Module 1 – System of Forces

Module Section 1.1 – System of Coplanar Forces

Mechanics is defined as the branch of physics which deals with the study of
resultant effect of action of forces on bodies, which may be at rest or in motion.
Classification of Mechanics:

Mechanics

Deformable
Rigid Body Fluid
Body
Mechanics Mechanics
Mechanics

Statics Dynamics

Particle Rigid Body

Kinematics Kinetics
Dynamics Dynamics

 Rigid Body Mechanics: In this, bodies are assumed to be perfectly rigid, i.e.,
there is no deformation of bodies under any load acting on them.
 Statics: It is the study of effect of force system acting on a particle or rigid
body which is at rest.
 Dynamics: It is the study of effect of force system acting on a particle or rigid
body which is in motion. Dynamics can be classified into two categories:
“Kinematics and Kinetics”, depending on whether forces acting on the body
are considered; or “Particle Dynamics and Rigid Body Dynamics”, depending
on whether the body is considered to be an ideal particle or a rigid body.
o Kinematics is concerned only with the study of motion of the body
without consideration of the forces causing the motion.
o Kinetics relates the forces acting on the body to the motion of the body.
o Particle dynamics is the motion analysis of a body considering the body
as an idealized particle.
o Rigid body dynamics is the motion analysis involving the shape and
size of the body.
Force: A force is defined as an external agency or action which changes or tends to
change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body upon which it acts.
  It is a result of the action of one body on another. It could be due to direct
action like physically lifting something or by remote action like gravitational
force.
 It imparts motion or affects the motion of a body.
 It can accelerate, decelerate or stop a moving body depending on its direction.
 It may rotate a body.
 It may maintain the equilibrium condition of a body.
 It may be of push type or pull type.
Force is a vector quantity and is quantified by following factors:
a) Magnitude: It is the quantity of force measured in Newtons.
b) Direction (Line of action and sense): It is the orientation of line of action
indicated by an angle with respect to the reference axes, along with a sense
that indicates on which side the force acts.
c) Point of application (aka Location): It is the exact point at which the force
acts and can be indicated by the distance from the origin.

System of Forces: When a number of forces act simultaneously on a body then they
are said to form a system of forces or force system.
 System of Forces

Coplanar
Non-coplanar
(space forces)

Concurrent Parallel General

(Non-concurrent &
Non-parallel

In Coplanar System of Forces, all forces lie in one plane; while in Non-coplanar
System of Forces, all the forces in the system do not lie in a single plane.
Both systems can be subdivided into:
a) Concurrent Force System: In this, the lines of action of all the forces in the
system pass through the same point.
e.g., lamp hanging from string, electric pole supporting heavy cables, forces
on a tripod, etc.
b) Parallel Force System: In this, the lines of action of all the forces in the
system are parallel to each other.
e.g., weighing scale, things places on a table, people sitting on a bench, etc.
c) General Force System: In this, the lines of action of all the forces in the
system are neither concurrent nor parallel to each other.
e.g., a moving vehicle has engine power, friction due to road, wind resistance,
weight of vehicle and passengers, etc. acting in various directions.
Principle of Transmissibility of Force: A force being a sliding vector will not
affect the state of a rigid body (whether at rest or in motion) if the force acts from a
different point along its line of action. E.g., in a train, the engine can be located at
the front pulling the other cars with it or at the back pushing them forward.

Law of Parallelogram for Vectors: If two vectors acting simultaneously at a point

are represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram which passes through the point of intersection of the two sides
representing the vectors.

In ∆OCD,
OC 2 = OD2 + CD2 = OA + AD 2 + CD2
CD CD
R2 = P + Qcosθ 2 + Qsinθ 2 tan α = =
OD OA + AD
R2 = P 2 + 2PQcosθ + Q2 cos 2 θ + Q2 sin2 θ Qsinθ
R2 = P 2 + Q2 + 2PQcosθ tan α =
P + Qcosθ
R= P 2 + Q2 + 2PQcosθ

Resolution of Forces: It is the process of breaking a force into components, such

that the components combined together would have the same effect as the original
force. There are various ways to resolve a force, but the most beneficial for
calculations is the resolution of force into its rectangular (or perpendicular)
components.

Note: In rectangular resolution, the component of force adjacent to the given angle
is taken as Fcos , and not always the x-direction component.
Moment of a Force: The rotational effect of a force is known as moment.
Basically, the tendency of a force to rotate a rigid body about an axis or a point is
measured by the moment of the force about that axis or point. E.g., door being
opened or closed about a hinge, tightening or loosening of nut with a spanner, etc.
The point about which we calculate the moment is called the moment centre, and the
rotational effect of the same force will vary from one moment centre to another.
The moment is measured by multiplying the magnitude of force and the
perpendicular distance from the moment centre. This perpendicular distance is
called as moment arm.
Moments of force F about moment centres A, B, C, with moment arms d1, d2, d3:

MAF = F × d ↻
MBF = F × d2 ↺
MCF = F × d3 ↻
Assuming anti-clockwise as
positive, written as ↺ +ve. We
can also write the moments as,
MAF = −F × d
MBF = +F × d2
MCF = −F × d3

Note: To find the direction of rotation, consider the moment centre as a fixed point
or a hinge and based on the direction of the force, the body will tend to rotate in
clockwise or anti-clockwise. That is the direction of the moment.
Varignon’s Theorem: The algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar
forces about any point in the plane is equal to the moment of the resultant force of
the system about the same point.
(Note: While the statement and proof is for coplanar forces, the theorem is
applicable to a system of non-coplanar forces as well.)
Proof:
Let P & Q be 2 concurrent forces acting at O (origin), making angles 2 with
x-axis. Let their resultant be R making angle with x-axis.
Let A be a point on the y-axis about which moments are to be taken. Let d1, d2, & d
be the moment arms of P, Q & R respectively from moment centre A.
Let the components of the forces in x-direction be denoted by adding a „subscript x‟.
Moment due to force P about A,
MA = +P × d
MA = P × OA cos
MA = P cos × OA
MA = P OA
Similarly, moment due to Q about A, MA = +Q × d2 = Q OA
and, moment due to R about A, MA = +R × d = R OA
Now, the sum of moments of forces P & Q about A is given by,
MAF = MA + MA
MAF = P OA + Q OA
MAF = P + Q OA
MAF = R OA
MAF = MA
This means that the sum of moments of the two forces about a point is equal to the
moment of resultant force about that point.
Hence, the theorem is proved.
Couple: Two non-collinear parallel forces of equal magnitude but in opposite
directions to each other form a couple. It causes rotation of the body. E.g., steering
wheel of a vehicle, key rotation to lock or unlock, tap opening or closing, etc.

Properties of a couple:
1. Moment of a couple is equal to the product of one of the forces and the arm of
the couple.
2. It tends to rotate the body about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
forces involved. It can only rotate and not translate the body.
3. The resultant force if a couple is zero.
4. Moment of a couple can be added algebraically as scalar quantity with proper
sign convention.
5. A couple can be replaced by a couple only and not by a single force.
6. A couple is a free vector and does not have a moment centre, like moment of
a force.
Couple is a free vector:

d d MAF = −F × d + F × d2
MOF = +F × + F ×
2 2 MAF = F d2 − d
F
MO = F × d MAF = F × d
Shift a force to a new parallel position:
To shift a force to a new parallel position, a couple is required to be added to the
system. In below figure, force F acting at A is to be shifted to B. First step is to add
two collinear forces of equal magnitude F & -F at B. The force F at A and force –F
at B are parallel and form a couple with couple arm d. Thus, we have a single force
F at B and a couple M = F × d in the system.

Composition of Forces or Resultant of Forces: Composition means to combine

the forces acting in a system into a single force, which has the same effect as the
number of forces acting together. This single force is known as the resultant of the
system.
Types of Resultant:
a) Resultant Force: After composition of a number of forces results in a single
force, it is called as a resultant force indicated by a magnitude and angle.
b) Resultant Couple: If a resultant force is zero, but the resultant moment is not
zero, such a system reduces to a couple. It is possible in a Parallel system or
General system, but not in a Concurrent system.
c) Resultant Force-Couple: When a resultant force is shifted to a new parallel
position without change in direction, it introduces a couple in the system. This
resultant consists of a single force and a single couple.
Types of Problems on Resultant of Forces:
1. Resultant of Concurrent Force System using Parallelogram Law of Vectors:
Since force is a vector, two concurrent forces can be combined into a resultant
using the law of parallelogram. This can be applied to multiple forces, two at
a time, but that becomes cumbersome.
2. Resultant of Concurrent Force System using Method of Resolution:
Step 1: Resolve all forces into their components along horizontal x-direction
and vertical y-direction.
Step 2: Find the algebraic sum of all components in x-direction to get F ,
using +ve; and all components in y-direction to get F , using +ve.
 Step 3: Find the magnitude if the resultant force, R and its direction
considering the angle it makes with x-axis.
F
R=√ F 2+ F 2 tan =
F
Step 4: Draw a simple diagram of resultant with proper direction considering
the signs of F & F as shown below.

3. Resultant of Parallel Force System using Varignon‟s Theorem:

Step 1: Since all forces are in one direction only, they can simply be added
taking proper sign conventions. R = F
Step 2: Location of the resultant force (point of application) is found using
Varignon‟s theorem. We assume the resultant to be acting at some
perpendicular distance d to the right or left of the reference point.
MAF = MA = R × d
If value of d is positive, the assumption of right or left is correct. If value of d
is negative, resultant lies to the opposite side to what was assumed.
4. Resultant of General Force System (Non-coplanar & Non-parallel):
The steps for this are basically a combination of both the above systems.
Step 1: Resolve all forces into their components along horizontal x-direction
and vertical y-direction.
Step 2: Find the algebraic sum of all components in x-direction to get F ,
using +ve; and all components in y-direction to get F , using +ve.
Step 3: Find the magnitude if the resultant force, R and its direction
considering the angle it makes with x-axis.
2 F
R=√ F 2+( F ) tan =
F
Step 4: Find the perpendicular distance d where the resultant acts using
Varignon‟s theorem.
MAF = MA = R × d
Step 5: Draw a simple diagram of resultant with proper direction and distance
labelled from reference point.
Numericals:
N1: Find the resultant of the given two forces.

Soln: Let, P = Q = =

Using Law of Parallelogram, the resultant force,

R= P 2 + Q2 + 2PQcos
R= 2 + 2 +2× × × cos
R=
And, the angle between P & R,
Qsin
tan =
P + Qcos
× sin
tan =
+ × cos
tan = |−2 |
= 2
N2: Find the moment of the 500 N force about the points O, A, B, C & D.

Soln: Method 1: Perpendicular distances to the line of action

OB
θ = tan−
OE
θ = tan−

sin θ = =

cos θ = =

Moment about O, MO = − × sin = − × × =− 2

MO = 2 ↻
Moment about A, MA = − × 2cos = − ×2× =−
MA = ↻
Moment about B, MB = , as the point lies on the line of action of force.
Moment about C, MC = + × sin = + × × =+
MC = ↺
Moment about D, MD = + × sin = + × × =+ 2
MD = 2 ↺
Method 2: Resolution of force into components along known distances

Moment about O,
MO = − sin × + cos ×
MO = − × × + =− 2
MO = 2 ↻
Moment about A,
MA = − sin × + cos × 2
MA = − × × + × ×2=−
MA = ↻
Moment about B,
MB = − sin × + cos ×
MB = − × × + × ×
MB =
Moment about C,
MC = − sin × + cos ×
MC = − × × + × × =+
MC = ↺
Moment about D,
MD = − sin × + cos ×
MD = + × × =+ 2
MD = 2 ↺
NOTE: Method 1 can become complicated as many perpendicular distances need to
be calculated, hence Method 2 is recommended.
N3: Find the resultant of the following four forces as shown in the figure.

Soln: This is a concurrent force system.

Resolving all forces in their horizontal and vertical components:

F = 2 cos − sin − sin +2 cos

F =+ o
F = 2 sin + cos − cos −2 sin
F = − 22 o 22
Hence, the magnitude of the resultant force,

2
R=√ F 2 +( F )
R= 2 + − 22 2

R=2
Also, the angle it makes with the x-axis,
F 22
tan = =
F
=2
This gives the direction of the resultant.
Since, F is in direction and F is in direction, the resultant R lies in the 2nd
quadrant ( . Hence, the resultant of the given forces is given by,
R=2
at = 2
actin at o i in

N4: An eye bolt is being pulled from the ground by three forces as shown.
Determine the resultant force acting on the eye bolt.

Soln: This is a concurrent force system, all forces acting at the centre of eye bolt.

θ = tan− θ2 = tan−

sin θ = =

sin θ2 = =

cos θ = =

cos θ2 = =
Resolving the forces in x & y directions and add accordingly, we get,
F = +2 cos − cos 2
F = +2 × − ×
F =+ o
F =2 sin + sin 2
F =2 × + ×
F =+ o
Magnitude of the resultant,
2
R=√ F 2 +( F )
R= 2 + 2

R= 2
Inclination of the resultant,
F
= tan− = tan−
F
=
Direction of the resultant,
F is positive ( ) and F is positive (
R is in the 1st quadrant ( )
R= 2 at =

N5: Determine the force F in the cable BC if the resultant of the 3 concurrent forces
acting at B is vertical. Also determine the resultant.
This is a concurrent force system of 3 forces acting at B.
It is given that the resultant of the force system is vertical, it means that the
algebraic sum of all the force components in the horizontal direction is zero.
F =
2 cos − cos + F cos =
F= 2
Also, since resultant is vertical,
R= F
R = −2 sin − sin − 2 sin
R=− 2
R= 2

N6: Figure shows four parallel forces acting on a beam ABCDE.

i) Determine the resultant of the system and its location from A.
ii) Replace the system by a single force and couple acting at a point B.
iii) Replace the system by a single force and couple acting at a point D.

Soln: This is a parallel system of forces; hence we can simply find the algebraic sum
for the resultant.
i) Resultant and location from A
R= F +ve
R = −2 + − + +2 =
R=
For the location of the resultant, let us assume that it is at a distance d to the right
side of A. Using Varignon‟s theorem,
MAF = MA ↺ +ve
+ × − × + × +2 × 2=+ ×d
d= 2
Since, d is +ve, our assumption of resultant being on the right side is correct.
R= acting at a distance of d = 2 to the right of A.

ii) Single force and couple at B

Method 1: To shift a force to a new parallel position, a couple is required to be
added to the system. Add two collinear forces of equal magnitude R & -R at B. The
resultant R at B is as required and the remaining forces form a couple.

The single force acting at B is R =

And couple at B would be, MB = +R × 2 ↺ +ve
MB = + × 2 =
MB = ↺
Hence, the system can be replaced by a single force R = and a couple of
↺ at B.
iii) Single force and couple at D
Method 2: The single force acting at D would be the same as R =
To find couple at D, take moments of all forces about D
MDF ↺ +ve
MDF = +2 × − × + ×2 +2 × 2 = −22
MDF = 22 ↻
Hence, the system can be replaced by a single force R = and a couple of
22 ↻ at D.

N7: A dam is subjected to three forces 50 kN on the upstream face AB, 30 kN force
on the downstream inclined face and its own weight of 120 kN as shown. Determine
the single force and locate its point of intersection with the base AD assuming all
the forces to lie in a single plane.
Soln: This is a general force system of three coplanar forces acting on the dam.
Finding the angle of the inclined face and resolving the downstream force, we get,

α = tan− =
2
So, horizontal component of
30 kN is 30sinα, and vertical
component is 30cosα.
Distance between 30sinα
and horizontal base AD is
sinα =
Distance between 30cosα
and vertical face AB is
𝑙 AD − cosα
= − = 2 𝑚

Adding all the components of the forces in x & y

directions, we get,
F =+ − sin = +22
F = 22
F =− 2 − cos =−
F =
Magnitude of the resultant,
2
R=√ F 2 +( F )
R= 22 2 + 2

R=
Direction of the resultant,
F
= tan−
F
= tan−
22
=
F is positive ( ) and F is negative ( R is in the 4th quadrant ( ).
Now for location of resultant, specifically, its point of intersection with base AD:
Let the resultant be at a perpendicular distance „d‟ m to the right of A. Also, let it
cut the base at a distance „x‟ m from end A.

From Varignon‟s theorem,

MAF = MA ↺ +ve
− ×2 − 2 ×2
− cos × 2
+ sin ×
=− ×d
d=2

Also,
d 2
sin = =
=2

Hence, the resultant is R = at = having its point of

intersection with the base AD at =2 from the right of A.
N8: Find the resultant of a coplanar forces system given in the figure below, located
it on AB with due consideration to the applied moment.
Soln: This is a general force system, since the lines of action of all forces don‟t meet
at a single point.
Calculations of angles:
BC 2
= tan− = tan− = tan−
BD
sin = cos =
−
FG
2 = tan = tan− = tan−
EF 2
sin 2 = cos 2 =
Resolving the various forces and adding their horizontal and vertical components,

F = −2 cos + cos − 2 + cos 2

F = −2 × + × − 2 + ×
F = −2
F =2
F = −2 sin − sin + sin 2 +
F = −2 × − × + × +
F =+
F =
Magnitude of the resultant,
2
R=√ F 2 +( F )
R= 2 2 + 2

R=
Direction of the resultant,
F
= tan−
F
= tan−
2
=
F is negative ( ) and F is positive ( R is in the 2nd quadrant ( ).
For the location of the resultant, let us assume that it is at a distance d to the right
side of A. Using Varignon‟s theorem,
MAF = MA ↺ +ve
− − sin × − 2 × 2
− cos 2 × 2 + sin 2 × 2 =+ ×d
= ×d
d=
This implies that the resultant acts exactly at point A.
Module Section 1.2 – Forces in Space
Vectors:
1. Basic Vector Operations:
̅ ̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ̂ ̂ ̂

a) Dot Product
̅ ̅ or
̅ ̅ |̅|| ̅ |

o o
̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ̅ | | or

̅ ̅ |̅|| ̅ | ̂
(where ̂ is the unit vector normal to the plane of ̅ ̅)

2. Force Vector:
̅ ( (̂
( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂
̅ ( [ ]
√( ( (
̅ ̂ ̂ ̂

( h ̂ is the unit vector

in the direction of AB)

3. Magnitude of Force & Direction Angles:

̅ ̂ ̂ ̂

|̅| √

By direction cosine rule,

4. Moment Vector:
̅ ̂ ̂ ̂

̅ ( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂
̅ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ̅ ̅ | |

̅ ̂ ̂ ̂

5. Vector Component of a Force along a given line:

̅ ( (̂

( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂
̂
√( ( (
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̅ ̂

̅ ( (̂
 6. Moment of a Force about a given line:
̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̅ ̂

̅ ( (̂

Numericals:
N1: A tower is being held in place by three cables. If the force of each cable acting
on the tower is shown in figure, determine the resultant.

Soln: This is a concurrent space force system of 3 forces acting at O.

Let ̅ , ̅ , and ̅ be the forces in the cables OA, OB and OC respectively.
And the co-ordinates of the points based on their distances from origin D are:
D (0,0,0) m
O (0,0,24) m
A (-18,-16,0) m
B (15,-20,0) m
C (4,6,0) m

( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ]
√( ( (
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ]
√( ( (
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ]
√( ( (
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

Resultant force in vector form is simply given by vector addition of the forces.
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
( ̂ ̂ ̂)
( ̂ ̂ ̂)
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )

N2: The lines of actions of three forces concurrent at origin O pass respectively
through point A (-1,2,4), B (3,0,-3), C (2,-2,4). Force F1 = 40 N passes through A,
F2 = 10 N passes through B, F3 = 30 N passes through C. Find the magnitude and
direction of their resultant.
Soln: In this concurrent space force system, putting the forces in vector form we get,
̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ] ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
√
̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ] ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
√
̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ] ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
√
Resultant of these forces is,
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
( ̂ ̂ ̂)
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

Magnitude of the resultant force,

√ √

Direction of the resultant force is given by the angles , , and .

N3: A square foundation mat supports the four columns as shown. Determine the
magnitude and point of application of the resultant of the four loads.
Soln: This is a parallel space force system with 4 forces. The co-ordinates of the
points through which the forces act are as follows,
O (0,0,0), B (4,0,10), D (10,0,5), E (10,0,0)
Let the forces 20 kN, 8 kN, 12 kN & 40 kN be F1, F2, F3 & F4 respectively.
All the forces are parallel to y axis and in the downward direction; hence all of them
will have ̂ in their vector forms.
̅ ̂ ; ̅ ̂ ; ̅ ̂ ; ̅ ̂
Resultant, ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
For point of application, we first need to find out the moment of all forces about a
poin (l ’ ak i f om origin). So, the position vectors for each force will be,
̅ ( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂ ̂)

̅ ( ̂ ̂) ̅ ( ̂ ̂) ̂ ̅

Let resultant act at a point P (x,0,z) m. ̅ ( ̂ ̂)

Now, the moment vectors of the forces about the origin,

̅ ̅ ̅ ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ (̂ ̂ (̂ ̂)
̅ ( ̂ ̂) { ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂}
̅ ̅ ̅ ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ( ̂ ̂)

̅ ̅ ̅ ( ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂)

̅ ̅

And the moment of resultant about the origin in terms of x and z,

̅ ̅ ̅ ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ [( ̂ ( ̂]

F om Va ignon’ h o m,
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂) ( ̂ ( ̂
̂ ̂ ( ̂ ( ̂

Hence, the magnitude of the resultant is and passes through point

( .
N4: A rectangle parallelepiped carries four forces as shown in the figure. Reduce the
force system to a resultant force applied at the origin and moment around the origin.
OA = 5 m, OB = 2 m, OC = 4 m.

Soln: The given system is a general space force system of 4 forces.

Let forces 10 kN, 7.07 kN, 4 kN & 8 kN be labelled as F1, F2, F3 & F4 respectively.
The co-ordinates of the various points through which the forces pass are:

Now, putting the forces in vector form,

̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ] ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
√
̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ( (̂ [ ] ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
√
̅ ( (̂ ( ̂ ( ̂
̅ ( (̂ (̂ ( ̂
The resultant force, ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ( ̂
̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )

Taking moments of all force about the origin,

̅ ̅

̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ̅ ̅ | | ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ̅ ̅ | | ( ̂)

The resultant moment about the origin, ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂)
̅ ( ̂ ̂ )

Hence, the resultant force and moment at origin is,

̅ ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )

̅ ( ̂ ̂ )