CHAPTER FIVE

Compressibility and Consolidation

 Compressibility
➢ A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads
compresses soil layers. The process of this decrease in volume of soil due
to increase in load on the soil called compressibility

➢ The compression is caused by:

❖ Expulsion of air: Compaction
❖ The deformation (compression) of water and soil grains: negligible
❖ Expulsion of water from the void spaces: Primary consolidation
❖ Plastic readjustment (relocation) of soil particles to achieve more
stable position: Secondary consolidation

➢ The compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in the volume of
the mass which results in the settlement of the structure
 Compaction
➢ Compaction increases the bulk density of a soil or aggregate by driving out air or
reducing air void space
➢ During compaction, air content reduces, but not water content

➢ The higher the density of soil mass, stronger, stiffer, more durable will be the soil
mass
 Principles of Compaction
➢ The degree of compaction of a soil is measured by the dry unit
weight/density of the soil skeleton

➢ The dry unit weight correlates with the degree of packing of the soil grains

➢ The more compacted a soil is:

❑ The smaller its void ratio (e) will be
❑ The higher its dry unit weight will be

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 Compaction test

➢ The compaction test is performed to determine the relationship between the

moisture content and the dry density of a soil for specific compactive effort
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1) The standard Proctor
and (2) The modified Proctor test
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 Compaction Curve
➢ The compaction curve is relationship between a soil water content and dry
unit weight
➢ Soil sample compacted at
different water contents in a
cylinder of volume 1000 cm3 and
dry unit weight obtain using:

➢ Compaction curve is
plotted between the water
content as abscissa and the
dry density as ordinate

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 Zero air void curve or Saturation line
➢ The curve represent the full saturation condition (i.e. S = 100%)
➢ It represent theoretical curve that can’t be achieved by compaction

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 Factors affecting Compaction
1) Water content of the soil

➢ For any soil, at a given compactive effort, the density obtained depends on the
moisture content
➢ Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) is the moisture content at which the maximum
possible dry density is achieved for a particular compaction energy or compaction
method
➢ The corresponding dry density is called Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
 Dry side Wet side

➢ Water is added to lubricate the contact surfaces of soil particles and improve the
compressibility of the soil matrix
➢ The increase in water content increases the dry density up to one stage (Dry side).
✓ Water acts as lubricant
➢ Beyond OMC, any further increase in water (Wet side) will only add more void
space, there by reducing the dry density
✓ water occupies the space that might have been occupied by solid
2) Compaction energy (effort) used
✓ The compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the
soil mass

Moisture content

✓ An increase in compactive effort……increase dry density and decrease optimum

moisture content
✓ For moisture contents greater than OMC the use of heavier compaction machinery
will have only a small effect on increasing dry unit weights
3) Type of soil

✓ Coarse grained soil achieves higher density at lower water content and fine grained
soil achieves lesser density, but at higher water content

✓ Well graded soil attains much higher density than poorly graded

✓ Cohesive soils attains lower maximum dry density than cohesionless soils….due
to high air voids
 Volume of compaction mold = 943 cm3
Compaction test
Compacted Soil - trial no. 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Mass of compacted soil and mold (gm) 5687.0 5864.0 6029.0 6151.0 6022.0

Mass of mold (gm) 4405.0 4405.0 4405.0 4405.0 4405.0

Wet mass of soil in mold (gm

Wet density, ρ, (g/cm3)
Dry density, ρd , (g/cm3)

Moisture content determination

Compacted Soil - trial no. 1 2 3 4 5

Moisture can number A B C D E

Mass of empty, clean can (gm) 8 95 96 92 60

Mass of can, and moist soil (gm) 78 151 167 190 158

Mass of can and dry soil (gm) 69 142 152 164 128

Mass of soil solids (gm)

Mass of pore water (gm) 15
Water content, w%
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 Field Compaction
Vibratory Compactor
Sheep foot Compactor

Smooth drum Compactor Rubber Tire Compactor

 Evaluation of Field Compaction

➢ In the field, engineers will measure ℽd and w and compare them to the
specifications (i.e. proctor density)

❑ Specification are usually in the form of a Relative Compaction (R) and Water
Content (w)
▪ R must be greater than 95% of Standard Proctor maximum dry density and
within ±3% of optimum moisture content
 Evaluation of Field Compaction
➢ Engineers use different method to measure (ℽd)field

❑ Sand Cone Method

ᵞ d =
Ws
V
Ws = dry weight of soil excavated from hole
V = volume of hole

Wjar - Wcon
V =
ᵞ d of sand
 Components of settlement
➢ A total settlement (compression) of a loaded soil has three components:
❖ Immediate (Elastic) compression
➢ Due to elastic distortion of soil particles. Occurs rapidly

❖ Consolidation settlement (primary

consolidation)
➢ Due to expulsion of pore water. The rate
depends on permeability and thickness.
May requires months to many years

❖ Secondary consolidation settlement

➢ Due to plastic rearrangement of soil
grain at constant effective stress. May
requires years after completion of
primary consolidation
 Fundamental of consolidation
➢ When a saturated soil is loaded, its pore pressure increases. This
increased pore pressure is called excess pore pressure, u, dissipates from
the boundaries of the soil layer as time goes by, resulting in consolidation
settlement
➢ The process can be explained by spring-cylinder model:

➢ Load applied ➢ Water flow out

➢ The entire load is taken by water ➢ Excess pore decreases
➢ Excess pore water generated (Δu) ➢ Effective stress
increases
➢ Spring compresses
Fundamental of consolidation
 Fundamental of consolidation
➢ For the excess pore pressure to dissipate during consolidation, water must
travel to the top boundary of the clay layer and sometimes to the bottom
boundary as well, where there is a soil layer that is considerably more
permeable than the clay layer itself.
➢ Logically, the rate of consolidation depends on the length of the longest
path traveled by a drop of water. This length is called the drainage path
length, Hdr. There are two possible drainage types
a) Two-way drainage with a permeable layer both above and below the clay Layer. In
this case the longest path traveled by a drop of water located anywhere within the clay
layer is Hdr = H/2, where H is the thickness of the clay layer.
b) One-way drainage with a permeable layer at one side (above or below the clay
Layer). In this case, Hdr = H, where H is the thickness of the clay layer.
 Consolidation settlement
➢ Consolidation is time-dependent settlement of fine-grained soils
resulting from the expulsion of water from the soil pore. The rate of
scape depends on the permeability of soil and drainage path

➢ Once a load is applied,

❖ How much settlement will occur?
❖ On what time scale will the settlement occur (how fast does
consolidation take place)?
Consolidation parameters:
• Coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
• Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)
• Compression index (Cc)
• Re-compression index (Cr)………………
 Laboratory consolidation test
➢ Oedometer test is used to investigate 1-D consolidation behavior of fine-
grained soil

Assumption:
➢ Load distribution-uniform
➢ Stress distribution (in different height) the same
➢ No lateral deformation
➢ The area of the sample section-unchangeable
➢ Solid grain-uncompressible
➢ Soil sample confined in a ring is placed in the
consolidation cell between top and bottom porous
stones.
➢ Cell is connected to a water reservoir so as to keep
the sample fully saturated through out the test.
➢ Dial gauge is used to measure the change in
thickness as consolidation takes place.
➢ Loads are applied to the sample in equal
increments ranging from a pressure of 0.5 kg/cm2
to 8 kg/cm2.
➢ Each load increment is applied for 24 hours, and
the compression of the sample is measured. The
readings of dial gauge are taken at intervals of
0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes 2, 4 8 and
24 hours.
➢ After 24 hours next load increment is applied, the
usual range of load increments are 0.5, 1,2,4,8
kg/cm2.
➢ After consolidation under the final load increment, the load is reduced to one- fourth of the
final load and allowed to stand for 24 hours. The sample takes water and swells. The load
is finally reduced to the initial setting load and kept for 24 hours and the final dial gauge
reading is taken to rebound.
 Laboratory consolidation test
➢ Generating Void ratio vs pressure curve

➢ For each load draw

deformation vs log time
➢ Determine the final
deformation or change in
height (ΔH)

Hf
 Laboratory consolidation test
➢ Generating Void ratio vs pressure curve
 Laboratory consolidation test
➢ Generating Void ratio vs stress curve
 Laboratory consolidation test
➢ The main purpose of consolidation tests is to obtain soil data which is
used in predicting the rate and amount of settlement of structures
founded on clays stress curve
✓ The pre-consolidation stress, σ’c, This is the maximum stress that the
soil has “felt” in the past

✓ The compression index, Cc, which indicates the compressibility of a

normally-consolidated soil

✓ The recompression index, Cr, which indicates the compressibility of a

over-consolidated soil

✓ The coefficient of consolidation, Cv, the measure of rate of

consolidation
 Effect of Stress History
Based on the stress history (preconsolidation pressure) soils are classified as
1. Normally Consolidated Soils
2. Over Consolidated Soils
➢ Over consolidated – Some past stress was greater than
current stress (It is a soil deposit that has been subjected to
vertical effective stress greater than the present vertical
effective stress)
➢ Normally Consolidated – Current stress is
e max (It is a soil deposit that has never subjected
to a vertical effective stress greater than the
present vertical stress)

✓ Over consolidated soil deposits are less

σ’c
compressible and therefore structures
Log p built on these soils undergo less
settlement
At the break in the curve, this value of σ is called σ’c – The Preconsolidation
Pressure. It is the max pressure this soil has ever felt
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 Determination of preconsolidation pressure (σc)
(Casagrandes Method)

It is defined as the ratio of

preconsoliadtion pressure
to the present vertical
effective stress

ORC ≤ 1
✓ Normally consolidated
Soils

ORC > 1 c
✓ Over-consolidated Soils 32
 Coefficient of compressibility (av) and coefficient of
volume compressibility (mv)
➢ Coefficient of compressibility (av): decrease in void ratio per unit
increase in effective stress

➢ Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv): volumetric strain per unit

increase in effective stress
Compression (Cc) and recompression (Cr)

CC =
e ea - eb
c =
d σ‘ Z log[(σ‘ ) /(σ‘ )a]
Z b Z

a
Cr =
e e c - ed
=
σ‘ Z log[(σ‘ )d /(σ‘ )c]
Z Z

b
 Settlement calculation
H
Settlement ( H ) =
e
H0
1 + e0
H0

e = CC σ‘ Z

H e
Strain = =
H 0 1 + e0
e = Cr σ‘ Z

Settlement ( H ) =
H0 C C σ‘ Z H0 Cr σ‘
+ Z

1 + e0 1 + e0

H0 CC log[(σ‘Z)b /(σ‘Z)a] Cr log[(σ‘Z)d /(σ‘Z)c]

Settlement ( H ) = + H0
1 + e0 1 + e0
 Settlement calculation
av e e
mv = = mv σ‘Z =
1 + e0 σ‘ (1 + e0) (1 + e0)
Z

e
Settlement ( H ) = H0 = H0 mv σ‘ Z
1 + e0
 Time rate of consolidation
➢ Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory to consider the rate of one-
dimensional consolidation for saturated clay soils
Assumptions:
➢ The clay-water system is homogenous
➢ Saturation is complete
➢ Compressibility of water is negligible
➢ The flow of water is in one direction only
(direction of compression)
➢ Darcy’s law is valid

(Rate of water out flow) – (Rate of water inflow) = Rate of volume change

u = excess pore water pressure

Time rate of consolidation
 Time rate of consolidation
➢ Because consolidation progress by dissipation of excess pore pressure, the
degree of consolidation (Uz) at a distance z at any time t is:
Isochrones: line of constant Tv

➢ Consolidation proceeds most

rapidly at the drainage faces
and least rapidly at the
middle of the layer for
double drainage conditions.
➢ For example, for T = 0.20: Uz
= 0.23 at z/Hdr = 1; Uz = 0.46
at z/Hdr = 0.5 and 1.5; and Uz
= 0.70 at z/Hdr = 0.25
 Example 1

Example 2
➢ At point A, compute total and excess pore pressure
10 years after fill placement

➢ When will excess pore pressure is equal to 10 kpa

at point A?

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 Time rate of consolidation
➢ Average degree of consolidation (U) for the entire depth of the clay layer
at any time t is:
 Time rate of consolidation
➢ Average degree of consolidation (U) for the entire depth of the clay layer
at any time t is:
 Coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
➢ Two graphical methods commonly used to determine Cv from lab test:
Logarithm of Time Method
✓ Extend the straight line portion of primary and
secondary consolidations to interesct at Point
A. Point A represents d100 (Deformation at
100% primary consolidation).
✓ The initial curved portion of the deformation
plot versus log t is approximated to be a
parabola on a natural scale. Select times t1 and
t2 on the curved portion such that t2 = 4t1. Let
the difference of the specimen deformation
between (t2 – t1) be equal to x.
✓ Draw a line horizontal to DE such that the
vertical distance BD is equal to x. The
deformation corresponding to the line DE is d0
(Deformation at 0% primary consolidation).
✓ The ordinate of Point F on the consolidation
curve represents the deformation at 50%
primary consolidation (d50).
 Coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
Square Root of Time Method
✓ Draw a line AB trough the early portion of the
curve (ignore the first part of curve (curved) ).

✓ Draw a line AC such that OC = 1.15OB. The

time value for Point D (i.e. the intersection of
line AC and the data) is the square root of time
for t90 (i.e. the time to 90% primary
consolidation)
Example

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