or recognize problems
and protects the system from them.

• Coordination between other software and users – The operating

system (OS) allows hardware components to be coordinated and
directs and allocates assemblers, interpreters, compilers, and other
software to different users of the computer system.
 • Booting process – The process of starting or restarting a computer is
referred to as Booting. Cold booting occurs when a computer is totally
turned off and then turned back on. Warm booting occurs when the
computer is restarted. The operating system (OS) is in charge of
booting the computer.

Types of Operating System

The operating system can be of different types. They are as follows:

1. Batch OS

In this system, the OS does not forward the jobs/tasks directly to the CPU. It works
by grouping together similar types of jobs under one category. Further, we name
this group as a ‘batch’. Hence, the name batch OS. Examples are the payroll
system, bank statement, etc.

2. Time-Shared OS or Multitasking
When more than one task takes place on the system it is called time-shared OS.
As multiple tasks can run at the system at a time as per requirement. Hence, they
all share the CPU time one by one. Therefore, we also name it multitasking. The
time that each task gets is called quantum. A fixed interval of time is decided for
each task. When the first task executes for that period of time, the second task
executes, and so on. Examples are UNIX etc.

3. Distributed OS
In this system, there is more than one CPU present. The OS distributes the tasks
among all the processors. The processors do not share any memory or clock
time. OS handles all communication between them through various
communication lines. Examples are LOCUS etc.
4. Network OS

In these OS various systems are connected to a server. It allows the system to

share resources such as files, printers, applications, etc. Moreover, it gives the
capability to serve to manage these resources. Examples are UNIX, LINUX,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, etc.

5. Real-Time OS (RTOS)
In these systems, the time interval for processing and responding to inputs is very
small. Therefore, due to this quality, these are used in real-time situations. For
example, in missile systems, robots, etc.

They have two categories as follows:

a) Hard Real-Time Systems
In this, the time constraint is very short and strict. Even seconds of delay is not
acceptable.

b) Soft Real-Time Systems

In this, the time constraint is not so short and strict.

History of Operating System

The history of the operating system has four generations now.

First Generation
(1945-1955) In this generation, operating systems were not introduced
therefore the instruction was directly given to the computer systems. All the
code was included to communicate with the connected hardware and the
system.

Electronic computers were introduced during the 1940s when there were no
operating systems therefore the code was written in machine language where
they were just used to solve simple mathematic problems.

Example - to control the machine functions plug boards were used using the
wiring.
Second Generation
(1955-1965) GMOS (General Motos operating system) was the first operating
system that came into the picture in the 1950s which was developed for IBM
computers. IBM was the first one that bought an operating system into the
world. In the second generation, around the 1960s the first UNIX Operating
system was developed that was available for free for a few years. Also, the
batch processing system, where all the similar jobs are collected in groups by
the system, and then all the jobs are submitted to the operating system using
a punch card to execute all jobs in a machine.

Third Generation
(1965-1980) In the third generation, the concept of multiprogramming was
introduced in which multiple tasks could be performed in a single computer i.e.,
operating system. Due to performing multiple tasks at a time,
multiprogramming allows the CPU to be busy every time multiple tasks are
performed on the same computer. With the DEC PDP-1 in 1961, the development
of minicomputers' phenomenal growth was introduced.

Example - Concept of multiprogramming and types of operating systems

used in multiprogramming.

Fourth Generation
(1980-now) The evolution of computers aka operating systems came under
the fourth generation. Every user is using their personal computers in this
generation. The concept of personal computers is similar to the minicomputer
that was introduced in the third generation. The birth of the Microsoft Windows
operating system was in 1975 and then Bill Gates took the personal computers
to next level by launching MS-DOS in 1981, but due to the cryptic commands, it
was difficult for a user to get hold of the commands. In this generation, people
were also introduced to Graphic User Interface (GUI). Today, Windows is the
most popular operating system and has evolved from Windows 95, Windows
98, Windows XP, and Windows 7. The most used Windows operating system was
Windows 7 and Windows 10. In 2021, Windows 11 was introduced with major
changes. Apple also introduced its operating system known as MacOS which is
also as popular as Windows these days.
PROCESS

The program under execution is called Process. Process is an active entity.

Process goes through different states throughout the life cycle during the
process execution, which is known as process states. All the information
associated with the process is stored in the Process Control Block (PCB)

LIST OF STATE OF THE PROCESS

New State
This is the first state of the process life cycle. When process creation is taking
place, the process is in a new state.

Ready State
When the process creation is completed, the process comes into a ready state.
During this state, the process is loaded into the main memory and will be
placed in the queue of processes which are waiting for the CPU allocation.

When the process is in the creation process is in a new state and when the
process gets created process is in the ready state.
Running State
Whenever the CPU is allocated to the process from the ready queue, the
process state changes to Running. A process is said to be in a running state if
it has all the resources including the processor.

Block or Wait State

When the process is executing the instructions, the process might require
carrying out a few tasks that might not require CPU. If the process requires
performing Input-Output task or the process needs some resources that are
already acquired by other processes, during such conditions process is
brought back into the main memory, and the state is changed to Blocking or
Waiting for the state. Process is placed in the queue of processes that are in
waiting or block state in the main memory.

Terminated or Completed
When the entire set of instructions is executed and the process is completed.
The process is changed to a terminated or completed state. During this state
the PCB of the process is also deleted.

Suspend Ready
So, whenever the main memory is full, the process which is in a ready state is
swapped out from main memory to secondary memory. The process is in a
ready state when goes through the transition of moving from main memory to
secondary memory, the state of that process is changed to Suspend Ready
state. Once the main memory will have enough space for the process, the
process will be brought back to the main memory and will be in a ready state.

Suspend Wait or Suspend Blocked

Whenever the process that is in waiting for state or block state in main memory
gets to swap out to secondary memory due to main memory being completely
full, the process state is changed to Suspend wait or suspend blocked state.
INTERRUPT PROCESSING

An Interrupt is an event that alters the sequence in which the processes

execute instruction. It can be seen as an event that disrupt the normal
sequence of instruction executed by the CPU. E.g power failure.

It can be a defined again as a signal send to the CPU by an external device. It

typically an input/output device.

When an interrupt occurs;

1. Operating system gains control (hardware passes control to operating

system)
2. Operating system saves the state of the interrupted
3. Operating system analysis the interrupt and process control to the
appropriate interrupt handlers.
4. The interrupt handler routine processes the interrupt.
5. The state of the interrupted process is restored.
6. The interrupted process (or some other next process execute).
TRAP

A trap is an interrupted by the running process. It is abnormal condition

detected by the Central Processing Unit (CPU) that is usually indicative of an
error. It is synchronous with the operation of the process, It always occur at the
same point of a program execution each time it turns.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) could distort either by interrupt or polling (polling
occurs when the processing itself looks for attention, i.e. the identification of
problem by processor).

INTERRUPT CLASSES

There are six interrupt classes in large scale IBM processor, they are;

1. Supervisor called interrupt (SVC interrupt). This is initiated by a running

process that execute the SVC
instruction. SVC is a user generated request for a particular system service
such as performing Input and Output, obtaining more storage or
communicating with the system operator.

2. Input and Output Interrupt: They are initiated by the Input and Output
hardware. The signal to the CPU that the status of the channel or device has
change. E.g. when Input and Output error occurs during copying of files.

3. External Interrupt: they are caused by various event including the expiration
of the quantum or an interrupting clock or the pressing of the console interrupt
key by the operator or the receipt of signal from another processor on a multi-
processor system.

4. Restart Interrupt: this occurs when the operator presses the console restart
button. Or when a restart SIGP (signal processor) instruction arise from another
processor on a multi-processor system.

5. Program check interrupt: it arises from a machine instruction of the program

that is running. E.g. division by zero, over flow or underflow, when data is in
wrong format; (that is in c/c++ (programming) declaration. i.e. declaring int
and using double or float - that is overflow access beyond memory unit.)

CONCURRENT PROCESSES
Process is concurrent if they exist at the same time. They can be asynchronous
which is the required occasional synchronization or co-operation or they can
function independently of one another.

Parallel processing enables different computation to be done

simultaneously. This result in significant performance improvement over
sequential processing.

System that supports parallel activities are interesting to study because of

trend towards multi-processing and massive parallelism. This study is
important because

1. It is always difficult to determine which activities can and can’t be performed

in parallel.

2. Parallel programs are much more difficult to debug than sequential

program.

3. Interaction between asynchronous process can be complex.

Proving program for correctness is much more difficult for parallel program
than sequential program.

The control structure for indicating parallelism o concurrency is par begin/ par
end or co begin/co end

e.g.

Par begin

Statement 1

Statement 2

Statement

Par end
When par begin is encountered, a single thread of control is split into separate
thread of control until par

end is reached which terminate all the parallel thread of control and a single
thread of control (sequential) execution resume.

MUTUAL EXCLUSION

This is defined as a condition in which processes cooperate in a manner such

that while one process is accessing shared modifiable data all others are
excluded from doing so. It is necessary because some resources like memory,
CPU and dedicated devices must be exclusively allocated to one user at a time.
So, mutual exclusion is a means of controlling processes from entering Critical
Section at the same time.

CRITICAL SECTIO: This is a section of code that required access to shared

modifiable resources (data), it must be executed speedily to prement bush
waiting When processes cooperate over the use of share modifiable data, and
one process is in its critical section, all of her process must be excluded from
their critical section.

To enforce Mutual exclusion is one of the key problems in concurrent

programming. Some solution to mutual exclusion problems include.

1. Dekker algorithm

2. Peterson algorithm

Hardware solution to mutual exclusion problems include;

The Test and sat instruction

Semaphore: sleep and wake up process and consumer.

SEMAPHORE

A semaphore is a protected variable where value can be accessed and altered

only by the operation P and V and an initialization operation called semaphore
initialize, i.e. if is non-negative integer variable upon which two atomic variable
is defined.

The p operation on semaphore S, P(s) operate as If (one or more processes are

inserting on 5)

Then (let one of these processes proceed)

Else 5=5+1

P and V are indivisible.

INTER PROCESS COMMUNICATION

This occurs when cooperating processes communicates for purposes as

exchanging data, reporting progress and accumulating collective results e.g.
shared memory e.g in process, producer generate information and put in

number buffer that a second process, consumer uses. The second of the two
must be equal to avoid mismatch or wrong result

INTERPROCESS SYNCHRONISATION

The involves using a set of protocols and mechanism to preserve system

integrity and consistency when concurrent process shared serially reusable
resources e.g. printer e.g in consumer producer if processes

communicates through a shared buffer, the producer must not produce when
the buffer is full and the consumer must not consume when the buffer is empty,
this restriction enforcement is an example of the process synchronization.

INTERPROCESS SIGNALLING

This involves exchange of timing signals among concurrent processes or

threads, used to coordinate their collective progress.

MONITORS

A monitor is a concurrency construct that contains both the data and

procedures needed to perform allocation of a particular or group of serially
reusable shared resources. It is a programming language construct that
guarantees appropriate access to critical sections. Only one process is allowed
to enter the monitor at a time. The data inside the monitor may be either global
to all procedures with the monitor or locate to a specific procedure.

All these data are accessible only within can access the monitor clak.
This is called ‘’Information Hang’’

DEADLOCK

A process in a multi programming system is said to be in a state of deadlock

or deadlocked if it is waiting for a particular event that will not occur.

INDEFINITE POSTPONEMENT

This occurs as a result of certain process receiving processor attention and

locked on to certain resources disallow others from using those resources,
thereby causing indefinite delay. If is also called indefinite blocking or
starvation. It is often done to biased in a system resource scheduling policies
based on priority basic.

PREEMPTIBLE RESOURCES: Ones that can be taken away from the process e.g
CPU and memory.

NONPREEMPTIBLE RESOURCES: Ones that can be removed from the processed

to which they are assigned e.g. tape drive, printer.

SHARABLE RESOURCES: Ones that can be shared among several processes e.g
CPU, Memory folder.

UNSHARABLE RESOURCES: They are dedicated to a single process e.g. disk

drives.

REENTRANT CODE: Code that may be changed but is reinitialized each time it
is used. Cal only be used by only one process at a time.

Resource that can be used by several processes but only one at a time tends
to become involved in deadlock

FOUR NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR DEADLOCK

The following are condition for deadlock to exist

1. Mutual exclusion condition: Process attain exclusive of resources they request.

2. Wait for condition hold and wait processes hold resources already allocated
to them while waiting for additional resources.

3. No pre-emption condition: Resources can’t be removed from the processes

holding them until they used to completion.

4. Circular wait condition: A circular hours of processes exists in which each

process holds one more resource that are requested by the next process in the
chain.

For deadlock not occur, one of this condition must always be guaranteed
else if results will always be obtained or than computing again.
MAJOR AREAS OF DEADLOCK RESEARCH

There are four areas of interest in deadlock research

namely;

1. Deadlock prevention

2. Deadlock avoidance

3. Deadlock detection

4. Deadlock recovery

DEADLOCK PREVENTION

This is aim of removing any possibility of deadlock occurring. This is ok but

result in poor result utilization,

Havender Suggested the following

1. Denying wait for condition: each process must request all its required
resources at once and can’t proceed until all have been granted. It has the
following consequences. Waste of resources: (i.e underutilization of resources)
the case acquires more than.

2. Indefinite postponement: A process can wait indefinitely for its resources

• Denying the no preemption condition and allow preemption if a process

holding certain resources it denied for request, that process release its
laid resources and if necessary than again together with the additional
resources. The consequences
• Poor resource utilization: all process to a certain may be lost, again and
again.
• Indefinite postponement.
• Processor doing nothing but preempting the system become degraded
due to frequent preemption.

3. Denying the circular wait condition: Imposing a timer ordering of resource

types or all processor.
 • Configuration of the environment can change so linear ordering will be
affected.
• Environment becomes users unfriendly i.e restraints programmers to
linear ordering only be no flexibility.

DEADLOCK AVOIDANCE

The goal of this is to allow the possibility of deadlock to loom, but in the process
avoid it. It involves being careful when resources are allocated. One famous
deadlock avoidance algorithm is Dyksra’s Bankers algorithm.

LIMITATIONS OF BANKERS ALGORITHM

1. Requires there be a fixed number of resources to allocate.

2. Requires that the population of users remained fixed.

3. Requires that the Banker grant all request within a finite timer. Real time
system needs much better guarantees

4. Requires that client (jobs) repays all loans (resources)

within a finite timer as above.

5. Resources that users state their maximum needs in advance.

DEADLOCK DETECTION

It is the process that determine whether a deadlock exists, identifying the

processes and resources involved in the deadlock. Once this is done it can then
be cleared from the system.

Resource Allocation (graphs is used to facilitates detection of deadlocks.

Square represents processes large, small circle represent classes of identical
deadlock small circle inside large circles represent the number of identical
devices of deadlock.
If a graph can be reduced by all its processes, then there is no deadlock. If a
graph can’t be reduced by all its processes, then the uneducable processes
constitute the set of deadlocked processes in the graph.

DEADLOCK RECOVERY

This involves clearing deadlock from a deadlocked system so that the

deadlock processes may complete their execution and free their resources.

It is usually done by possibly removing a processes system from the system

and claiming its resources.

However, its more effective to use suspend/rescue mechanism

PROCESSOR SCHEDULING

Scheduling is a means of determining when processors should be assigned

and to which process.

SCHEDULING LEVEL

There are three important levels of scheduling.

• HIGH LEVEL SCHEDULING: This determines which job shall be allowed to

cooperate actively for the resource of the system. It is also known as JOB
or ADMISSION scheduling. It determines which jobs gain admission to the
system.
 • INTERMEDIATE LEVEL SCHEDULING: This determines which processes
shall be allowed to complete to the CPU. It determines which process to
suspend or activate to achieve smooth system operating and realize
system wide performance goals.
• LOW LEVEL SCHEDULING: This determines which rarely process will be
assigned the CPU when it becomes available, and actually assigns the
CPU to it. This is performed by the dispatches which operates many times
for second and must reside at all times in primary storage.

INFORMATION STORAGE AND DEVICE

The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store
the information and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an
integral part of the computer hardware which stores information/data to
process the result of any computational work. Without a storage device, a
computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other words, we can
say that a storage device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or
extracting data files. It can also store information/data both temporarily and
permanently.

Types of Computer Memory

1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Tertiary Memory

1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This
is a section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and
intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access
Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary storage.

2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external

to the computer. It is mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of
programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are
examples of secondary storage.
3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used in
personal computers and due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be
an important one. Tertiary memory works automatically without human
intervention.

Types of Computer Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market.
These storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of the
commonly used storage devices are:

1. Primary Storage Devices

2. Magnetic Storage Devices
3. Flash memory Devices
4. Optical Storage Devices
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

1. Primary Storage Devices

• RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information

that is used immediately or we can say that it is a temporary memory.
Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk to RAM to process
it and to be used by the user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data
is deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple tasks
like loading applications, browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet,
experiencing the newest game, etc. It allows you to modify quickly
among these tasks, remembering where you’re in one task once you
switch to a different task. It is also used to load and run applications, like
your spreadsheet program, answers commands, like all edits you made
within the spreadsheet, or toggle between multiple programs, like once
you left the spreadsheet to see the email. Memory is nearly always
actively employed by your computer. It ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB
depending upon the specifications. There are different types of RAM, and
although they all serve the same purpose, the most common ones are:
o SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of
circuits that retain stored information as long as the power supply
 is on. It is also known as volatile memory. It is used to build Cache
memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as
compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared to
DRAM.
o DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to
store binary bits in the form of electrical charges that are applied
to capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower as compared to
SRAM but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging
density.
o SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access
Memory. It is faster than DRAM. It is widely used in computers and
others. After SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded version of
double data rate RAM, i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was entered
into the market and widely used in home/office desktops and
laptops.
• ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these
devices are non-volatile, i.e., once the data is stored in the memory
cannot be modified or deleted. The memory from which will only read but
cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores
instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation is referred
to as bootstrap. It is also used in other electronic items like washers and
microwaves. ROM chips can only store a few megabytes (MB) of data,
which ranges between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip. There are two types of
ROM:
o PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are
ROMs that can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is
employed to enter the program on the PROM. Once the chip has
been programmed, information on the PROM can’t be altered.
PROM is non-volatile, that is data is not lost when power is switched
off.
o EPROM: Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable
Read-Only Memory. It is possible to erase the info which has been
previously stored on an EPROM and write new data onto the chip.
 o EEPROM: EEPROM is Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory. Here, data can be erased without using ultraviolet light,
with the use of just applying the electric field.

Primary storage devices

2. Magnetic Storage Devices

• Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally

used on a personal computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is
made up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a protective case.
Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices
like USB, etc.
• Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves
data using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can
be modified or deleted n number of times without any problem. Most
computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It
is actually a set of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every
hard disk, the data is recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles
or we can say track present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head
just like a phonograph arm (but fixed in a position) to read the
information present on the track. The read-write speed of HDDs is not so
fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few and more TB.
• Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or
rearranging the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles
present on the band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card. It is used
 like a passcode (to enter the house or hotel room), credit card, identity
card, etc.
• Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular
flat container in which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It
is generally used to store audio recordings.
• Super Disk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation
Corporation and it is popular with OEM computers. It can store data up
to 240 MB.

3. Flash Memory Devices

It is a cheaper and more portable storage device. It is the most commonly used
device to store data because is more reliable and efficient as compared to
other storage devices. Some of the commonly used flash memory devices are:

• Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory
with an integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these devices
to our computers and laptops and read/write data into them in a much
faster and more efficient way. These devices are very portable. It ranges
from 1GB to 256GB generally.
• SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDD. It is
more durable because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard
disks. It needs less power as compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and
has 10x faster read and writes speed as compared to hard disks. But
these are costly as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard
drives, their internal components are much different. Unlike hard drives,
SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state
drives. Instead of storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data
using non-volatile storage. Since SSDs haven’t any moving parts, they do
not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a few more TB.
• SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with
electronic devices like phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data.
It is portable and the size of the SD card is also small so that it can easily
fit into electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB,
8GB, etc.
 • Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game
consoles, etc. It is also used to store large amounts of data and is
available in different sizes. To run a memory card on a computer you
require a separate memory card reader.
• Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that
is generally used in-car radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external
device to store data/information.

4. Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices is also secondary storage device. It is a removable

storage device. Following are some optical storage devices:

• CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its

surface to store data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is
circular in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of two types:
o CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once
the data is written cannot be erased. It is read-only.
o CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD,
you can easily write or erase data multiple times.
• DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical
discs used to store data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB
single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs look
like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as compared to
CDs. It is of two types:
o DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of
DVD, once the data is written cannot be erased. It is read-only. It is
generally used to write movies, etc.
o DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type
of DVD, you can easily write or erase data multiple times.
• Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blue
ray is up to 25GB. To run a Blu-ray disc, you need a separate Blu-ray
reader. This Blu-ray technology is used to read a disc from a blue-violet
laser due to which the information is stored in greater density with a
longer wavelength.
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage

devices. We can store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is
stored for as long as we pay for the cloud storage. There are many companies
that provide cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft, etc. We can pay
the rent for the amount of space we need and we get multiple benefits out of
it. Though it is actually being stored in a physical device located in the data
centers of the service provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical
device and its maintenance. For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3
as a type of storage where users can store data virtually instead of being
stored in physical hard drive devices. These sorts of innovations represent the
frontier of where storage media goes.

COMPUTER MAINTENANCE

Today’s computers come in many different shapes and sizes, and each keeps
us connected to our digital world at any given time. Whether you depend on
your collection of devices for work or play, keeping them in impeccable,
unblemished condition is of the utmost importance. From their cosmetic
appeal to their operational functionality, a well-maintained computer looks
good, lasts longer, and performs reliably.

Keeping your PC in tip-top condition lengthens the life of your PC, both
internally and externally. A glitchy operating system, overheating CPU, or fast-
draining battery are avoidable woes that a bit of regular computer
maintenance could defend against. Let’s take a look at these 10 essential
computer maintenance tips.

1. Protect with padding

Everyone has been there; drops, bumps, and slips result in unsightly cosmetic
dings that leave your computer looking less-than-loved. If you’re like
most people who travel with their PC, safeguarding against accidents can feel
next to impossible when packing your PC away into a carry-on. An exposed
laptop is vulnerable to all of the elements of travel you likely want to protect it
from.
Whether you’re travelling business class or to a classroom across campus,
shielding your PC against the elements starts with a protective case. There are
a few different styles of protection that offer differing levels of armour and
functionality. These include:

Skins
Functioning as a full-body laptop sticker, laptop skins are best for protecting
the chassis from light damage and scratches.

Hardshell Snap-On covers

Polycarbonate, plastic, or rubberized hard-shell laptop covers protect your PC

while still granting easy access to ports, buttons, lights, and fans.

Sleeves
A simple, soft, envelope-style pouch typically made of gentle materials like
nylon, polyester, suede, or microfiber, laptop sleeves are lightweight protection.

Messenger bag
A shoulder bag specifically designed to accommodate your laptop and
necessary peripherals, the dedicated laptop messenger bag offers the most
padded protection.

2. Organize cords
The only thing more frustrating than dealing with long, confusing cables is
getting them all mixed up and tangled in the process. Keeping your digital
world connected is a must, so nixing the cables isn’t a feasible option. Taking
the time to declutter and organize the snake-like mass of wires spawning from
your power strip and PC ports is a great first step for both desktop and laptop
users. Try these wire organization tips:
A rotating power strip

Traditional power strips offer a single line or panel of surge inputs. A rotating
power strip gives you the freedom to modify the positioning of your many
chargers, monitors, and docks.

Colour-coding cables
Computer cables tend to be in two colours; black and white. Organizing your
mess of wires may be as simple as colour coding them with reds, blues, yellows,
greens, and or using labels indistinguishable hues.

Cable clips
Wire management is made simple when you attach cable clips to your desk,
wall, or floor. These small clips are designed to hold cables of all different sizes.

Organizer panel
Functioning as a panel of cable clips, a wire organizer panel accommodates
multiple wires. Stick it in place with an adhesive or keep it desk-side when you
use a weighted panel.

Pro tip: Be sure to keep your wires away from any footpaths. Tripping over wires
could result in the toppling of your devices, doing more damage in an instant
than years of use could ever do.

3. Update your operating system

If you’re looking for basic maintenance of computer hardware and software,
keeping your operating system up to date is one of the easiest solutions.
Regardless of whether you’re a Windows, Mac, or Linux loyalist, updating your
PC when new patches are available ensures your PC stays at the cutting-edge
of performance power.

Windows 10 is known for keeping users in tune with once-a-day update checks.
This automated scan occurs in the background and always notifies you if there
are any important software or operating system patches that need to be
made. The end goal is to optimize your PC performance, so when Windows
suggests you update, you should do it.
Pro-tip: Some updates take longer than others. Set aside time before bedtime
or during a daytime break to let Windows do its thing without interrupting your
workflow.

4. Unplug to avoid overcharging

With heightened dependence on wireless devices, optimizing battery power is
a top priority for many. There are few things more dreadful than a draining
battery when you’ve got hours of work and play left on your day’s schedule.
However, it’s better to resist the temptation of plugging at the moment your PC
falls under 50% battery life.

Unnecessary charging can lead to overcharging, which then leads to

regenerative capability deterioration. This often looks like a laptop that can’t
hold a charge as well as it could in its earlier days.

Being shackled to the weight of a charger defeats the purpose of a laptop’s

wireless portability. To avoid a bad battery fate, unplug your device after it
reaches 100% charge, and don’t plug in until power is low.

5. Purge your system of junk files and programs

Computers tend to show their age best in the number of unused files living on
their hard drives. Useless programs and old junk files likely take up more space
than you realize. From old versions of software to retired versions of your
resume, your PC is sure to have its fair share of digital debris festering on your
desktop or in your start menu. These programs and files can quickly turn
into performance hogs if they continue to accumulate.

Before your computer gets to a point where it’s begging for more storage
space, use these PC purge tips to relieve your system.

• Uninstall trialware
• Run disk cleanup software
• Empty the recycle bin
• Delete temporary files
• Remove cache of offline web pages
6. Run regular antivirus scans
Malware attacks can sneak up on you at any given moment, and in the event,
one does, having a savvy antivirus living on your PC will protect you against the
damage viruses bring. Weekly antivirus scans ensure your computer is always
clear of malicious software infections. A basic scan will examine your computer
for any glaring dangers or outstanding activity.

For those who are frequent web users and download programs and files
regularly, consider running a virus scan twice a week. It’s always better to err
on the side of safety, especially when your data could be at risk.

Malware infections can compromise the performance of your computer and

expose your confidential information to third-party cybercriminals. Depending
on the type of malware installed on your system, a virus could also:

• Slow web browser speeds

• Disrupt network connections
• Freeze or crash your system
• Alter computer settings
• Allow unauthorized access to system resources

By running regular antivirus scans you can rest assured that nothing slips by.
Be sure to choose an antivirus scan servicer that also scans all of your
downloads, too.

7. Clean the keyboard and case

You’d be surprised to see just how much dust and debris lives underneath your
keyboard’s keys. From food crumbs and dog hairs to dust and dirt, and
everything else that can fit in between the keys, several dirty particles can clog
your keyboard. This usually results in sticky or difficult-to-press buttons.

Clearing out these hard-to-reach parts of your laptop or desktop setup is most
easily done with a compressed air canister, available from office supply stores,
computer stores, and hardware stores.
For external keyboards
Unplug the keyboard from the USB port or power it off if it’s wireless. Tilt the
keyboard upside down and shake any loose debris out first. Spray compressed
air at an angle and approximately 1-inch away from the keys. Use a damp
microfiber cloth to finish the job, removing any excess dust or grime.

For the laptop user

Power your laptop off and unplug any USB or power supply inputs. Tilt the laptop
upside down and gently tap it to encourage any loose debris to come out. Set
the laptop down in its natural position and spray between keys from about 1-
inch away. Spray in short bursts moving from one side of the keyboard to the
other.

If you find certain spots tougher to clean than others, use a cotton ball dipped
in isopropyl alcohol as a great alternative. Alcohol evaporates more quickly
than water which makes it the perfect solution for hardened debris.

Pro-tip: When cleaning your laptop or desktop, absolutely avoid pouring any
type of liquid onto the body. Water and electronic devices do not mix well and
could result in extreme damage to your computer.

8. Update your passwords

Believe it or not, updating your passwords is a task as crucial as backing up
your data. Verizon’s 2017 Data Breach Investigations Report found that an
alarming 81% of hacking-related breaches leveraged either stolen and/or weak
passwords [1]. Poor password behaviour encompasses everything from using
the same password for every account to using simple, guessable passwords
like “password” or “123456.”

When it comes to basic PC maintenance, protecting your digital world against

cybercriminals should always be at the forefront of your task list. No security
system is perfect, and more today than ever before, consumers are realizing
this on a large scale.

If you’re overdue for a password update, consider using these strong password
generation tips:
 1. Use at least 10 characters
2. Use a combination of uppercase and lowercase letters
3. Include both numbers and special symbols
4. Add emoticons if possible (:O, :(, :D, :), T.T)

A strong password safeguards all of your data against potential third-party

hackers which is precisely why it’s such an essential part of maintaining
computer systems.

9. Organize your data

It’s easy to let your computer’s data organization run awry when your work and
play lifestyle doesn’t leave much time for calculated file management.
Whether it’s old music files from your garage band days or downloaded add-
ons for your favourite simulation game, your PC’s many folders can grow
crowded.

If you can’t remember the last time you took a look through your downloads
folder, you’re likely overdue for a visit. The same applies to the rest of your
default folders (documents, photos, etc.).

Dealing with a cluttered desktop or crowded computer folders may be a

daunting task, but with these tips and tricks, you’ll be well on your way to a
functioning system of files and folders.

Create large, main folders

Everyone uses their computers for different primary purposes. A freelance
writer will likely have completely different main folder assignments than a
professional gamer or a business owner. It’s important to narrow down your
digital world into easy folder divisions to make your first round of organization
a breeze, and your future rounds even easier.
Create small sub-folders
Within your larger primary folders, smaller sub-folders make your organization
operation even smoother. Being able to categorize files by their functionality or
content will help you access them whenever you need them. No search button
is necessary.

Empty your downloads folder

Your downloads folder should function as a temporary cache for recently
downloaded files. Get into the habit of placing recent downloads in their proper
folders or deleting them once they’ve served their purpose.

Clear your desktop

When you power on your computer and saddle up for your day’s work or some
light social media browsing, you want to be able to do so without the stress of
clutter. Clear your desktop of any files, folders, or programs you don’t need
readily available at every power-on.

Choose thoughtful filenames

If you’re frequently saving images, PDFs, and other common files, you know how
easy it is to type in gibberish for a successful “Save As” operation. Instead of
rushing through, take the time to come up with intentional file names so you
always know what’s living on your hard drive and where it’s located.

10. Back up your data

Part of owning a modern computer is to prepare for the unexpected. Sudden
crashes, untimely glitches, and random hardware failures all have the potential
to damage the data living on your PC. Backing up files is one of the most vital
computer maintenance procedures PC users can do for themselves. That’s
why we’ve ranked it at our final spot. Your computer is replaceable, but without
a backup, your information is not.

Full backups are usually done on storage-heavy external hard drives and the
cloud. By making duplicate copies of everything on your PC (actually having
your data in 3 places is safest), all of your valuable data lives both on your
computer and inside of the external drive or cloud.
 DEFINITION OF SOME COMPUTER TERMS AND CONCEPT

1. Address: Address is the location of a file. You can use address to find file on
the internet and your computer

2. World wide web (www): This is a multimedia portion of the worldwide

network of the computer

3. E-mail (Electronic Mail): electronic message sent over the internet or a

network. E-mail can contain box, text and file

4. Passwords: This is the computer secret word which enables a person to

open his secured file or document

5. Internet: this is a network of computer. If you have access to the internet, you
can retrieve information from millions of sources, including schools’
government, business and individual.

6. Network: These are two or more connected computers. Networks are used
for sharing resources such as document program and printer.

7. Browsing: to find the right way to deal with a difficult or complicated issue in
the internet to the content of your computer.

8. Menu: this is a list of commands that appears at the top most windows.

9. Shutdown: this means to use the shutdown command, which prepares the
computer to be turn off or restarted

10. Window: this is the rectangular portion of your screen that displays an open
program or the content of a folder or disk.

11. Wizard: This is a tool that walk you through a complex task. It enables you to
handler and overcome difficult task.
12. Program: a group of instruction that your computer uses to perform specific
task e.g Microsoft word is a word processing program. Programs are also called
application.

13. Web page: a group of related web pages

14. Web site: a location on the (www) world wide web

15. Document: a file you create when you save your work in a program e.g
word-processing file, spread sheet, bitmaps.

16. Icons: a picture representing a program, disk derive file, folder or another
item

17. File: this is program or document stored on a disk

18. Desktop: This is your workspace on the computer screen

19. Mouse pointer: This is an icon, typically an arrow, that appears on your
screen and is controlled by movement of the mouse

20. Online service: an interest service that provide a wide range of content to
its subscribers, including Internet services

21. Task bar: a tool you use to open program and move round your computer
usually positioned at the bottom of your screen.

22. Tool bars: a set of butts

23. Modem: hardware that pass date from one computer another by using
phone line

24. LAN (Local Area Network): This is group of connected computers in the
same location.

25. Jump: This means to move from one web page to another.
26. Link: This is the text or a picture that you click to jump from one location to
another. The mouse pointer usually changes to a hand when positioned over a
link

27. Protocol: a set of rules computer use of communicate with each other in a
network.