SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 2
(GEO 2)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:
1. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering Eighth Edition, SI Braja M. Das and Khaled Sobhan
2. Soil Mechanics and Fundamentals by Muni Budhu (2015) – Imperial Version: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
3. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Innocencio T. Gillesania
Unit 1.1: Compressibility of Soil (Part 1)
OBJECTIVES

• Understand the types of settlement that can occur in soils.

• Know the differences in settlement between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils.
• Have a basic understanding of soil consolidation under vertical loads.

INTRODUCTION

When load is applied to soil mass, deformation may result from:

1. Immediate elastic and inelastic deformation of the soil structure.

2. Pore water drained from the soil mass.
3. Continuous time dependent or viscous flow under shear stress resulting in reorientation of the soil
particles, and
4. A combination of all the above, which In most cases occurs simultaneously

The increase in stress caused by foundation and other loads compresses a soil layer. This compression is
caused by (1) deformation of soil particles, (2) relocations of soil particles, (3) expulsion of air and water
from the void spaces.

There are three (3) general types of consolidation phenomena in clay deposits:

a) Normally consolidation
b) Overconsolidation, and
c) Underconsolidation

Soil Settlement may be divided into three categories:

1. Initial or Immediate Consolidation Settlement (Se)

– caused by the elastic deformation of dry soils and of moist and saturated soils without any
change in the moisture content.
– a comparatively sudden reduction in volume of soil mass under an applied load.
– primary cause of settlement for Coarse-grained soils.
2. Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc)
– the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive soils because of the expulsion of the water
that occupies the void spaces.
– reduction in volume of a soil mass caused by the application of a sustained load to the mass.
– rate of this settlement dependent on hydraulic conductivity “K” and thickness, and may require
months to many years to occur.
– primary cause of settlement for Fine-grained soils.
3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss)
– observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics.
– additional form of compression that occurs at constant effective stress.
– the reduction in volume of a soil mass caused by the application of a sustained load to the mass
and due principally to the adjustment of the internal structure of the soil mass after most of the
load has been transferred from soil – water to soil – solids.
– may require years to occur after primary consolidation.
– particularly significant in high liquid limit and with soils or organic soils.
IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

This settlement is caused by the tendency of the soil grains to “bulge” in the lateral direction when
loaded vertically. This is purely an elastic phenomenon and theoretically has nothing to do with any
potential realignment of the soil particles (like in compaction where the void space is being diminished).

All soils are subject to immediate settlements, but engineers typically only compute them for coarse-
grained soils. Why do engineers typically neglect immediate settlement in fine-grained soils? Because
primary consolidation settlements are much larger.

Please be aware that this is a sticky issue for most geotechnical engineers, and you are bound to see
many different practices in the real world relating to computing immediate settlements. Don’t be
alarmed and don’t hold it against them!

CALCULATING IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENTS

Many engineers like to use theoretical elastic equations to compute immediate settlements. A popular
equation among geotechnical engineers is:

(Eq. 1.1.1)
1 − 𝜇2
𝑆𝐸 = 𝑞𝐵 𝐼
𝐸𝑠 𝑓
Where
q = net applied pressure on the foundation in kPa or psf
B = width or diameter of foundation in m or feet
𝜇 = Harmonic mean Poisson’s ratio over the zone of significant stress
Es = Harmonic mean modulus of elasticity or Young’s Modulus over the zone of significant stress in kPa
or psf
𝐼𝑓 = Influence factor

The influence factor for the corner of a flexible rectangular footing given as:

(Eq. 1.1.2)
1 1 + √1 + 𝑚1 2
𝐼𝑓 = [𝑚1 ln ( ) + ln (𝑚1 + √1 + 𝑚1 2 )]
𝜋 𝑚1

Influence Factors for Foundations

𝐼𝑓
Shape 𝑚1 Flexible
Rigid
Center Corner
Circle - 1.00 0.64 0.79
1 1.12 0.56 0.88
1.5 1.36 0.68 1.07
2 1.53 0.77 1.21
3 1.78 0.89 1.42
Rectangle 5 2.10 1.05 1.70
10 2.54 1.27 2.10
20 2.99 1.49 2.46
50 3.57 1.8 3.00
100 4.01 2.0 3.43
Where 𝑚1 = length of foundation / width of foundation
 Values of Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of Elasticity, E
Type of Soil
psi kPa
Soft Clay 250 – 500 1,725 – 3,450
Hard Clay 850 – 2000 5,865 – 13,800
Loose Sand 1,500 – 4,000 10,350 – 27,600
Dense Sand 5,000 – 10,000 34,500 – 69,000

Values of Poisson’s Ratio

Type of Soil Poisson’s Ratio

Loose Sand 0.2 – 0.4
Medium Dense Sand 0.25 – 0.4
Dense Sand 0.3 – 0.45
Silty Sand 0.2 – 0.4
Soft Clay 0.15 – 0.25
Medium Stiff Clay 0.2 – 0.5

Settlement due to Volume Changes caused by Lateral Yielding or Shear Strain that Occurs in the Soil

One of the most popular empirical models for predicting immediate settlement in granular soils using
the SPT was developed by Meyerhof

(Eq. 1.1.3)
4𝑞 ∙ 𝐵2
𝑆𝐸 =
𝐾𝑣 (𝐵 + 1)2
or
(Eq. 1.1.4)
8𝑞 ∙ 𝐵2
𝑆𝐸 =
𝑁(𝐵 + 1)2
Where
SE = Immediate Settlement
q = pressure imposed by the foundation
𝐾𝑣 = modulus of subgrade reaction
B = width of the foundation
N = lowest SPT corrected value

ONE DIMENSIONAL LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST

The one-dimensional consolidation testing procedure was first suggested by Terzaghi (1925). This test is
performed in a consolidometer (sometimes referred to as an oedometer). The soil specimen is placed
inside a metal ring with two porous stones, one at the top of the specimen and another at the bottom.
The specimens are usually 63.5 mm in diameter and 25.4 mm thick. The load on the specimen is applied
through a lever arm, and compression is measured by a micrometer dial gauge. The specimen is kept
under water during the test. Each load is usually kept for 24 hours. After that, the load is usually
doubled, thus doubling the pressure on the specimen, and the compression measurement is continued.
At the end of the test, the dry weight of the test specimen is determined.
 Schematic Diagram of a Consolidometer/Oedometer

The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen versus time for a given load increment is
shown. From the plot, it can be observed that there are three distinct stages, which may be described as
follows:

Stage I: Initial compression, which is mostly caused by preloading.

Stage II: Primary consolidation, during which excess pore water pressure is gradually transferred
into effective stress by the expulsion of pore water.

Stage III: Secondary consolidation, which occurs after complete dissipation of the excess pore
water pressure, when some deformation of the specimen takes place because of the
plastic readjustment of soil fabric.

Time–deformation plot during consolidation for a given load increment

 Consolidation test in progress (right-hand side) (Courtesy of Braja Das)

NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED, OVERCONSOLIDATED AND UNDERCONSOLIDATED SOILS

1. Normally Consolidated – whose present effective overburden pressure is the maximum pressure to
which the soil has been subjected in the past. The maximum effective past pressure is called the
preconsolidation pressure.
2. Overconsolidated – whose present effective overburden pressure is less than that which the soil has
experienced in the past.
3. Underconsolidated Soils – those in which less than the calculated are those in which a stratum of
clay deposit is found to exhibit a preconsolidation pressure less than calculated existing overburden
pressure.

The past effective pressure cannot be determined explicitly because it is usually a function of geological
processes and, consequently, it must be inferred from laboratory test results.

The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) for a soil can now be defined as

𝑃𝑐
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝑃𝑜
Where: Pc = preconsolidated pressure
Po = overburden pressure

If OCR = 1, the soil deposit is called normally consolidated

OCR > 1, it is called overconsolidated
OCR < 1, it is called underconsolidated

Degree of Overconsolidation

If 1< OCR < 2.5, lightly overconsolidated clay

8 < OCR, it is called heavily consolidated clay
SETTLEMENT FROM ONE DIMENSIONAL PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

Basic Settlement Formula

Settlement caused by one-dimensional consolidation

Let us consider a saturated clay layer of thickness H and cross-sectional area A under an existing average
effective overburden pressure P’o. Because of an increase of pressure, ΔP, let the primary settlement be
Sc. At the end of consolidation, ΔP = ΔP’ Thus, the change in volume can be given by
(Eq. 1.1.5)
∆𝑉 = 𝑉0 − 𝑉1 = 𝐻𝐴 − (𝐻 − 𝑆𝑐 )𝐴 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐴
where 𝑉0 and 𝑉1 are the initial and final volumes, respectively. However, the change in the total volume
is equal to the change in the volume of voids, ∆𝑉𝑉 . Thus,
(Eq. 1.1.6)
∆𝑉 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑣0 − 𝑉𝑣1 = ∆𝑉𝑣

where 𝑉𝑣0 and 𝑉𝑣1 are the initial and final void volumes, respectively. From the definition of the void
ratio, we have
(Eq. 1.1.7)
∆𝑉𝑣 = ∆𝑒𝑉𝑠
where Δe change of void ratio. But

(Eq. 1.1.8)
𝑉0 𝐴𝐻
𝑉𝑠 = =
1 + 𝑒0 1 + 𝑒0
where 𝑒0 initial void ratio at volume 𝑉0 . Thus, from Eqs. (1.1.5), (1.1.6), (1.1.7), and (1.1.8), we get
𝐴𝐻
∆𝑉 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐴 = ∆𝑒𝑉𝑠 = ∆𝑒
1 + 𝑒0
or
(Eq. 1.1.9)
∆𝑒
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻
1 + 𝑒0
Where:

𝑆𝑝 = Settlement
Δe = 𝑒0 - 𝑒1
H = thickness of the stratum or clay
𝑒0 = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
𝑒1 =void ratio after the vertical load is applied

Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

(Eq. 1.1.10)
𝐶𝑐 𝑃0 + ∆𝑃
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻 log ( )
1 + 𝑒0 𝑃0
𝑆𝑐 = Settlement
H = thickness of the stratum or clay
𝐶𝑐 = compression index
𝑒0 = initial void ratio
𝑃0 = initial vertical effective soil stress at mid-height of clay layer.
∆𝑃 = increase of vertical pressure for soil stress

Primary Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils

(Eq. 1.1.11)
When (𝑃0 + ∆𝑃) < 𝑃𝑐
𝐶𝑠 𝑃0 + ∆𝑃
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻 log ( )
1 + 𝑒0 𝑃0
(Eq. 1.1.12)
When (𝑃0 + ∆𝑃) > 𝑃𝑐

𝐶𝑠 𝑃𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝑃0 + ∆𝑃
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻 log ( ) + 𝐻 log ( )
1 + 𝑒0 𝑃0 1 + 𝑒0 𝑃𝑐
Where:
𝐶𝑠 = Swell Index
𝑃𝑐 = preconsolidation pressure

Compression Index (Cc)

– The slope of the linear portion of the pressure – void ratio curve on a semi – logarithmic plot.
– Used to indicate the degree of compressibility of clays.
a) Terzaghi and Peck (1987)
(Eq. 1.1.13)
For remolded clay: 𝐶𝑐 = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
(Eq. 1.1.14)
For undisturbed clay: 𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
b) Skempton (1944)
(Eq. 1.1.15)
For remolded clay: 𝐶𝑐 = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
(Eq. 1.1.16)
For undisturbed clay: 𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
c) Rendon – Herreo (1983)
(Eq. 1.1.17)
1 + 𝑒0 2.38
𝐶𝑐 = 0.141𝐺𝑠1.2 ( )
𝐺𝑠
 (Eq. 1.1.18)
𝑒1 − 𝑒2
𝐶𝑐 = (𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒 − log 𝑡𝑜 𝑃 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)
𝑃
log ( 2 )
𝑃1
d) Nishida (1956)
(Eq. 1.1.19)
All clays: 𝐶𝑐 = 1.15(𝑒0 − 0.27)
e) Nagaraj and Murty (1985)
(Eq. 1.1.20)
𝐿𝐿(%)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.2343 [ ] 𝐺𝑠
100
f) Wroth and Wood (1978) – Based on the modified Cam clay model
(Eq. 1.1.21)
𝐺𝑠 (𝑃𝐼%)
𝐶𝑐 =
200
g) Kulhawy and Mayne, (1990) – If an average value of Gs is taken to be about 2.7 from Eq. 1.1.21
(Eq. 1.1.22)
𝑃𝐼%
𝐶𝑐 =
74
h) Park and Koumoto (2004)
(Eq. 1.1.23)
𝑛𝑜
𝐶𝑐 =
371.747 − 4.275𝑛𝑜
Correlations from Swell Index (Cs)
– appreciably smaller in magnitude than the compression index and generally can be determined from
laboratory tests. In most cases,
1 1
𝐶𝑠 ≅ 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑐
5 10
a) Nagaraj and Murty (1985)
(Eq. 1.1.24)
𝐿𝐿(%)
𝐶𝑠 = 0.0463 [ ] 𝐺𝑠
100
b) Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) – Based on the modified Cam clay model
(Eq. 1.1.25)
𝑃𝐼
𝐶𝑠 ≈
370
SETTLEMENT FROM SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

Secondary consolidation can be calculated as:

(Eq. 1.1.26)
𝑡2
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶′𝛼 𝐻 log ( )
𝑡1
where:
𝑆𝑠 = settlement due to secondary consolidation
𝐶′𝛼 = coefficient of secondary consolidation
𝑡1 = time for completion of primary settlement, where settlement is required
𝑡2 = time after completion of primary settlement
H = thickness of clay layer
Coefficient of Secondary Consolidation 𝐶 ′ 𝛼
(Eq. 1.1.27)
𝐶𝛼
𝐶′𝛼 =
1 + 𝑒𝑝

where:
𝐶𝛼 = secondary compression index
𝑒𝑝 = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation = 𝑒0 − ∆𝑒

Secondary Compression Index, 𝑪𝜶

During secondary consolidation the plot of deformation against the log of time is practically linear. The
variation of the void ratio, e, with time t for a given load increment will be similar to that shown below.
From the figure, the secondary compression index can be defined as
(Eq. 1.1.28)
∆𝑒 ∆𝑒
𝐶𝛼 = =
log 𝑡2 − log 𝑡1 log (𝑡2⁄ )
𝑡1
Variation of e with log t under a given load increment, and definition of secondary compression index

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A soil profile is shown in figure below. If a uniformly distributed load ∆𝑃 is applied at the ground
surface, what will be the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation? We are given
that 𝑃𝑐 for the clay is 125 kN/m2 and Cs = Cc/6.
2. The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay sample are as follows:

𝑒1 = 1.1 𝑃1 = 95 kPa
𝑒2 = 0.9 𝑃2 = 475 kPa

What will be the void ratio for a pressure of 600 kPa? (Note: Pc > 95 kPa)

3. Given in the figure is the borehole log in a project site. The proposed building will exert a net stress
of 12 Newtons per square centimeter.
a. Determine the buoyant unit weight of the clay
b. Determine the effective vertical stress at the midheight of the clay layer
c. Determine the average settlement of the normally consolidated clay layer. Use compression
index Cc = 0.009(LL – 10).

4. For a normally consolidated clay layer in the field, the following values are given:
• Thickness of clay layer = 3 m
• Void ratio (eo) = 0.8
• Compression index (Cc) = 0.28
• Average effective pressure on the clay layer (Po) = 130 kPa
• ΔP = 50 kPa
• Secondary compression index (𝐶𝛼 ) = 0.02

What is the total consolidation settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of
primary consolidation settlement? (Note: Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5 years.)