KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

School of Engineering & Architecture

Department of Civil Engineering

Bachelor of Science (Civil Engineering)

Course reader: ECV 201: Surveying I

Instructor: Julius Waititu

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1. Course outline
ECV 201: Surveying I
Prerequisites: ECU 105: Engineering Mathematics II
Contact hours: 56
Objective
The objective of the course is to introduce surveying concepts and instruments of survey for
various purposes

Expected Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this course the student will be able to:
1. Undertake linear measurements using surveying instruments and tools
2. Identify error types, sources and propagation
3. Undertake levelling surveys.
4. Perform contouring, longitudinal and cross section surveys

Course Description
Introduction: definitions and basic concepts. Linear measurements: ranging of line,
monumentation of points; instruments and tools, chains, steel bands, tapes, corrections, accuracies.
Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM): basic principles, uses, accuracies. Detailed
surveying of direct linear measurement. Measurements of differences in heights; geometric
leveling: principles, differential leveling, reciprocal leveling, procedures, leveling instruments,
telescopic, leveling tube, booking, calculations, sources of errors, corrections, accuracies.
Applications: contouring, methods guide, radial line, cross and longitudinal sections, site
leveling. Fieldwork.

Mode of Delivery
Lectures: 2 hours per week; Tutorials: 2 hours per week; Laboratory Exercises: Three sessions per
semester each being 3 hours long.

Assessment
Ordinary Examination at end of Semester 70%; Continuous Assessment 30% of which: 10 % shall
be continuous assessment tests and 5% shall be assignments and 15% shall be for laboratory
exercises.

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Practical work/Laboratory Exercises
Each student is required to conduct at comprehensive practical exercises involving
• Chain and compass surveying
• Leveling and adjustment of levels

Textbooks and References

1. Textbook:
1) Wilfred Schofield and Mark Breach; Engineering surveying. Butterworth Heinemann,
2007, ISBN:0750669497
2) Arthur Bannister, Stanley Raymond and Raymond Baker; Surveying. Prentice Hall, 7th
edt, 1998. ISBN:0582302498.
3) Ghilani C. D.,and Wolf P. R., (2012). Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics. 13th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Accessed on April 12, 2021, from
http://www.civilittee-hu.com/uploads/1/Survaying/book.pdf

2. References
1. J. Uren and W.F. Price; Surveying for Engineers. Macmillan, 3rd edt. 1994. ISBN:
0333577051

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Important dates:
• September 2024 – commencement of lectures
• 7th October 2024 – 1st CAT
• 11th November 2024 – 2nd CAT
• 2 December – 11th December 2024 – Exam period

Teaching plan:
Week Topic
1 Introduction: definitions and basic concepts.
2 Theory of errors in surveying measurements
3-4 Linear measurements: ranging of line, monumentation of points;
instruments and tools, chains, steel bands, tapes, corrections,
accuracies. Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM): basic
principles, uses, accuracies. Detailed surveying of direct linear
measurement.
5-7 Measurements of differences in heights; geometric leveling:
principles, differential leveling, reciprocal leveling, procedures,
leveling instruments, telescopic, leveling tube, booking,
calculations, sources of errors, corrections, accuracies.
8 - 12 Applications: contouring, methods guide, radial line, cross and
longitudinal sections, site leveling. Fieldwork.

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2. Introduction
This lesson will serve as an introduction to the entire course by defining key terms commonly used
in surveying discipline, history of surveying and introduction to the basic concepts of surveying.
Introduction to geospatial technologies and Units of measurements in surveying.

Definitions:

Surveying, which has recently also been interchangeably called geomatics, has traditionally been
defined as the science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of points (natural
and man-made features) above, on, or beneath the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such points.

In a more general sense, however, surveying (geomatics) can be regarded as that discipline which
encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting information about the physical earth
and our environment, processing that information, and disseminating a variety of resulting
products to a wide range of clients.

Survey field measurements include horizontal and slope distances, vertical distances, and
horizontal and vertical angles. In addition to measuring distances and angles, surveyors can
measure position as given by the northing, easting, and elevation of a survey station by using
satellite-positioning and remote-sensing techniques. In addition to taking measurements in the
field, the surveyor can derive related distances and directions through geometric and trigonometric
analysis.

Since the 1980s, the term geomatics has come into popular usage to describe the computerization
and digitization of data collection, data processing, data analysis, and data output. Geomatics
includes traditional surveying as its cornerstone, but it also reflects the now-broadened scope of
measurement science and information technology. See figure 8.1

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Definition of a Surveyor given by the International Federation of Surveyors:

“A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and technical expertise to
conduct one, or more, of the following activities;

• to determine, measure and represent the land, three-dimensional objects, point-fields, and
trajectories;
• to assemble and interpret land and geographically related information;
• to use that information for the planning and efficient administration of the land, the sea and
any structures thereon; and
• to conduct research into the above practices and to develop them.

Detailed Functions

The surveyor’s professional tasks may involve one or more of the following activities, which may
occur either on, above, or below the surface of the land or the sea and may be carried out in
association with other professionals.

1. The determination of the size and shape of the earth and the measurements of all data
needed to define the size, position, shape and contour of any part of the earth and
monitoring any change therein.
2. The positioning of objects in space and time as well as the positioning and monitoring of
physical features, structures and engineering works on, above or below the surface of the
earth.

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 3. The development, testing and calibration of sensors, instruments and systems for the
above-mentioned purposes and for other surveying purposes.
4. The acquisition and use of spatial information from close range, aerial and satellite imagery
and the automation of these processes.
5. The determination of the position of the boundaries of public or private land, including
national and international boundaries, and the registration of those lands with the
appropriate authorities.
6. The design, establishment and administration of geographic information systems (GIS) and
the collection, storage, analysis, management, display and dissemination of data.
7. The analysis, interpretation and integration of spatial objects and phenomena in GIS,
including the visualization and communication of such data in maps, models and mobile
digital devices.
8. The study of the natural and social environment, the measurement of land and marine
resources and the use of such data in the planning of development in urban, rural and
regional areas.
9. The planning, development and redevelopment of property, whether urban or rural and
whether land or buildings.
10. The assessment of value and the management of property, whether urban or rural and
whether land or buildings.
11. The planning, measurement and management of construction works, including the
estimation of costs.

History:

The oldest historical records in existence today that bear directly on the subject of surveying state
that this science began in Egypt. Herodotus recorded that Sesostris (about 1400 B.C.) divided the
land of Egypt into plots for the purpose of taxation. Annual floods of the Nile River swept away
portions of these plots, and surveyors were appointed to replace the boundaries. These early
surveyors were called rope-stretchers, since their measurements were made with ropes having
markers at unit distances.

Early civilizations assumed the Earth to be a flat surface, but by noting the Earth’s circular shadow
on the moon during lunar eclipses and watching ships gradually disappear as they sailed toward
the horizon, it was slowly deduced that the planet actually curved in all directions.

Determining the true size and shape of the Earth has intrigued humans for centuries. History
records that a Greek named Eratosthenes was among the first to compute its dimensions. His
procedure, which occurred about 200 B.C., is illustrated in Figure 1.2. Eratosthenes had concluded
that the Egyptian cities of Alexandria and Syene were located approximately on the same meridian,
and he had also observed that at noon on the summer solstice, the sun was directly overhead at
Syene. (This was apparent because at that time of that day, the image of the sun could be seen
reflecting from the bottom of a deep vertical well there.)

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Figure 1.2 Geometry of the procedure used by Eratosthenes to determine the Earth’s
circumference.

He reasoned that at that moment, the sun, Syene, and Alexandria were in a common meridian
plane, and if he could measure the arc length between the two cities, and the angle it subtended at
the Earth’s center, he could compute the Earth’s circumference. He determined the angle by
measuring the length of the shadow cast at Alexandria from a vertical staff of known length. The
arc length was found from multiplying the number of caravan days between Syene and Alexandria
by the average daily distance traveled. From these measurements, Eratosthenes calculated the
Earth’s circumference to be about 25,000 mi. Subsequent precise geodetic measurements using
better instruments, but techniques similar geometrically to Eratosthenes’, have shown his value,
though slightly too large, to be amazingly close to the currently accepted one. (Actually, as
explained in Chapter 19, the Earth approximates an oblate spheroid having an equatorial radius
about 13.5 mi longer than the polar radius.)

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the art of surveying advanced more rapidly. The need for maps and
locations of national boundaries caused England and France to make extensive surveys requiring
accurate triangulation; thus, geodetic surveying began.

Increased land values and the importance of precise boundaries, along with the demand for public
improvements in the canal, railroad, and turnpike eras, brought surveying into a prominent
position. More recently, the large volume of general construction, numerous land subdivisions that
require precise records, and demands posed by the fields of exploration and ecology have entailed
an augmented surveying program. Surveying is still the sign of progress in the development, use,
and preservation of the Earth’s resources.

In addition to meeting a host of growing civilian needs, surveying has always played an important
role in our nation’s defense activities. World Wars I and II, the Korean and Vietnam conflicts, and
the more recent conflicts in the Middle East and Europe have created staggering demands for
precise measurements and accurate maps. These military operations also provided the stimulus for
improving instruments and methods to meet these needs. Surveying also contributed to, and
benefited from, the space program where new equipment and systems were needed to provide

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precise control for missile alignment and for mapping and charting portions of the moon and
nearby planets.

Developments in surveying and mapping equipment:

traditional instruments that were used the transit, theodolite, dumpy level, and steel tape
until about the 1960s or 1970s

new “high-tech” instruments electronic total station instruments,

global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as

the global positioning system (GPS)

Laser-scanning instruments

new aerial cameras and remote sensing instruments

3D mobile mapping systems

Total station instrument 3D mobile mapping system

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 Laser scanner
Digital photogrammetric workstation

Why Surveying?

Surveying has been important since the beginning of civilization. Its earliest applications were in
measuring and marking boundaries of property ownership. Throughout the years its importance
has steadily increased with the growing demand for a variety of maps and other spatially related
types of information and the expanding need for establishing accurate line and grade to guide
construction operations.

Today the importance of measuring and monitoring our environment is becoming increasingly
critical as our population expands, land values appreciate, our natural resources dwindle, and
human activities continue to stress the quality of our land, water, and air. Using modern ground,
aerial, and satellite technologies, and computers for data processing, contemporary surveyors are
now able to measure and monitor the Earth and its natural resources on literally a global basis.

Never before has so much information been available for assessing current conditions, making
sound planning decisions, and formulating policy in a host of landuse, resource development, and
environmental preservation applications.

Importance of surveying

The results of today’s surveys are used to

(1) map the Earth above and below sea level;

(2) prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea;
(3) establish property boundaries of private and public lands;
(4) develop data banks of land-use and natural resource information that aid in managing our
environment;
(5) determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields of the earth; and
(6) Prepare charts of our moon and planets.

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Surveying continues to play an extremely important role in many related fields such as: agronomy,
archeology, astronomy, forestry, geography, geology, geophysics, landscape architecture, spatial
planning, meteorology, paleontology, and seismology, but particularly in military and civil
engineering.

Classification of surveys

Surveys are conducted for many different purposes, which will determine the type of instruments
which are used, the measurements which are taken and the subsequent processing of those
measurements to produce the required results. It is useful to know the names of the principal types
of survey and the nature of the work which is involved.
By their purpose

Geodetic surveys: To determine the shape of the earth or to provide an accurate framework for a
big survey, whose size means that the curvature of the earth must be considered.

Engineering surveys: To choose locations for, and then set out markers for, engineering
construction works. Engineering surveys are concerned only with the features relevant to the task
in hand.

Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as a
reference framework for initiating other surveys. Many control surveys performed today are done
using GNSS instruments.

Topographic surveys determine locations of natural and artificial features and elevations used in
map making. To produce ordinary medium-scale maps for publication and general use.
Topographic surveys record all the features of the landscape which can be shown on the scale of
the map. Topographic maps are usually produced by means of aerial or satellite photogrammetry.

Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys establish property lines and property corner markers.
The term cadastral is now generally applied to surveys of the public lands systems. To establish
and record the boundaries of property or territory. Concerned only with those features of the
landscape which are relevant to such boundaries.

Hydrographic surveys define shorelines and depths of lakes, streams, oceans, reservoirs, and
other bodies of water. Sea surveying is associated with port and offshore industries and the marine
environment, including measurements and marine investigations made by shipborne personnel.

Alignment surveys are made to plan, design, and construct highways, railroads, pipelines, and
other linear projects. They normally begin at one control point and progress to another in the most
direct manner permitted by field conditions.

Construction surveys provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal positions, dimensions,
and configurations for construction operations. They also secure essential data for computing
construction pay quantities.

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As-built surveys document the precise final locations and layouts of engineering works and record
any design changes that may have been incorporated into the construction. These are particularly
important when underground facilities are constructed, so their locations are accurately known for
maintenance purposes, and so that unexpected damage to them can be avoided during later
installation of other underground utilities.

Mine surveys are performed above and below ground to guide tunneling and other operations
associated with mining. This classification also includes geophysical surveys for mineral and
energy resource exploration.

Solar surveys map property boundaries, solar easements, obstructions according to sun angles,
and meet other requirements of zoning boards and title insurance companies.

Optical tooling (also referred to as industrial surveying or optical alignment) is a method of

making extremely accurate measurements for manufacturing processes where small tolerances are
required.

Ground, aerial, and satellite surveys are broad classifications sometimes used:

• Ground surveys utilize measurements made with ground-based equipment such as

automatic levels and total station instruments.
• Aerial surveys are accomplished using either photogrammetry or remote sensing.
Photogrammetry uses cameras that are carried usually in airplanes to obtain images,
whereas remote sensing employs cameras and other types of sensors that can be transported
in either aircraft or satellites.
• Satellite surveys include the determination of ground locations from measurements made
to satellites using GNSS receivers, or the use of satellite images for mapping and
monitoring large regions of the Earth.
By their scale

The scale of a survey will affect the instruments and techniques used, as well as the type of
projection used to display or record the results. In a topographic survey, it will also determine the
amount and type of topographic detail which is recorded.
By the type of measurements taken

Triangulation: Finding the size and shape of a network of triangles by measuring sides and angles.
Used when each station can see three or more other stations.

Traverse: proceeding from one point to another by ‘dead reckoning’, using measured distances
and angles to calculate bearings. Used when the construction work is long and narrow, such as a
motorway or tunnel.

Resectioning: Establishing the position of a single station by measuring distances and angles to a
number of other nearby stations, whose positions are already known.

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Differential GPS (DGPS): Measuring the relative 3D positions of two stations by simultaneously
recording GPS data at each one and comparing the results.

Often, a particular survey involves a hybrid of all four of these techniques.

By the equipment used

Tape For direct linear measurement. Cheap and robust. Still occasionally used for small detailed
surveys, but now largely supplanted by laser-based distance measurement devices.

Compass To observe bearings. Used mainly in reconnaissance.

Levelling instruments: used to find the height of a new point or points by comparison with that
of an existing point.

Theodolite A telescopic sight pivoted horizontally and vertically, with two graduated protractors
(called ‘circles’) for measuring angles. See Figure 1.1.

Electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) devices: Typically used for measurements of

lengths from say 5 m to 5 km, though some instruments have ranges up to about 25 km.

Total station: Essentially a theodolite with a built-in EDM. Total stations usually have facilities
for recording and processing measurements electronically and have largely replaced conventional
theodolites.

Global Positioning System (GPS): Position fixing by satellite has almost completely replaced
terrestrial triangulation for large-scale control survey and can also be useful on building sites,
provided it is not set up close to buildings or trees.

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Aerial camera photogrammetry): mainly used in topographic surveys, but also for recording the
shapes (and subsequent deformations) of buildings.

Satellite camera: Essentially, a long-range aerial camera.

Basic principles of surveying

The principles described here have application across the whole spectrum of survey activity,
from field work to photogrammetry, mining surveying to metrology, hydrography to
cartography, and cadastral to construction surveying.
i. Control
A control network is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates have been precisely
determined and are often considered definitive. The stations are the reference monuments, to
which other survey work of a lesser quality is related. By its nature, a control survey needs to be
precise, complete and reliable and it must be possible to show that these qualities have been
achieved. This is done by using equipment of proven precision, with methods that satisfy the
principles and data processing that not only computes the correct values but gives numerical
measures of their precision and reliability.
Examples where controls are needed are setting out for earthworks on a construction site, detail
surveys of a greenfield site or of an as-built development and monitoring many points on a
structure suspected of undergoing deformation.
The practice of using a control framework as a basis for further survey operations is often called
‘working from the whole to the part’.
ii. Economy of accuracy
Surveys are only ever undertaken for a specific purpose and so should be as accurate as they
need to be, but not more accurate. In spite of modern equipment, automated systems, and
statistical data processing the business of survey is still a manpower intensive one and needs to
be kept to an economic minimum. Once the requirement for a survey or some setting out exists,
then part of the specification for the work must include a statement of the relative and absolute
accuracies to be achieved.

You should note that the accuracy of any survey work will never be better than the control upon
which it is based. You cannot set out steelwork to 5 mm if the control is only good to 2 cm.

iii. Consistency
Controls e.g., on a construction site, must be established to a certain designed precision.
Consistency and economy of accuracy usually go hand in hand in the production of control.
iv. The Independent check

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The independent check is a technique of quality assurance. It is a means of guarding against a
blunder or gross error and the principle must be applied at all stages of a survey. Failure to do so
will lead to the risk, if not probability, of ‘catastrophic failure’ of the survey work.
Checks should be applied to ensure that stations have been properly occupied and the
observations between them properly made. This may be achieved by taking extra and different
measurements beyond the strict minimum required to solve the survey problem. An adjustment
of these observations, especially by least squares, leads to misclosure or error statistics, which in
themselves are a manifestation of the independent check.
v. Safeguarding
Since survey can be an expensive process, every sensible precaution should be taken to ensure
that the work is not compromised. Safeguarding is concerned with the protection of work. In the
case of a control survey, the protection of survey monuments is most important since the precise
coordinates of a point which no longer exists or cannot be found are useless.

Basic measurements

Surveying is concerned with the fixing of position whether it be control points or points of
topographic detail and, as such, requires some form of reference system.
The physical surface of the Earth, on which the actual survey measurements are carried out, is
not mathematically definable. It cannot therefore be used as a reference datum on which to
compute position.
Alternatively, consider a level surface at all points normal to the direction of gravity. Such a
surface would be closed and could be formed to fit the mean position of the oceans, assuming
them to be free from all external forces, such as tides, currents, winds, etc. This surface is called
the geoid and is defined as the equipotential surface that most closely approximates to mean sea
level in the open oceans. An equipotential surface is one from which it would require the same
amount of work to move a given mass to infinity no matter from which point on the surface one
started. Equipotential surfaces are surfaces of equal potential; they are not surfaces of equal
gravity. The most significant aspect of an equipotential surface going through an observer is that
survey instruments are set up relative to it. That is, their vertical axes are in the direction of the
force of gravity at that point. A level or equipotential surface through a point is normal, i.e. at
right angles, to the direction of gravity. Indeed, the points surveyed on the physical surface of the
Earth are frequently reduced, initially, to their equivalent position on the geoid by projection
along their gravity vectors.
The reduced level or elevation of a point is its height above or below the geoid as measured in
the direction of its gravity vector, or plumb line, and is most commonly referred to as its height
above or below mean sea level (MSL). This assumes that the geoid passes through local MSL,
which is acceptable for most practical purposes. However, due to variations in the mass
distribution within the Earth, the geoid, which although very smooth is still an irregular surface
and so cannot be used to locate position mathematically.

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Control Networks

The establishment of two- or three-dimensional control networks is the most fundamental

operation in the surveying of large or small areas of land. Control networks comprise a series of
points or positions which are spatially located for the purpose of topographic surveying, for the
control of supplementary points, or dimensional control on site.
The process involved in carrying out the surveying of an area, the capture and processing of the
field data, and the subsequent production of a plan or map, will now be outlined briefly.
The first and obvious step is to know the purpose and nature of the project for which the surveys
are required in order to assess the accuracy specifications, the type of equipment required and the
surveying processes involved.
For example, a major construction project may require structures, etc., to be set out to
subcentimetre accuracy, in which case the control surveys will be required to an even greater
accuracy. Earthwork volumes may be estimated from the final plans, hence contours made need
to be plotted at 2 m intervals or less.

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If a plan scale of 1/500 is adopted, then a plotting accuracy of 0.5 mm would represent 0.25 m on
the ground, thus indicating the accuracy of the final process of topographic surveying from the
supplementary control and implying major control to a greater accuracy. The location of
topographic data may be done using total stations, GPS satellites, or, depending on the extent of
the area, aerial photogrammetry. The cost of a photogrammetric survey is closely linked to the
contour interval required and the extent of the area. Thus, the accuracy of the control network
would define the quality of the equipment and the number of observations required.

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3. Error and uncertainty
In surveying nothing is ever absolutely certain.
Survey results can never be exactly true for a number of reasons.
• Surveying equipment, like any other piece of equipment in the real world can only be
manufactured to a certain level of precision.
• Whatever the scale on the instrument, be it digital or analogue, there is a limit to the
number of significant digits that it can be read to.
• Surveyors are trained to get the most out of their instrumentation, but no observer can
make perfect measurements. There is a limit to the steadiness of the hand and the acuity
of the eye.
• All survey measurements are subject to external factors, for example all observed angles
are subject to the effects of refraction, and observed distances, whether EDM or tape, will
vary with temperature.
The process of getting from observations to coordinates involves reductions of, and corrections
to, observed data. Some mathematical formulae are rigorous, others are approximate. These
approximations and any rounding errors in the computations will add further error to the
computed survey results.
The surveyor’s task is to understand the source and nature of the errors in the survey work and
appreciate how the observing methods and the computing process may be designed to minimize
and quantify them.

Accuracy vs precision

Since the true value of a measurement or coordinate can never be known it is legitimate to ask
what is the accuracy or the precision of, or the error in, the estimate of that measurement or
coordinate. Accuracy, precision and error have specific meanings in the context of surveying.
Accuracy is a measure of reliability.
In other words
Accuracy = True value − Most probable value
where the ‘most probable value’ is derived from a set of measurements. In the example above
the most probable value might be the arithmetic mean of a number of independent
measurements. Since the true value is never known then it is also impossible for the accuracy to
be known. It can only be estimated.
Accuracy can be estimated from ‘residuals’, for example, in the two sets of measurements below,
which mean is the more accurate, that of the measurements of line AB or line XY?

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Precision is a measure of repeatability. Small residuals indicate high precision, so the mean of
line XY is more precisely determined than the mean of line AB. High precision does not
necessarily indicate high accuracy. For example, if the tape used to measure line XY was in
decimals of a yard and the surveyor assumed it was in metres, then the computed mean of line
XY would be very precise but also very inaccurate.
In general
Precision > Accuracy
but in practice the computed precision is often taken as the assessed accuracy.
Coordinates and their accuracy and precision may be stated as being ‘relative’ or ‘absolute’.
Absolute values are with respect to some previously defined datum. Relative values are those
with respect to another station.
Accuracy and precision are usually quoted as a ratio, or as parts per million1, e.g. 1:100 000
or 10 ppm, or in units of the quantity measured, e.g. 0.03 m.
Error is the difference between an actual true valve and an estimate of that true value. If the
estimate is a bad one, then the error will be large.

Units of measurements:

The system most commonly used in the measurement of distance and angle is the ‘Systeme
Internationale’, abbreviated to SI. The basic units of prime interest are:
Length in metres (m)
from which we have:
1 m = 103 millimetres (mm)

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ppm: It's a way to quantify very small values using a ratio instead of a dimension or unit of measure. If you've got
a measurement error of 1 ppm then for every million units your measurement could fluctuate to be off by 1 unit. So,
in 1,000,000 ft you're off by 1 ft. That translates to 0.001 ft in 1,000 ft.

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 1 m = 10–3 kilometres (km)
Thus, a distance measured to the nearest millimetre would be written as, say, 142.356 m.
Similarly, for areas we have:
1 m2 = 106 mm2
104 m2 = 1 hectare (ha)
106 m2 = 1 square kilometre (km2)
and for volumes, m3 and mm3.
The sexagesimal units are used in many parts of the world, including the UK, and measure angles
in degrees (°), minutes (‘) and seconds (“) of arc, i.e.
1° = 60’
1’ = 60”
and an angle is written as, say, 125° 46’ 35”.

Significant figures

By definition, the number of significant figures in a value is the number of digits one is certain of
plus one, usually the last, which is estimated. The number of significant figures should not be
confused with the number of decimal places. A further rule in significant figures is that in all
numbers less than unity, the zeros directly after the decimal point and up to the first non-zero
digit are not counted.
For example:
Two significant figures: 40, 42, 4.2, 0.43, 0.0042, 0.040
Three significant figures: 836, 83.6, 80.6, 0.806, 0.0806, 0.00800
Difficulties can occur with zeros at the end of a number such as 83 600, which may have three,
four or five significant figures. This problem is overcome by expressing the value in powers of
ten, i.e. 8.36 × 104 implies three significant figures, 8.360×104 implies four significant figures
and 8.3600×104 implies five significant figures.
It is important to remember that the accuracy of field data cannot be improved by the
computational processes to which it is subjected.
Consider the addition of the following numbers:
155.486
7.08

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2183.0
42.0058
If added on a pocket calculator the answer is 2387.5718; however, the correct answer with due
regard to significant figures is 2387.6. In the case of 155.486 + 7.08 + 2183 + 42.0058 the
answer should be 2388. This rule also applies to subtraction.
In multiplication and division, the answer should be rounded off to the number of significant
figures contained in that number having the least number of significant figures in the
computational process. (example)

Rounding numbers

It is well understood that in rounding numbers, 54.334 would be rounded to 54.33, whilst 54.336
would become 54.34. However, with 54.335, some individuals always round up, giving 54.34,
whilst others always round down to 54.33. Either process creates a systematic bias and should be
avoided. The process which creates a more random bias, thereby producing a more
representative mean value from a set of data, is to round to the nearest even digit. Using this
approach, 54.335 becomes 54.34, whilst 54.345 is 54.34 also.

Errors in measurements

The sources of error fall into three broad categories, namely:

(1) Natural errors caused by variation in or adverse weather conditions, refraction,
unmodelled gravity effects, etc.
(2) Instrumental errors caused by imperfect construction and adjustment of the
surveying instruments used.
(3) Personal errors caused by the inability of the individual to make exact
observations due to the limitations of human sight, touch and hearing.

Classification of errors:

Mistakes are sometimes called gross errors, but should not be classified as errors at all. They
are blunders, often resulting from fatigue or the inexperience of the surveyor. Typical examples
are omitting a whole tape length when measuring distance, sighting the wrong target in a round
of angles, reading ‘6’ on a levelling staff as ‘9’ and vice versa. Mistakes are the largest of the
errors likely to arise, and therefore great care must be taken to obviate them. However,
because they are large they are easy to spot and so deal with.
Systematic errors can be constant or variable throughout an operation and are generally
attributable to known circumstances. The value of these errors may often be calculated and
applied as a correction to the measured quantity. They can be the result of natural conditions,

21
examples of which are: refraction of light rays, variation in the speed of electromagnetic waves
through the atmosphere, expansion or contraction of steel tapes due to temperature variations. In
all these cases, corrections can be applied to reduce their effect. Such errors may also be
produced by instruments, e.g. maladjustment of the theodolite or level, index error in spring
balances, ageing of the crystals in EDM equipment. Careful calibration of all equipment is an
essential part of controlling systematic error.
Random errors are those variates which remain after all other errors have been removed. They
are beyond the control of the observer and result from the human inability of the observer to
make exact measurements, for reasons already indicated above. Random errors alone are treated
by statistical processes.
Further definitions of terms used in theory of errors
(1) The true value of a measurement can never be found, even though such a value exists. This
is evident when observing an angle with a one-second theodolite; no matter how many times the
angle is read, a slightly different value will always be obtained.
(2) True error (εx) similarly can never be found, for it consists of the true value (X) minus the
observed
value (x), i.e.
X − x = εx
(3) Relative error is a measure of the error in relation to the size of the measurement. For
instance, a distance of 10 m may be measured with an error of ±1 mm, whilst a distance of 100 m
may also be measured to an accuracy of ±1 mm. Although the error is the same in both cases, the
second measurement may clearly be regarded as more accurate. To allow for this, the term
relative error (Rx) may be used, where
Rx = εx/x
Thus, in the first case x = 10 m, εx = ±1mm, and therefore Rx = 1/10 000; in the second case, Rx
= 1/100 000, clearly illustrating the distinction. Multiplying the relative error by 100 gives the
percentage error. ‘Relative error’ is an extremely useful definition, and is commonly used in
expressing the accuracy of linear measurement. For example, the relative closing error of a
traverse is usually expressed in this way. The definition is clearly not applicable to expressing
the accuracy to which an angle is measured, however.
(4) Most probable value (MPV) is the closest approximation to the true value that can be
achieved from a set of data. This value is generally taken as the arithmetic mean of a set,
ignoring at this stage the frequency or weight of the data. For instance, if A is the arithmetic
mean, X the true value, and εn the errors of a set of n measurements, then
A = X – (∑εn/n)

22
where ∑εn is the sum of the errors. As the errors are equally as likely to be positive as negative,
then for a finite number of observations ∑εn/n will be very small and A ≈ X. For an infinite
number of measurements, it could be argued that A = X.
(5) The residual is the difference between the MPV of a set, i.e. the arithmetic mean, and the
observed values. Using the same argument as before, it can be shown that for a finite number of
measurements, the residual r is approximately equal to the true error ε.

See additional notes on errors attached

23
 Error and uncertainty 25

clearly be regarded as more accurate. To allow for this, the term relative error (Rx ) may be used, where
Rx = εx /x
Thus, in the first case x = 10 m, εx = ±1 mm, and therefore Rx = 1/10 000; in the second case,
Rx = 1/100 000, clearly illustrating the distinction. Multiplying the relative error by 100 gives the
percentage error. ‘Relative error’ is an extremely useful definition, and is commonly used in expressing
the accuracy of linear measurement. For example, the relative closing error of a traverse is usually
expressed in this way. The definition is clearly not applicable to expressing the accuracy to which an
angle is measured, however.
(4) Most probable value (MPV) is the closest approximation to the true value that can be achieved from
a set of data. This value is generally taken as the arithmetic mean of a set, ignoring at this stage the
frequency or weight of the data. For instance, if A is the arithmetic mean, X the true value, and εn the
errors of a set of n measurements, then
εn
A=X−
n
where εn is the sum of the errors. As the errors are equally as likely to be positive as negative, then
for a finite number of observations εn /n will be very small and A ≈ X. For an infinite number of
measurements, it could be argued that A = X.
(5) The residual is the difference between the MPV of a set, i.e. the arithmetic mean, and the observed
values. Using the same argument as before, it can be shown that for a finite number of measurements,
the residual r is approximately equal to the true error ε.

2.4.4 Probability

Consider a length of 29.42 m measured with a tape and correct to ±0.05 m. The range of these measure-
ments would therefore be from 29.37 m to 29.47 m, giving 11 possibilities to 0.01 m for the answer. If the
next bay was measured in the same way, there would again be 11 possibilities. Thus the correct value for
the sum of the two bays would lie between 11 × 11 = 121 possibilities, and the range of the sum would
be 2 × ±0.05 m, i.e. between −0.10 m and +0.10 m. Now, the error of −0.10 m can occur only once,
i.e. when both bays have an error of −0.05 m; similarly with +0.10. Consider an error of −0.08; this
can occur in three ways: (−0.05 and −0.03), (−0.04 and −0.04) and (–0.03 and –0.05). Applying this
procedure through the whole range can produce Table 2.1, the lower half of which is simply a repeat of

Table 2.1 Probability of errors

Error Occurrence Probability

−0.10 1 1/121 = 0.0083

−0.09 2 2/121 = 0.0165
−0.08 3 3/121 = 0.0248
−0.07 4 4/121 = 0.0331
−0.06 5 5/121 = 0.0413
−0.05 6 6/121 = 0.0496
−0.04 7 7/121 = 0.0579
−0.03 8 8/121 = 0.0661
−0.02 9 9/121 = 0.0744
−0.01 10 10/121 = 0.0826
0 11 11/121 = 0.0909
0.01 10 10/121 = 0.0826
26 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 2.2 Probability histogram

the upper half. If the decimal probabilities are added together they equal 1.0000. If the above results are
plotted as error against probability the histogram of Figure 2.2 is obtained, the errors being represented
by rectangles. Then, in the limit, as the error interval gets smaller, the histogram approximates to the
superimposed curve. This curve is called the normal probability curve. The area under it represents the
probability that the error must lie between ±0.10 m, and is thus equal to 1.0000 (certainty) as shown in
Table 2.1.
More typical bell-shaped probability curves are shown in Figure 2.3; the tall thin curve indicates small
scatter and thus high precision, whilst the flatter curve represents large scatter and low precision. Inspection
of the curve reveals:
(1) Positive and negative errors are equal in size and frequency; they are equally probable.
(2) Small errors are more frequent than large; they are more probable.
(3) Very large errors seldom occur; they are less probable and may be mistakes or untreated systematic
errors.
The equation of the normal probability distribution curve is:
1 2 σ −2
e− 2 (x−μ)
y= 1
σ (2π) 2
where y = probability of the occurrence of x − μ, i.e. the probability that x the variate deviates this far
from the central position of the distribution μ, σ is the spread of the distribution and e = the base of natural
logarithms. If μ = 0, i.e. the centre of the distribution is at zero and σ = 1, i.e. the spread is unity, the
formula for the probability simplifies to:
1 2
e− 2 x
y= 1
(2π ) 2
As already illustrated, the area under the curve represents the limit of relative frequency, i.e. probability,
and is equal to unity. Thus a table of Normal Distribution curve areas (Table 2.2) can be used to calculate
 Error and uncertainty 27

Fig. 2.3 Probability curve

Table 2.2 Area under the Normal Distribution curve

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

0.0 0.5000 0.5040 0.5080 0.5120 0.5160 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5753
0.2 0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.5910 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0.6331 0.6368 0.6406 0.6443 0.6480 0.6517
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.6700 0.6736 0.6772 0.6808 0.6844 0.6879
0.5 0.6915 0.6950 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.7190 0.7224
0.6 0.7257 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7517 0.7549
0.7 0.7580 0.7611 0.7642 0.7673 0.7704 0.7734 0.7764 0.7794 0.7823 0.7852
0.8 0.7881 0.7910 0.7939 0.7967 0.7995 0.8023 0.8051 0.8078 0.8106 0.8133
0.9 0.8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.8340 0.8365 0.8389
1.0 0.8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0.8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.8770 0.8790 0.8810 0.8830
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.8980 0.8997 0.9015
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0.9131 0.9147 0.9162 0.9177
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0.9292 0.9306 0.9319
1.5 0.9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.9370 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0.9429 0.9441
1.6 0.9452 0.9463 0.9474 0.9484 0.9495 0.9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545
1.7 0.9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633
1.8 0.9641 0.9649 0.9656 0.9664 0.9671 0.9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699 0.9706
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0.9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.9750 0.9756 0.9761 0.9767
2.0 0.9772 0.9778 0.9783 0.9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0.9812 0.9817
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.9830 0.9834 0.9838 0.9842 0.9846 0.9850 0.9854 0.9857
2.2 0.9861 0.9864 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0.9884 0.9887 0.9890
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916
2.4 0.9918 0.9920 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936
2.5 0.9938 0.9940 0.9941 0.9943 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952
2.6 0.9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0.9961 0.9962 0.9963 0.9964
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.9970 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974
2.8 0.9974 0.9975 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9979 0.9980 0.9981
2.9 0.9981 0.9982 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986
3.0 0.9987 0.9987 0.9987 0.9988 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989 0.9989 0.9990 0.9990

How to use the table: If (x − μ)/σ = 1.75 look down the left column to 1.7 and across the row to the element in the column headed
0.05; the value for the probability is 0.9599, i.e. the probability is 95.99%.
28 Engineering Surveying

probabilities provided that the distribution is the standard normal distribution, i.e. N(0, 12 ). If the variable
x is N(μ, σ 2 ), then it must be transformed to the standard normal distribution using Z = (x − μ)/σ , where
1
Z has a probability density function equal to (2π )− 2 e−Z /2 .
2

For example, when x = N(5, 22 ) then Z = (x − 5)/2

When x = 9 then Z = 2
Thus the curve can be used to assess the probability that a variable x will fall between certain values.
There are two new terms, μ and σ which are usually found from the data, rather than being assumed before
the data is investigated. In the normal distribution, the variable x may take values from minus infinity to
plus infinity. μ is estimated as the mean value of x and σ gives a measure of the spread or width of the
distribution. σ is estimated as the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual differences of
x from μ divided by the number of differences less 1, that is the degrees of freedom. Note that whatever
the population, for example a set of repeated measurements, μ and σ can only be estimated from the
population, they are never known exactly. σ is known as the standard deviation or more often in surveying
terminology, the standard error.
An assumption here is that the population of x is large, in fact theoretically infinite. Clearly sets of
measurements are never infinite but providing the sets are large then this theoretical problem does not
become a practical problem. When the population is small then the ‘t’ distribution, described later, is more
appropriate.
Any single observation will deviate from its expected value for two reasons. There will be random
errors in the individual observation including rounding errors and there may be systematic errors that
unknowingly invalidate the expectation. In practical survey statistics the process of testing whether the
difference between an individual observation and the mean of the set is significant is first to estimate the
parameters of the appropriate normal distribution, μ and σ , and then test whether the individual observation
is an outlier.
In Figure 2.3, the area under the curve represents the sum total of all possibilities and therefore is 1.
The greater the value of σ , the flatter and hence broader is the curve. The maximum gradients of the curve
are where

x =μ±σ

For example, the probability that x will fall between 0.5 and 2.4 is represented by area A on the normal
curve (Figure 2.4(a)). This statement can be written as:
P(0.5 < x < 2.4) = area A
Now Area A = Area B − Area C (Figure 2.4(b) and (c))
where Area B represents P(x < 2.4)
and Area C represents P(x < 0.5)
i.e. P(0.5 < x < 2.4) = P(X < 2.4) − P(X < 0.5)
From the table of the Normal Distribution (Table 2.2):
When x = 2.4, Area = 0.9918
When x = 0.5, Area = 0.6915
∴ P(0.5 < x < 2.4) = 0.9918 − 0.6195 = 0.3723
That is, there is a 37.23% probability that x will lie between 0.5 and 2.4.
If verticals are drawn from the points of inflexion of the normal distribution curve (Figure 2.5) they will
cut that base at −σx and +σx , where σx is the standard deviation. The area shown indicates the probability
that x will lie between ±σx and equals 0.683 or 68.3%. This is a very important statement.
 Error and uncertainty 29

(a)
Frequency

Area A

0.5 2.4
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Value of measurement

(b)
Frequency

Area B

2.4
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Value of measurement

(c)
Frequency

Area C

0.5
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Value of measurement

Fig. 2.4 Probability defined by area under a curve

30 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 2.5 Normal distribution curve

The standard deviation (σx ), if used to assess the precision of a set of data, implies that 68% of the time,
the arithmetic mean (x̄) of that set should lie between (x̄ ± σx ). Put another way, if the sample is normally
distributed and contains only random variates, then 7 out of 10 should lie between (x̄ ± σx ). It is for this
reason that two-sigma or three-sigma limits are preferred in statistical analysis:
±2σx = 0.955 = 95.5% probability

and ±3σx = 0.997 = 99.7% probability

Thus using two-sigma, we can be 95% certain that a sample mean (x̄) will not differ from the population
mean μ by more than ±2σx . These are called ‘confidence limits’, where x̄ is a point estimate of μ and
(x̄ ± 2σx ) is the interval estimate.
If a sample mean lies outside the limits of ±2σx we say that the difference between x̄ and μ is statistically
significant at the 5% level. There is, therefore, reasonable evidence of a real difference and the original
null hypothesis (H0 · x̄ = μ) should be rejected.
It may be necessary at this stage to more clearly define ‘population’ and ‘sample’. The ‘population’ is
the whole set of data about which we require information. The ‘sample’ is any set of data from population,
the statistics of which can be used to describe the population.

2.5 INDICES OF PRECISION

It is important to be able to assess the precision of a set of observations, and several standards exist for
doing this. The most popular is standard deviation (σ ), a numerical value indicating the amount of variation
about a central value.
In order to find out how precision is determined, one must first consider a measure which takes into
account all the values in a set of data. Such a measure is the deviation from the mean (x̄) of each observed
value (xi ), i.e. (xi − x̄), and one obvious consideration would be the mean of these values. However, in a
normal distribution the sum of the deviations would be zero because the sum of the positive deviations
would equal the sum of the negative deviations. Thus the ‘mean’ of the squares of the deviations may be
used, and this is called the variance (σ 2 ).

i=n
σ2 = (xi − x̄)2 /n (2.1)
i=1

Theoretically σ is obtained from an infinite number of variates known as the population. In practice,
however, only a sample of variates is available and S is used as an unbiased estimator. Account is taken of
 Error and uncertainty 31

the small number of variates in the sample by using (n − 1) as the divisor, which is referred to in statistics
as the Bessel correction; hence, variance is:

n
S =
2
(xi − x̄)2 /n − 1 (2.2)
i=1

As the deviations are squared, the units in which variance is expressed will be the original units squared.
To obtain an index of precision in the same units as the original data, therefore, the square root of the variance
is used, and this is called standard deviation (S), thus:
 n 1
 2
Standard deviation = S = (xi − x̄)2 /n − 1 (2.3)
i=1

Standard deviation is represented by the shaded area under the curve in Figure 2.5 and so establishes
the limits of the error bound within which 68.3% of the values of the set should lie, i.e. seven out of a
sample of ten.
Similarly, a measure of the precision of the mean (x̄) of the set is obtained using the standard error
(Sx̄ ), thus:
 n 1
 2
1
Standard error = Sx̄ = (xi − x̄)2 /n(n − 1) = S/n 2 (2.4)
i=1

Standard error therefore indicates the limits of the error bound within which the ‘true’ value of the mean
lies, with a 68.3% certainty of being correct.
It should be noted that S and Sx̄ are entirely different parameters. The value of S will not alter signifi-
cantly with an increase in the number (n) of observations; the value of Sx̄ , however, will alter significantly
as the number of observations increases. It is important therefore that to describe measured data both values
should be used.

2.6 WEIGHT

Weights are expressed numerically and indicate the relative precision of quantities within a set. The greater
the weight, the greater the precision of the observation to which it relates. Thus an observation with a weight
of two may be regarded as more precise than an observation with a weight of one. Consider two mean
measures of the same angle: A = 50◦ 50 50 of weight one, and B = 50◦ 50 47 of weight two. This is
equivalent to three observations, 50 , 47 , 47 , all of equal weight, and having a mean value of

(50 + 47 + 47 )/3 = 48

Therefore the mean value of the angle = 50◦ 50 48 .

Inspection of this exercise shows it to be identical to multiplying each observation a by its weight, w,
and dividing by the sum of the weights w, i.e.
a1 w1 + a2 w2 + · · · + an wn aw
Weighted mean = Am = = (2.5)
w1 + w2 + · · · + wn w
Weights can be allocated in a variety of ways, such as: (a) by personal judgement of the prevailing
conditions at the time of measurement; (b) by direct proportion to the number of measurements of the
32 Engineering Surveying

quantity, i.e. w ∝ n; (c) by the use of variance and co-variance factors. This last method is recommended
and in the case of the variance factor is easily applied as follows. Equation (2.4) shows
1
Sx̄ = S/n 2
That is, error is inversely proportional to the square root of the number of measures. However, as w ∝ n,
then
2
w ∝ 1/Sx̄
i.e. weight is proportional to the inverse of the variance.

2.7 REJECTION OF OUTLIERS

It is not unusual, when taking repeated measurements of the same quantity, to find at least one which appears
very different from the rest. Such a measurement is called an outlier, which the observer intuitively feels
should be rejected from the sample. However, intuition is hardly a scientific argument for the rejection of
data and a more statistically viable approach is required.
As already indicated, standard deviation σ represents 68.3% of the area under the normal curve and
is therefore representative of 68.26% confidence limits. This leaves 31.74% of the area under the tails
of the curve, i.e. 0.1587 or 15.87% on each side. In Table 2.2 the value of z at 1.00 × σ is 0.8413
(0.8413 = 1 − 0.1587) and indicates that the table is only concerned with the tail on one side of μ not both.
Therefore to calculate confidence limits for a variate both tails must be considered, so if 95% confidence
limits are required that implies that each tail will be 2.5% and so look for 97.5% or 0.9750 in the table.
The value of z = (μ − x)/σ associated with 0.9750 in Table 2.2 is 1.96. This indicates that for a Normal
Distribution 95% of the population lies within 1.96 × σ of μ.
Thus, any random variate xi , whose residual error (xi − x̄) is greater than ±1.96S, must lie in the extreme
tail ends of the normal curve and might therefore be ignored, i.e. rejected from the sample. In the Normal
Distribution the central position of the distribution is derived from the theoretical infinite population.
In practice, in survey, it is derived from a limited data set. For example, the true value of a measurement
of a particular distance could only be found by averaging an infinite number of observations by an infinite
number of observers with an infinite number of measuring devices. The best one could hope for in practice
would be a few observations by a few observers with very few instruments. Therefore the computed mean
value of the observations is an estimate, not the true value of the measurement. This uncertainty is taken
into account by using the ‘t’ distribution (Table 2.3) rather than the Normal Distribution.

Worked example

Example 2.1. The following observations of an angle have been taken:

30◦ 42 24 30◦ 42 22 30◦ 42 23
30◦ 42 25 30◦ 42 22 30◦ 42 40
What is the probability that the last observed angle is an outlier?
Compute the mean of the sample 30◦ 42 26
Find the deviation, d, of the last observation 30◦ 42 40 − 30◦ 42 26 = 14
Compute s, the estimate of σ , from the mean and the residuals 6.78
 
Find t = d/s = 14 /6.78 = 2.064
Number of degrees of freedom, N = number of observations −1 = 5
 Error and uncertainty 33

Table 2.3 Area under the ‘t’ distribution curve

Area = probability 0.800 0.900 0.950 0.980 0.990 0.995 0.998 0.999

degrees of freedom N ‘t’

1 1.376 3.078 6.314 15.895 31.821 63.657 159.153 318.309
2 1.061 1.886 2.920 4.849 6.965 9.925 15.764 22.327
3 0.978 1.638 2.353 3.482 4.541 5.841 8.053 10.215
4 0.941 1.533 2.132 2.999 3.747 4.604 5.951 7.173
5 0.920 1.476 2.015 2.757 3.365 4.032 5.030 5.893
6 0.906 1.440 1.943 2.612 3.143 3.707 4.524 5.208
7 0.896 1.415 1.895 2.517 2.998 3.499 4.207 4.785
8 0.889 1.397 1.860 2.449 2.896 3.355 3.991 4.501
9 0.883 1.383 1.833 2.398 2.821 3.250 3.835 4.297
10 0.879 1.372 1.812 2.359 2.764 3.169 3.716 4.144
12 0.873 1.356 1.782 2.303 2.681 3.055 3.550 3.930
14 0.868 1.345 1.761 2.264 2.624 2.977 3.438 3.787
16 0.865 1.337 1.746 2.235 2.583 2.921 3.358 3.686
18 0.862 1.330 1.734 2.214 2.552 2.878 3.298 3.610
20 0.860 1.325 1.725 2.197 2.528 2.845 3.251 3.552
25 0.856 1.316 1.708 2.167 2.485 2.787 3.170 3.450
30 0.854 1.310 1.697 2.147 2.457 2.750 3.118 3.385
40 0.851 1.303 1.684 2.123 2.423 2.704 3.055 3.307
60 0.848 1.296 1.671 2.099 2.390 2.660 2.994 3.232
100 0.845 1.290 1.660 2.081 2.364 2.626 2.946 3.174
1000 0.842 1.282 1.646 2.056 2.330 2.581 2.885 3.098

Find the appropriate value in the row N = 5 in the t table (Table 2.3). At a probability of 0.95 the value of
t is 2.015 therefore the computed value of 2.064 indicates that there is slightly more than a 95% chance
that the last observation contains a non-random error.
It should be noted that successive rejection procedures should not be applied to the sample.

2.8 COMBINATION OF ERRORS

Much data in surveying is obtained indirectly from various combinations of observed data, for instance
the coordinates of the ends of a line are a function of its length and bearing. As each measure-
ment contains an error, it is necessary to consider the combined effect of these errors on the derived
quantity.
The general procedure is to differentiate with respect to each of the observed quantities in turn and sum
them to obtain their total effect. Thus if a = f (x, y, z, . . .), and each independent variable changes by a
small amount (an error) δx, δy, δz, . . . , then a will change by a small amount equal to δa, obtained from
the following expression:
∂a ∂a ∂a
δa = · δx + · δy + · δz + · · · (2.6)
∂x ∂y ∂z
in which ∂a/∂x is the partial derivative of a with respect to x, etc.
34 Engineering Surveying

Consider now a set of measurements and let the residuals δxi , δyi , and δzi , be written as xi , yi , and zi
and the error in the derived quantity δaI is written as ai :
∂a ∂a ∂a
a1 = · x1 + · y1 + · z1 + · · ·
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂a ∂a ∂a
a2 = · x2 + · y2 + · z2 + · · ·
∂x ∂y ∂z
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
∂a ∂a ∂a
an = · xn + · yn + · zn + · · ·
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now squaring both sides gives
 2     2
∂a ∂a ∂a ∂a
a1 =
2
· x1 + 2
2
x1 y1 + · · · + y12 + · · ·
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
 2     2
∂a ∂a ∂a ∂a
a22 = · x22 + 2 x2 y2 + · · · + y22 + · · ·
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
 2     2
∂a ∂a ∂a ∂a
an2 = · xn2 + 2 xn yn + · · · + yn2 + · · ·
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
In the above process many of the square and cross-multiplied terms have been omitted for simplicity.
Summing the results gives
  2       2 
∂a ∂a ∂a ∂a
a =
2
x +2
2
xy + · · · + y2 + · · ·
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
As the measured quantities may be considered independent and uncorrelated, the cross-products tend to
zero and may be ignored.
Now dividing throughout by (n − 1):
 2  2  2  2  2  2  2
a ∂a x ∂a y ∂a z
= + + + ···
n−1 ∂x n−1 ∂y n−1 ∂z n−1
The sum of the residuals squared divided by (n − 1), is in effect the variance σ 2 , and therefore
 2  2  2
∂a ∂a ∂a
σa =
2
σx +
2
σy +
2
σz2 + · · · (2.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z
which is the general equation for the variance of any function. This equation is very important and is used
extensively in surveying for error analysis, as illustrated in the following examples.

2.8.1 Uncertainty of addition or subtraction

Consider a quantity A = a + b where a and b have standard errors σa and σb , then

 2  2
1
∂(a + b) ∂(a + b) 2
σA2 = σa + σb = σa2 + σb2 ∴ σA = σa2 + σb2 (2.8)
∂a ∂b
As subtraction is simply addition with the signs changed, the above also holds for the error in a difference:
1
If σa = σb = σ , then σA = σ (n) 2 (2.9)
Equation (2.9) should not be confused with equation (2.4) which refers to the mean, not the sum as above.
 Error and uncertainty 35

Worked examples

Example 2.2. Three angles of a triangle each have a standard error of 2 . What is the total error (σT ) in
the triangle?
1 1
σT = (22 + 22 + 22 ) = 2(3) = 3.5
2 2

Example 2.3. In measuring a round of angles at a station, the third angle c closing the horizon is obtained
by subtracting the two measured angles a and b from 360◦ . If angle a has a standard error of 2 and angle b
a standard error of 3 , what is the standard error of angle c?

since c = 360◦ − a − b
1 1
then σc = (σa2 + σb2 ) 2 = (22 + 32 ) 2 = 3.6

Example 2.4. The standard error of a mean angle derived from four measurements is 3 ; how many
measurements would be required, using the same equipment, to halve this uncertainty?
σs 1
From equation (2.4) σm = 1
∴ σs = 3 × 4 2 = 6
n 2

i.e. the instrument used had a standard error of 6 for a single observation; thus for σm = 1.5 , when
σs = 6 :
 2
6
n= = 16
1.5

Example 2.5. If the standard error of the sum of independently observed angles in a triangle is to be not
greater than 6.0 , what is the permissible standard error per angle?
1
From equation (2.9) σT = σp (n) 2

where σT is the triangular error, σp the error per angle, and n the number of angles.

σT 6.0 
∴ σp = 1
= 1
= 3.5
(n) 2 (3) 2

2.8.2 Uncertainty of a product

Consider A = (a × b × c) where a, b and c have standard errors σa , σb and σc . The variance

 2  2  2
∂(abc) ∂(abc) ∂(abc)
σA =
2
σa + σb + σc
∂a ∂b ∂c

= (bcσa )2 + (acσb )2 + (abσc )2

 1
σa 2 σb 2 σc 2 2
∴ σA = abc + + (2.10)
a b c
The terms in brackets may be regarded as the relative errors Ra , Rb , Rc giving
1
σA = abc (Ra2 + Rb2 + Rc2 ) 2 (2.11)
36 Engineering Surveying

2.8.3 Uncertainty of a quotient

Consider A = a/b, then the variance

 2  2
∂(ab−1 ) ∂(ab−1 ) σa 2 σb a 2
σA =
2
σa + σb = + (2.12)
∂a ∂b b b2
 1
a σa 2 σb 2 2
∴ σA = +
b a b
a 2 1
= (R + Rb2 ) 2 (2.13)
b a

2.8.4 Uncertainty of powers and roots

The case for the power of a number must not be confused with the case for multiplication, for example
a3 = a × a × a, with each term being exactly the same.
Thus if A = an , then the variance
 n 2
∂a 2
σA =
2
σa = nan−1 σa ∴ σA = nan−1 σa (2.14)
∂a

σA nan−1 σa nσa
Alternatively RA = n
= n
= = nRa (2.15)
a a a
Similarly for roots, if the function is A = a1/n , then the variance
2  2  2
∂a1/n 1 1/n−1 1 1/n −1
σA =
2
σa = a σa = a a σa (2.16)
∂a n n
2
a1/n σa a1/n σa
= ∴ σA = (2.17)
n a n a
The same approach is adapted to general forms which are combinations of the above.

Worked examples

Example 2.6. The same angle was measured by two different observers using the same instrument,
as follows:

Observer A Observer B
◦   ◦  

86 34 10 86 34 05
33 50 34 00
33 40 33 55
34 00 33 50
33 50 34 00
34 10 33 55
34 00 34 15
34 20 33 44
 Error and uncertainty 37

Calculate: (a) The standard deviation of each set.

(b) The standard error of the arithmetic means.
(c) The most probable value (MPV) of the angle. (KU)

Observer A r r2 Observer B r r2
◦     ◦    

86 34 10 10 100 86 34 05 7 49
33 50 −10 100 34 00 2 4
33 40 −20 400 33 55 −3 9
34 00 0 0 33 50 −8 64
33 50 −10 100 34 00 2 4
34 10 10 100 33 55 −3 9
34 00 0 0 34 15 17 289
34 20 20 400 33 44 −14 196
Mean = 86 34 00 0 1200 = r 2 86 33 58 0 624 = r 2

(a) (i) Standard deviation (r 2 = (xi − x̄)2 )

  12  1
r2 1200 2
SA = = = 13.1
n−1 7

SA 13.1
(b) (i) Standard error Sx̄A = 1
= 1
= 4.6
n 2 82
 1
624 2
(a) (ii) Standard deviation SB = = 9.4
7
9.4
(b) (ii) Standard error Sx̄B = 1
= 3.3
8 2

(c) As each arithmetic mean has a different precision exhibited by its Sx̄ value, the arithmetic means must
be weighted accordingly before they can be averaged to give the MPV of the angle:
1 1
Weight of A ∝ = = 0.047
Sx̄2A 21.2

1
Weight of B ∝ = 0.092
10.9
The ratio of the weight of A to the weight of B is 0.047:0.092

(0.047 × 86◦ 34 00 + 0.092 × 86◦ 33 58 )

∴ MPV of the angle =
(0.047 + 0.092)

= 86◦ 33 59

As a matter of interest, the following point could be made here: any observation whose residual is
greater than 2.998S should be rejected at the 98% level (see Section 2.7). Each data set has 8 observations
38 Engineering Surveying

and therefore the mean has 7 degrees of freedom. This is a 2-tailed test therefore the 0.99 column is used.
As 2.998SA = 39.3 and 2.998SB = 28.2 , all the observations should be included in the set. This test
should normally be carried out at the start of the problem.

Example 2.7. Discuss the classification of errors in surveying operations, giving appropriate examples.
In a triangulation scheme, the three angles of a triangle were measured and their mean values recorded
as 50◦ 48 18 , 64◦ 20 36 and 64◦ 51 00 . Analysis of each set gave a standard deviation of 4 for each of
these means. At a later date, the angles were re-measured under better conditions, yielding mean values of
50◦ 48 20 , 64◦ 20 39 and 64◦ 50 58 . The standard deviation of each value was 2 . Calculate the most
probable values of the angles. (KU)
The angles are first adjusted to 180◦ . Since the angles within each triangle are of equal weight, then the
angular adjustment within each triangle is equal.

50◦ 48 18 + 2 = 50◦ 48 20 50◦ 48 20 + 1 = 50◦ 48 21
64◦ 20 36 + 2 = 64◦ 20 38 64◦ 20 39 + 1 = 64◦ 20 40
64◦ 51 00 + 2 = 64◦ 51 02 64◦ 50 58 + 1 = 64◦ 50 59
179◦ 59 54 180◦ 00 00 179◦ 59 57 180◦ 00 00

1
Weight of the first set = w1 = 1/42 =
16
1
Weight of the second set = w2 = 1/22 =
4
Thus w1 = 1, when w2 = 4.
(50◦ 48 20 ) + (50◦ 48 21 × 4)
∴ MPV = = 50◦ 48 20.8
5
Similarly, the MPVs of the remaining angles are:
64◦ 20 39.6 64◦ 50 59.6
The values may now be rounded off to single seconds.

Example 2.8. A base line of ten bays was measured by a tape resting on measuring heads. One observer
read one end while the other observer read the other – the difference in readings giving the observed length
of the bay. Bays 1, 2 and 5 were measured six times, bays 3, 6 and 9 were measured five times and the
remaining bays were measured four times, the means being calculated in each case. If the standard errors
of single readings by the two observers were known to be 1 mm and 1.2 mm, what will be the standard
error in the whole line due only to reading errors? (LU)
1
Standard error in reading a bay Ss = (12 + 1.22 ) 2 = 1.6 mm
Consider bay 1. This was measured six times and the mean taken; thus the standard error of the mean is:
Ss 1.6
Sx̄ = 1
= 1
= 0.6 mm
l 2 62
This value applies to bays 2 and 5 also. Similarly for bays 3, 6 and 9:
1.6
Sx̄ = 1
= 0.7 mm
52
 Error and uncertainty 39

1.6
For bays 4, 7, 8 and 10 Sx̄ =
1
= 0.8 mm
42
These bays are now summed to obtain the total length. Therefore the standard error of the whole line is
1
(0.62 + 0.62 + 0.62 + 0.72 + 0.72 + 0.72 + 0.82 + 0.82 + 0.82 + 0.82 ) 2 = 2.3 mm

Example 2.9.
(a) A base line was measured using electronic distance-measuring (EDM) equipment and a mean distance
of 6835.417 m recorded. The instrument used has a manufacturer’s quoted accuracy of 1/400 000
of the length measured 20 mm. As a check the line was re-measured using a different type of EDM
equipment having an accuracy of 1/600 000 ± 30 mm; the mean distance obtained was 6835.398 m.
Determine the most probable value of the line.
(b) An angle was measured by three different observers, A, B and C. The mean of each set and its standard
error is shown below.

Observer Mean angle Sx̄

◦   

A 89 54 36 0.7
B 89 54 42 1.2
C 89 54 33 1.0

Determine the most probable value of the angle. (KU)

 2 1
2
6835
(a) Standard error, 1st instrument Sx̄1 = + (0.020)2
400 000
= 0.026 m
  1
6835 2 2
Standard error, 2nd instrument Sx̄2 = + (0.030) 2
600 000
= 0.032 m

These values can now be used to weight the lengths and find their weighted means as shown below.

Length, L (m) Sx̄ Weight ratio Weight, W L×W

1st instrument 0.417 0.026 1/0.0262 = 1479 1.5 0.626
2nd instrument 0.398 0.032 1/0.0322 = 977 1 0.398
W = 2.5 1.024 = LW

1.024
∴ MPV = 6835 + = 6835.410 m
2.5
4. Surveying instruments
Surveying discipline deals with measurements which are obviously made using some tools.
These tools – called surveying tools / equipment – can be classified in terms of how they make
observations i.e. whether in direct contact with the objects in the field or from remote locations.
We have the classical surveying instruments such as the surveyor’s tape, total stations, and Level
machines. Quite improved instruments include robotic total stations and the GNSS receivers
which make it easy to collect point locations in the field. instruments such as aerial cameras and
LiDAR/Laser scanners carried on board aircraft collect data from a remote location i.e. not in
contact with the object.

Surveyors Tapes Measuring wheels:

Measuring wheels have a counting

mechanism that counts the number of
rotations and uses the circumference of the
wheel to calculate the distance covered.
Used for distance measurements
Electromagnetic Distance measuring (EDM) Laser meters
instrument

Uses a beam of laser light to measure

distances
Used for distance measurements using a
beam of infrared light (electromagnetic
waves) that is modulated at a controlled rate

Theodolite Total station

24
 measures horizontal
It’s a combination of theodolite and EDM
and vertical angles
machine. Measures horizontal and vertical
angles, slope and horizontal distances.
Levelling machine GNSS Receivers

Used for positioning i.e. measures locations

Measures elevations between points on the
of points on the earth’s surface using
earth surface.
geographic coordinate system.
Aerial Cameras UAV’s / Drone

Used for mapping. Images acquired are used

for topographical mapping Used for mapping
LiDAR/Laser Scanners

Used for 3D object mapping

25
5. SCALE
One of the main basic elements found in a Map is a scale. Most of the maps contain a scale.
However, if a map has no scale, it is simply a sketch. Scale on maps allows the user to infer the
actual sizes of, and distances between, depicted objects. A larger scale shows more detail, thus
requiring a larger map to show the same area.
What is a ‘map’?
A map is defined as a symbolized graphic representation of geographic reality based upon selection
and interpretation of features or themes by the map “creator” and used whenever spatial
relationships are essential.

Source: https://support.esri.com/en/other-resources/gis-dictionary

When do we use map?

A map is used whenever spatial relationships play an essential role to answer questions such as:
• Where (can I find it?)
• What (is the nature?)
• How and when (did it change?)
Maps perform two important functions:
• Storage medium for information
• Provides a picture of the world to help understand: Spatial patterns, Spatial
relationships and Environmental complexity
Although maps are most commonly used to depict geography, they may represent any space, real
or imagined, without regard to context or scale; e.g. Brain mapping, DNA mapping, and
extraterrestrial mapping.
Map Purpose

26
All maps, and other sources of spatial data, are generated with a purpose in mind. In most cases
that purpose is to turn data into information that will be communicated to a third party.
Map Scale.
Common use of scale in geography may be different from use of scale in Cartography. The
International Cartographic Association defines the term Cartography as the discipline dealing
with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps. Cartography is therefore the
whole process of mapping. Cartographic scale considers spatial extent and its definition is
concerned with the direct relationship between what is represented on a map and the physical
extent of that space in reality. Cartographic or representational scale is based on the
mathematical relationship (ratio) between the extent of the representation on map and that which
it represents in reality. Scale in this context helps one to make sense of the geographic data.
Definition:
Map scale is the relationship between a unit of length on a map and the corresponding length on
the ground.
Why is a scale necessary in a map?
A map is used to model the actual shape of Earth. Maps are drawn on paper and are always smaller
than the actual size of Earth or a part of it. In other words, original distances are represented on
maps according to a fixed ratio. The ratio of distance shown on the map and the actual distance on
earth is known as scale. e.g. on a map if distance between two points is 1 cm and distance between
those two places on earth is 5 kms, then the scale of map will be 1 cm equal to 5 kms. The scale
therefore provides a relationship between the measured ground surface and the one on the map.
We can easily understand the scale of map through air travel or observation. The view, we get
while sitting in a plane, flying thousands of meters high from surface, is a form of map.
Scale can be represented in different formats or ways on static maps or plans. These three ways
are:
i. Statement of Scale or verbal description
ii. Representative Fraction (R.F.) or Ratio scale or Numerical Fraction Method
or International Method
iii. Linear Scale or graphic scale or bar scale.

Source:
https://open.lib.umn.edu/mapping/
chapter/3-scale-and-projections/

27
6. Linear/Distance Measurements
Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying. Although frequently measured as
a spatial distance (sloping distance) in three-dimensional space, usually the horizontal component
is required.

Distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to a network of control points, to fix the
position of topographic detail by offsets or polar coordinates, to set out the position of a point in
construction work, etc.

The basic methods of measuring distance are, now, by taping or by electromagnetic (or electro-
optical) distance measurement, generally designated as EDM. For very rough reconnaissance,
surveys or approximate estimates pacing may be suitable.

For distances over 5 km, GPS satellite methods, which can measure the vectors between two points
accurate to 1 ppm are usually more suitable.

a) Pacing

Distances obtained by pacing are sufficiently accurate for many purposes in surveying,
engineering, geology, agriculture, forestry, and military field sketching. Pacing is also used to
detect blunders that may occur in making distance observations by more accurate methods.
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required distance. The length of
an individual’s pace must be determined first. This is best done by walking with natural steps
back and forth over a level course at least 100m long, and dividing the known distance by the
average number of steps. For short distances, the length of each pace is needed, but the number
of steps taken per 30m is desirable for checking long lines.

b) ODOMETER READINGS

An odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of known circumference to a distance.

Lengths measured by an odometer on a vehicle are suitable for some preliminary surveys in route-
location work. They also serve as rough checks on observations made by other methods. Other types of
measuring wheels are available and useful for determining short distances, particularly on curved lines.

c) Laser distance meter

28
 Laser distance meters send sharply focused light of a
certain wavelength to the measuring point using a laser
diode. There the light is reflected, hits the receiver next
to the laser diode and is then evaluated.

Because of the measuring principle, most laser

rangefinders can only measure the distances from about
5 cm. Only a very small measuring surface is required
for the measurement, and it increases with the increasing
distance. The control of the target point is possible due to the red-light spot.
To make it easier to see this red-light spot, especially at long distances
outdoors, laser vision glasses and target plates are recommended.

Many laser distance measuring devices can not only measure and save the
distances but also calculate areas and volumes from several measured
values , for example, sums or differences. The tilt measurement function is
also very helpful, as due to it not only the roof pitches can be measured, but
also the difficult-to-assess distances can be determined.
Source: URL: https://www.pce-instruments.com/

d) TAPES

Tapes come in a variety of lengths and materials. E.g. 10 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.

Linen or glass fibre tapes may be used for general use, where precision is not a prime consideration.
The linen tapes are made from high quality linen, combined with metal fibres to increase their
strength.

More precise versions of the above tapes are made of steel and graduated in millimetres.

For high-accuracy work, steel bands mounted in an open frame are used. They are standardized so
that they measure their nominal length at a designated temperature usually 20◦C and at a designated
applied tension usually between 50 N to 80 N. This information is clearly printed on the zero end
of the tape.

Figure 4.1 shows a sample of the equipment.

- For the most precise work, invar tapes made from 35% nickel and 65% steel are available. The
singular advantage of such tapes is that they have a negligible coefficient of expansion
compared with steel, and hence temperature variations are not critical. Their disadvantages are
that the metal is soft and weak, whilst the price is more than ten times that of steel tapes. An
alternative tape, called a Lovar tape, is roughly, midway between steel and invar.

29
 e) ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM)

The main instrument for surveyors on site today is the ‘total station’. It is an instrument that
combines the angle measurements that could be obtained with a traditional theodolite with
electronic distance measurements.

Taping distance, with all its associated problems, has been rendered obsolete for all baseline
measurement. Distance can now be measured easily, quickly and with great accuracy, regardless
of terrain conditions. Modern total stations as in Figure 4.12 contain algorithms for reducing the
slope distance to its horizontal and vertical components.

EDM measuring principles:

Although there are many EDM instruments available, there are basically only two methods of
measurement employed, namely the pulse method and the more popular phase difference
method.

pulse method:

30
If the time of departure of the pulse from gate A is tA and the time of its reception at gate B is tB,
then
(tB − tA) = Δt.
c = the velocity of light in the medium through which it travelled

D = the distance between instrument and target

Phase difference method:

31
7. Total station instrument
i. Parts of a Total Station Instrument
The upper part of the total station instrument, called the alidade, includes the telescope, graduated
circles, and all other elements necessary for measuring angles and distances.

Figure 1: Parts of a total station instrument with view of objective end of the telescope. (Courtesy Topcon Positioning Systems.)

32
 Parts of a total station instrument, with view of eyepiece end of telescope. (Courtesy Leica
Geosystems AG.)
ii. Characteristics of Total Station Instruments
Combines the following three basic components into one integral unit:
- an electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument,
- an electronic angle measuring component, and
- a computer or microprocessor.
Total stations can:
- Automatically observe horizontal and vertical angles, as well as slope distances from a
single setup.
- From these data they can compute horizontal and vertical distance components
instantaneously, elevations and coordinates of points sighted, and display the results on a
liquid crystal display (LCD).
- they can also store the data, either on board or in external data collectors connected to their
communication ports.
→ The telescope is an important part of a total station instrument.
→ EDM instruments integrated in total stations are small, they still have distance ranges adequate
for most work. Lengths up to about 4 km can be observed with a single prism, and even farther
with a triple prism.
→ Total station instruments are manufactured with two graduated circles, mounted in mutually
perpendicular planes.
→ The angle resolution of available total stations varies from as low as a half-second for precise
instruments suitable for control surveys, up to 20’’ for less expensive instruments made
specifically for construction work.
→ Once the instrument has been set up and a sighting has been made through the telescope, the
time required to make and display an angle and distance reading is approximately 2 to 4 sec
when a total station instrument is being operated in the normal mode, and less than 0.5 sec
when operated in the tracking mode.

33
 Total stations with their inbuilt EDM enable:
(1) Traversing over great distances, with much greater control
of swing errors.
(2) The inclusion of many more measured distances into
control networks, rendering classical triangulation obsolete. This
results in much greater control of scale error.
(3) Setting-out and photogrammetric control, over large areas,
by polar coordinates from a single base line.
(4) Deformation monitoring to sub-millimetre accuracies using
high-precision EDM, such as the Mekometer ME5000. This
instrument has a range of 8 km and an accuracy of ±0.2 mm ±0.2
mm/km of the distance measured ignoring un-modelled refraction
effects.

Corner-cube prism

In contrast to the total station with its EDM, which is a complex and sophisticated instrument,
the target is simply a glass prism designed to return the signal it receives back to the instrument it
came from. Imagine a cube of glass, which has been cut across its corner and the corner piece
retained. Figure 4.21(a) is a picture of a corner-cube prism and Figure 4.21(b) represents a
corner-cube prism drawn in two dimensions, i.e. with two internal faces 90◦ apart. The signal
enters through the front face of the prism and is refracted.

34
8. Positioning
Position of a point on the earth’s surface is usually described in two- or three-dimensions’
coordinates. These positions are derived from a mathematical surface, ellipsoid, that best fits the
earth’s surface. Position of a given point on the earth’s surface can be given in geographic
coordinates; longitudes, latitudes and orthometric heights or in rectangular plane
coordinate system; Eastings, northings, and orthometric height.

Positioning of a control point, source: Weiss, G., Weiss, E., Weiss, R., Labant, S., & Bartos, K. (2016).
Survey Control Points: Compatibility and Verification. Survey Control Points.

Position of a point on the earth’s surface is usually described in two- or three-dimensions

coordinates.

The field of Geodesy primarily deals with the determination of the shape and size of the earth, its
orientation in space and it’s the gravitational pull.

Since the earth’s surface is irregular, we need a mathematical surface to represent it so as to come
up with coordinates for locating points on the earth’s surface. Therefore, the fundamental problem
of geodesy is: that of defining a mathematical surface that approximates to the shape of the area
under consideration and then fitting and orientating it to the Earth’s surface. Such a surface is
referred to in surveying as a ‘reference ellipsoid’.

Reference Ellipsoid / spheroid

The various surfaces:

35
Earth’s surface

The Earth’s physical surface is a reality upon which the

surveying observations are made and points located. However,
due to its variable topographic surface and overall shape, it
connot be defined mathematically and so position cannot be
computed on its surface.

The geoid

An equipotential surface, approximately at Mean Sea Level.

The gravity potential is everywhere the same and the surface is
smoother than the physical surface of the Earth. It still
contains many irregularities which render it unsuitable for
the mathematical location of planimetric position.

The ellipsoid/spheroid

The ellipsoid of rotation is the closest mathematically

definable shape to the figure of the Earth. It is represented by
an ellipse rotated about its minor axis and is defined by its
semi-major axis a (Figure 5.4) or the flattening f. Although
the ellipsoid is a concept and not a physical reality, it
represents a smooth surface for which formulae can be
developed to compute ellipsoidal distance, azimuth and
ellipsoidal coordinates.

Sample ellipsoids:

Kenyan mapping system: Arc Datum (1960) on Clarke 1880 ellipsoid (a = 293.465, 1/f =
6378249.14480801)

Figure 5.5 illustrates the relationship of all three surfaces.

36
9. Levelling – theory and methods
Levelling is the most widely used method of obtaining the elevations of ground points relative to
a reference datum and is usually carried out as a separate procedure to those used in fixing
planimetric position.
The basic concept of levelling involves the measurement of vertical distance relative to a horizontal
line of sight. Hence it requires a graduated staff for the vertical measurements and an instrument
that will provide a horizontal line of sight.
Leveling results are used to:
(1) design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other facilities
having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;
(2) lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
(3) calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
(4) investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
(5) develop maps showing general ground configurations;
(6) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

37
Definitions

Vertical line. A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

Level surface. A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the
direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A body of
still water is the closest example of a level surface. Within local areas, level surfaces at different
heights are considered to be concentric. Level surfaces are also known as equipotential surfaces
since, for a particular surface, the potential of gravity is equal at every point on the surface.

Level line. A line in a level surface—therefore, a

curved line. A level line or level surface is one
which at all points is normal to the direction of
the force of gravity as defined by a freely
suspended plumb-bob.

Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the

local direction of gravity. In plane surveying, it is
a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.

Horizontal line. A horizontal line or surface is

one which is normal to the direction of the force
of gravity at a particular point.

Curvature and refraction errors:

Correction: wherever possible, staff readings should be kept at least 0.5 m above the ground, using
short observation distances (25 m) equalized for backsight and foresight.

38
Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the surface that is
arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero. This level surface is also known as a reference datum
since points using this datum have heights relative to this surface. The most commonly used datum
is that of mean sea level (MSL).

Mean sea level (MSL). The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages of tide

Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or object.
If the elevation of point A is 802.46 m, A is 802.46 m above the reference datum. The elevation
of a point is also called its height above the datum.

Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical
observations.
Bench mark (BM). A relatively permanent
object, natural or artificial, having a marked
point whose elevation above or below a
reference datum is known or assumed.
A series of permanent marks established called
bench marks accessed by users throughout the
country.
How were benchmarks established in Kenya?
A geodetic leveling programme was proposed
in 1947 but leveling was carried out between
1950 and 1958 in Kenya. The datum for all
heighting in Kenya is the mean sea level
referred to a tide gauge at Kilindini Harbour in
Mombasa. This gauge has however been submerged and a new one constructed and connected to
some fundamental bench marks. Up to date about 3570km has been precisely leveled, the last
70km having been carried out by Kenya institute of Surveying and Mapping during 1992 and 1993.
Leveling. The process of finding elevations of points or their differences in elevation.
Vertical control. A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established
throughout an area, also termed basic control or level control.
Reduced level (RL)
The RL of a point is its height above or below a reference datum.

39
10.Equipment for differential levels
The equipment used in the levelling
process comprises optical levels
and graduated staffs. Basically, the
optical level consists of a telescope
fitted with a spirit bubble or
automatic compensator to ensure
long horizontal sights onto the
vertically held graduated staff.

Categories of levels

Instruments used for differential leveling can be classified into four categories: dumpy levels,
tilting levels, automatic levels, and digital levels.
Although each differs somewhat in design, all have two common components: (1) a telescope to
create a line of sight and enable a reading to be taken on a graduated rod and (2) a system
to orient the line of sight in a horizontal plane.
Dumpy and tilting levels use level vials to orient their lines of sight, while automatic levels employ
automatic compensators. Digital levels also employ automatic compensators, but use bar-coded
rods for automated digital readings. Automatic levels are the type most commonly employed
today, although tilting levels are still used especially on projects requiring very precise work.
Digital levels are rapidly gaining prominence.
Total station instruments can also be used for differential leveling.

Optical levels

The types of level found in general use are the tilting, the automatic level, and digital levels.
(1) Tilting level
Tilting levels were used for the most precise work. With these instruments, an example of which
is shown in Figure 4.13, quick approximate leveling is achieved using a circular vial and the
leveling screws. The tilting feature saves time and increases accuracy, since only one screw need
be manipulated to keep the line of sight horizontal as the telescope is turned about a vertical axis.

40
 Fig 4.13. Parts of a tilting
level

(2) Automatic levels

The automatic level is easily recognized by its clean, uncluttered appearance. It does not have a
tilting screw or a tubular bubble as the telescope is rigidly fixed to the tribrach and the line of
sight is made horizontal by a compensator inside the telescope.

41
Parts of an automatic level. (Courtesy Leica Geosystems AG.)

Levelling staff

Levelling staffs are made of wood, metal or glass fibre and graduated in
metres and decimals. The alternate metre lengths are in black and red on a
white background.
The advantages of the automatic level over the tilting level are:
o Much easier to use, as it gives an erect image of the staff.
o Rapid operation, giving greater productivity.
o No chance of reading the staff without setting the bubble central, as can occur
with a tilting level.
o No bubble setting error.

(3) Digital levels

It is classified in the automatic category because it uses a pendulum compensator to level itself,
after an operator accomplishes rough leveling with a circular bubble. With its telescope and
crosshairs, the instrument could be used to obtain readings manually, just like any of the automatic
levels. However, this instrument is designed to operate by employing electronic digital image
processing. After leveling the instrument, its telescope is turned toward a special bar-coded rod
[Figure 4.16(b)] and focused. At the press of a button, the image of bar codes in the telescope’s
field of view is captured and processed. This processing consists of an onboard computer
comparing the captured image to the rod’s entire pattern, which is stored in memory. When a match
is found, which takes about 4 sec, the rod reading is displayed digitally. It can be recorded manually
or automatically stored in the instrument’s data collector.

42
11.Principle of levelling
The instrument is set up and correctly levelled in order to make the line of sight through the
telescope horizontal. If the telescope is turned through 360°, a horizontal plane of sight is swept
out. Vertical measurements from this plane, using a graduated levelling staff, enable the relative
elevations of ground points to be ascertained.
This sight onto A is termed a backsight
(BS) and the reduced level of the line
of sight is called the height of the
plane of collimation (HPC). Thus:
RLA + BS = HPC
The reading of 1.000 m onto the staff
at B is called a foresight (FS) and
shows the ground point B to be
1.000 m below HPC; therefore, its RL
= (103.000 − 1.000) = 102.000 m
AOD.
An alternative approach is to subtract
the FS from the BS.
If the result is positive then the difference is a rise from A to B, and if negative a fall, i.e.
(3.000 − 1.000) = +2.000 m rise from A to B;
therefore, RLB = 100.000 + 2.000 = 102.000 m AOD

43
Booking:

Rise and fall method:

44
Height of plane of collimation method

Reduction of levels

From Figure 2.19 realizing that the line of sight from the instrument at A is truly horizontal, it
can be seen that the higher reading of 2.5 at point 2A indicates that the point is lower than the
TBM by 1.0, giving 2A a level therefore of 59.5. This can be written as follows:

1.5 – 2.5 = – 1.0, indicating a fall of 1.0 from 1A to 2A

Level of 2A = 60.5 – 1.0 = 59.5

Similarly, between 2A and 3A, the higher reading on 3A shows it is 1.5 below 2A, thus:

2.5 – 4.0 = –1.5 (fall from 2A to 3A)

Level of 3A = level of 2A – 1.5 = 58.0

Finally, the lower reading on 4A shows it to be higher than 3A by 2.0, thus:

4.0 – 2.0 = + 2.0, indicating a rise from 3A to 4A

Level of 4A = level of 3A + 2.0 = 60.0

Now, knowing the reduced level (RL) of 4A, i.e. 60.0, the process can be repeated for the new
instrument position at B. This method of reduction is called the rise-and-fall (R-and-F) method.

Methods of booking

(1) Rise-and-fall
The following extract of booking is largely self-explanatory. Note that:
(a) Each reading is booked on a separate line except for the BS and FS at change points. The BS
is booked on the same line as the FS because it refers to the same point. As each line refers to a
specific point it should be noted in the remarks column.
(b) Each reading is subtracted from the previous one, i.e. 2A from 1A, then 3A from 2A, 4A from
3A and stop; the procedure recommencing for the next instrument station, 2B from 1B and so on.

45
(c) Important checks must be applied to the above reductions, namely:

The sum of BS – the sum of FS = sum of rises – sum of falls

= last reduced level – first reduced level
These checks are shown in the above table. It should be emphasized that they are nothing more
than checks on the arithmetic of reducing the levelling results, they are in no way indicative of
the accuracy of fieldwork.
(d) It follows from the above that the first two checks should be carried out and verified before
working out the reduced levels (RL).
(e) Closing error = 0.1, and can be assessed only by connecting the levelling into a BM of known
and proved value or connecting back into the starting BM.

(2) Height of collimation

This is the name given to an alternative method of booking. The reduced levels are found simply
by subtracting the staff readings from the reduced level of the line of sight (plane of collimation).
In Figure 3.20, for instance, the height of the plane of collimation (HPC) at A is obviously
(60.5+1.5) = 62.0; now 2A is 2.5 below this plane, so its level must be (62.0−2.5) = 59.5;
similarly, for 3A and 4A to give 58.0 and 60.0 respectively. Now the procedure is repeated for B.
The tabulated form shows how simple this process is:

Thus, it can be seen that:

46
(a) BS is added to RL to give HPC, i.e. 1.5 + 60.5 = 62.0.
(b) Remaining staff readings are subtracted from HPC to give the RL.
(c) Procedure repeated for next instrument set-up at B, i.e. 3.0 + 60.0 = 63.0.
(d) Two checks same as R-and-F method, i.e.:

sum of BS − sum of FS = last RL− first RL

(e) The above two checks are not complete; for instance, if when taking 2.5 from 62.0 to get RL
of 59.5, one wrote it as 69.5, this error of 10 would remain undetected. Thus the intermediate
sights are not checked by those procedures in (d) above and the following cumbersome check
must be carried out:

sum of all the RL except the first = (sum of each HPC multiplied by the number of IS or FS
taken from it) − (sum of IS and FS)

e.g. 362.0 = 62.0 × 3 + 63.0 × 2 + 68.0 × 1 − (12.0 + 6.0)

(3) Inverted sights

Figure 3.22 shows inverted sights at B, C and D to the underside of a structure. It is obvious
from the drawing that the levels of these points are obtained by simply adding the staff readings
to the HPC to give B = 65.0, C = 63.0 and D = 65.0; E is obtained in the usual way and equals
59.5. However, the problem of inverted sights is completely eliminated if one simply treats them
as negative quantities.

In the checks, inverted sights are treated as negative quantities; for example check for IS in HPC
method gives:
252.5 = (62.0 × 4.0) − (−7.0 + 2.5)
= (248.0) − (−4.5) = 248.0 + 4.5 = 252.5

47
Comparison of methods
The rise-and-fall method of booking is recommended as it affords a complete arithmetical check
on all the observations. Although the HPC method appears superior where there are a lot of
intermediate sights, it must be remembered that there is no simple straightforward check on their
reduction.
The HPC method is useful when setting out levels on site. For instance, assume that a
construction level, for setting formwork, of 20 m AOD is required. A BS to an adjacent TBM
results in an HPC of 20.834 m; a staff reading of 0.834 would then fix the bottom of the staff at
the required level.

Sources of Error

Any and all measurement processes will contain errors. In the case of levelling, these errors will
be
(1) instrumental,
(2) observational and
(3) natural.

48
 Vertical control 63

Fig. 3.22 Inverted sights

In the checks, inverted sights are treated as negative quantities; for example check for IS in HPC method
gives:

252.5 = (62.0 × 4.0) − (−7.0 + 2.5)

= (248.0) − (−4.5) = 248.0 + 4.5 = 252.5

3.7.4 Comparison of methods

The rise-and-fall method of booking is recommended as it affords a complete arithmetical check on all the
observations. Although the HPC method appears superior where there are a lot of intermediate sights, it
must be remembered that there is no simple straightforward check on their reduction.
The HPC method is useful when setting out levels on site. For instance, assume that a construction
level, for setting formwork, of 20 m AOD is required. A BS to an adjacent TBM results in an HPC of
20.834 m; a staff reading of 0.834 would then fix the bottom of the staff at the required level.

3.8 SOURCES OF ERROR

All measurements have error. In the case of levelling, these errors will be instrumental, observational and
natural.

3.8.1 Instrumental errors

(1) The main source of instrumental error is residual collimation error. As already indicated, keeping the
horizontal lengths of the backsights and foresights at each instrument position equal will cancel this
error. Where the observational distances are unequal, the error will be proportional to the difference
in distances.
The easiest approach to equalizing the sight distances is to pace from backsight to instrument and
then set up the foresight change point the same number of paces away from the instrument.
(2) Parallax error has already been described.
(3) Staff graduation errors may result from wear and tear or repairs and the staffs should be checked
against a steel tape. Zero error of the staff, caused by excessive wear of the base, will cancel out on
backsight and foresight differences. However, if two staffs are used, errors will result unless calibration
corrections are applied.
(4) In the case of the tripod, loose fixings will cause twisting and movement of the tripod head. Overtight
fixings make it difficult to open out the tripod correctly. Loose tripod shoes will also result in unstable
set-ups.
64 Engineering Surveying

3.8.2 Observational errors

(1) Levelling involves vertical measurements relative to a horizontal plane so it is important to ensure that
the staff is held strictly vertical.
It is often suggested that one should rock the staff back and forth in the direction of the line of
sight and accept the minimum reading as the truly vertical one. However, as shown in Figure 3.23,
this concept is incorrect when using a flat-bottomed staff on flat ground, due to the fact that the staff
is not being tilted about its face. Thus it is preferable to use a staff bubble, which should be checked
frequently with the aid of a plumb-bob.
(2) There may be errors in reading the staff, particularly when using a tilting level which gives an inverted
image. These errors may result from inexperience, poor observation conditions or overlong sights.
Limit the length of sight to about 25–30 m, to ensure the graduations are clearly defined.
(3) Ensure that the staff is correctly extended or assembled. In the case of extending staffs, listen for the
click of the spring joint and check the face of the staff to ensure continuity of readings. This also
applies to jointed staffs.
(4) Do not move the staff off the CP position, particularly when turning it to face the new instrument
position. Always use a well defined and stable position for CPs. Levelling plates (Figure 3.24) should
be used on soft ground.

r1 r2 > r3 < r4 =

Fig. 3.23 The effect of rocking the staff on staff readings r1 , r2 , r3 , r4

Fig. 3.24 Levelling plate

 Vertical control 65

(5) Avoid settlement of the tripod, which may alter the height of collimation between sights or tilt the line
of sight. Set up on firm ground, with the tripod feet firmly thrust well into the ground. On pavements,
locate the tripod shoes in existing cracks or joins. In precise levelling, the use of two staffs helps to
reduce this effect.
Observers should also refrain from touching or leaning on the tripod during observation.
(6) Booking errors can, of course, ruin good field work. Neat, clear, correct booking of field data is
essential in any surveying operation. Typical booking errors in levelling are entering the values in
the wrong columns or on the wrong lines, transposing figures such as 3.538 to 3.583 and making
arithmetical errors in the reduction process. Very often, the use of pocket calculators simply enables
the booker to make the errors quicker.
To avoid this error source, use neat, legible figures; read the booked value back to the observer and
have them check the staff reading again; reduce the data as it is recorded.
(7) When using a tilting level remember to level the tubular bubble with the tilting screw prior to each
new staff reading. With the automatic level, carefully centre the circular bubble and make sure the
compensator is not sticking.
Residual compensator errors are counteracted by centring the circular bubble with the instrument
pointing backwards at the first instrument set-up and forward at the next. This procedure is continued
throughout the levelling.

3.8.3 Natural errors

(1) Curvature and refraction have already been dealt with. Their effects are minimized by equal observation
distances to backsight and foresight at each set-up and readings more than 0.5 m above the ground.
(2) Wind can cause instrument vibration and make the staff difficult to hold in a steady position. Precise
levelling is impossible in strong winds. In tertiary levelling keep the staff to its shortest length and use
a wind break to shelter the instrument.
(3) Heat shimmer can make the staff reading difficult if not impossible and may make it necessary to delay
the work to an overcast day. In hot sunny climes, carry out the work early in the morning or in the
evening.
Careful consideration of the above error sources, combined with regularly calibrated equipment, will
ensure the best possible results but will never preclude random errors of observation.

3.9 CLOSURE TOLERANCES

It is important to realize that the amount of misclosure in levelling can only be assessed by:
(1) Connecting the levelling back to the BM from which it started, or
(2) Connecting into another BM of known and proved value.
When the misclosure is assessed, one must then decide if it is acceptable or not.
In many cases the engineer may make the decision based on his/her knowledge of the project and the
tolerances required.
Alternatively the permissible criteria may be based on the distance levelled or the number of set-ups
involved.
A common criterion used to assess the misclosure (E) is:
1
E = m(K) 2 (3.4)
66 Engineering Surveying

where K = distance levelled in kilometres, m = a constant with units of millimetres, and E = the allowable
misclosure in millimetres.
The value of m may vary from 2 mm for precise levelling to 12 mm or more for engineering levelling.
In many cases in engineering, the distance involved is quite short but the number of set-ups quite high,
in which case the following criterion may be used:
1
E = m(n) 2 (3.5)
where n = the number of set-ups, and m = a constant in millimetres.
As this criterion would tend to be used only for construction levelling, the value for m may be a matter
of professional judgement. A value frequently used is ±5 mm.

3.10 ERROR DISTRIBUTION

In previous levelling examples in this chapter misclosures have been shown. The misclosure cannot
be ignored and the error must be distributed among the points concerned. In the case of a levelling
circuit, a simple method of distribution is to allocate the error in proportion to the distance levelled.
For instance, consider a levelling circuit commencing from a BM at A, to establish other BMs at B, C,
D and E (Figure 3.25) for which the heights have been computed without taking the misclosure into
account.
On completing the circuit the observed value for the BM at A is 20.018 m compared, with its known
and hence starting value of 20.000 m, so the misclosure is 0.018 m. The distance levelled is 5.7 km.
Considering the purpose of the work, the terrain and observational conditions, it is decided to adopt
1
a value for m of 12 mm. Hence the acceptable misclosure is 12(5.7) 2 = 29 mm, so the levelling is
acceptable.
The difference in heights is corrected by (0.018/5.7) × distance in kilometres travelled. Therefore
correction to AB = −0.005 m, to BC = −0.002 m, to CD = −0.003 m, to DE = −0.006 m and to
EA = −0.002 m. The values of the BMs will then be B = 28.561 m, C = 35.003 m, D = 30.640 m,
E = 22.829 m and A = 20.000 m.
In many instances, a closing loop with known distances is not the method used and each reduced level
is adjusted in proportion to the cumulative number of set-ups to that point from the start. Consider the table

Fig. 3.25 Levelling circuit

 Vertical control 67

below which shows the observations for a short section of levelling between two bench marks of known
height:

BS IS FS Rise Fall R.L. Adj. Final R.L. Remarks

1.361 20.842 20.842 TBM ‘A’

2.844 1.483 19.359 –0.002 19.357
2.018 0.826 20.185 –0.002 20.183
0.855 3.015 0.997 19.188 –0.002 19.186 C.P.
0.611 0.244 19.432 –0.004 19.428
2.741 1.805 1.194 18.238 –0.004 18.234 C.P.
2.855 1.711 1.030 19.268 –0.006 19.262 C.P.
1.362 1.493 20.761 –0.008 20.753
2.111 0.749 20.012 –0.008 20.004
0.856 1.255 21.267 –0.008 21.259
2.015 1.159 20.108 –0.008 20.100 TBM ‘B’ (20.100)

7.812 8.546 4.848 5.582 20.842

7.812 4.848 20.108

0.734 0.734 0.734 Arith. check

1
(1) There are four set-ups, and therefore E = 5(4) 2 = 0.010 m. As the misclosure is only 0.008 m, the
levelling is acceptable.
(2) The correction per set-up is (0.008/4) = −0.002 m and is cumulative as shown in the table.

3.11 LEVELLING APPLICATIONS

Of all the surveying operations used in construction, levelling is the most common. Practically every
aspect of a construction project requires some application of the levelling process. The more general are
as follows.

3.11.1 Sectional levelling

This type of levelling is used to produce ground profiles for use in the design of roads, railways and
pipelines.
In the case of such projects, the route centre-line is set out using pegs at 10 m, 20 m or 30 m intervals.
Levels are then taken at these peg positions and at critical points such as sudden changes in ground profiles,
road crossings, ditches, bridges, culverts, etc. A plot of these elevations is called a longitudinal section.
When plotting, the vertical scale is exaggerated compared with the horizontal, usually in the ratio of 10 : 1.
The longitudinal section is then used in the vertical design process to produce formation levels for the
proposed route design (Figure 3.26).
Whilst the above process produces information along a centre-line only, cross-sectional levelling extends
that information at 90◦ to the centre-line for 20–30 m each side. At each centre-line peg the levels are taken
to all points of interest on either side. Where the ground is featureless, levels at 5 m intervals or less are
taken. In this way a ground profile at right angles to the centre-line is obtained. When the design template
68 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 3.26 Longitudinal section of proposed route

showing the road details and side slopes is plotted at formation level, a cross-sectional area is produced,
which can later be used to compute volumes of earthwork. When plotting cross-sections the vertical and
horizontal scales are the same, to permit easy scaling of the area and side slopes (Figure 3.27).
From the above it can be seen that sectional levelling also requires the measurement of horizontal distance
between the points whose elevations are obtained. As the process involves the observation of many points,
it is important to connect to existing BMs at regular intervals. In most cases of route construction, one of
the earliest tasks is to establish BMs at 100 m intervals throughout the area of interest.
Levelling which does not require the measurement of distance, such as establishing BMs at known
positions, is sometimes called ‘fly levelling’.

3.11.2 Contouring

A contour is a horizontal curve connecting points of equal elevation. Contours graphically represent, in a
two-dimensional format on a plan or map, the shape or morphology of the terrain. The vertical distance
between contour lines is called the contour interval. Depending on the accuracy required, they may be
plotted at 0.1 m to 0.5 m intervals in flat terrain and at 1 m to 10 m intervals in undulating terrain. The
interval chosen depends on:
(1) The type of project involved; for instance, contouring an airstrip requires an extremely small contour
interval.
(2) The type of terrain, flat or undulating.
(3) The cost, for the smaller the interval the greater the amount of field data required, resulting in greater
expense.
Contours are generally well understood so only a few of their most important properties will be
outlined here.
(1) Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
(2) The horizontal separation between contour lines indicates the steepness of the ground. Close spacing
defines steep slopes, wide spacing gentle slopes.
(3) Highly irregular contours define rugged, often mountainous terrain.
 Vertical control 69

Fig. 3.27 Cross-section No. 3 at chainage 360.000 m

(4) Concentric closed contours represent hills or hollows, depending on the increase or decrease in
elevation.
(5) The slope between contour lines is assumed to be regular.
(6) Contour lines crossing a stream form V’s pointing upstream.
(7) The edge of a body of water forms a contour line.
Contours are used by engineers to:
(1) Construct longitudinal sections and cross-sections for initial investigation.
(2) Compute volumes.
(3) Construct route lines of constant gradient.
(4) Delineate the limits of constructed dams, road, railways, tunnels, etc.
(5) Delineate and measure drainage areas.
If the ground is reasonably flat, the optical level can be used for contouring using either the direct or
indirect methods. In steep terrain it is more economical to use other heighting, as outlined later.

(1) Direct contouring

In this method the actual contour is pegged out on the ground and its planimetric position located. A back-
sight is taken to an appropriate BM and the HPC of the instrument is obtained, say 34.800 m AOD. A
staff reading of 0.800 m would then place the foot of the staff at the 34 m contour level. The staff is then
moved throughout the terrain area, with its position pegged at every 0.800 m reading. In this way the 34 m
contour is located. Similarly a staff reading of 1.800 m gives the 33 m contour and so on. The planimetric
position of the contour needs to be located using an appropriate survey technique.
70 Engineering Surveying

This method, although quite accurate, is tedious and uneconomical and could never be used over a
large area. It is ideal, however, in certain construction projects that require excavation to a specific single
contour line.

(2) Indirect contouring

This technique requires establishing a grid of intersecting evenly spaced lines over the site. A theodolite and
steel tape may be used to set out the boundary of the grid. The grid spacing will depend upon the roughness
of the ground and the purpose for which the data are required. All the points of intersection throughout the
grid may be pegged or shown by means of paint from a spray canister. Alternatively ranging rods at the
grid intervals around the periphery would permit the staff holder, with the aid of an optical square, to align
himself with appropriate pairs and thus fix each grid intersection point, for example, alignment with rods
B-B and 2-2 fixes point B2 (Figure 3.28). Alternatively assistants at ranging rods B and 2 could help to
line up the staff holder. When the RLs of all the intersection points are obtained, the contours are located
by linear interpolation between the levels, on the assumption of a uniform ground slope between each pair
of points. The interpolation may be done arithmetically using a pocket calculator, or graphically.
Consider grid points B2 and B3 with reduced levels of 30.20 m and 34.60 m respectively and a horizontal
grid interval of 20 m (Figure 3.29). The height difference between B2 and B3 is 4.40 m and the 31 m contour
is 0.80 m above B2. The horizontal distance of the 31 m contour from B2 = x1

where (20/4.40) = 4.545 m = K

and x1 = K × 0.80 m = 3.64 m

Similarly for the 32 m contour:

x2 = K × 1.80 m = 8.18 m

and so on, where (20/4.40) is a constant K, multiplied each time by the difference in height from the
reduced level of B2 to the required contour value. For the graphical interpolation, a sheet of transparent
paper (Figure 3.30) with equally spaced horizontal lines is used. The paper is placed over the two points
and rotated until B2 obtains a value of 30.20 m and B3 a value of 34.60 m. Any appropriate scale can be
used for the line separation. As shown, the 31, 32, 33 and 34 m contour positions can now be pricked
through onto the plan.

Fig. 3.28 Grid layout for contouring

 Vertical control 71

Fig. 3.29 Contour calculations

Fig. 3.30 Graphical contour plotting

This procedure is carried out on other lines and the equal contour points joined up to form the contours
required.
An alternative way of creating the grid intersections that does not require the use of an optical square
is to set out the ranging rods as in Figure 3.31. In this case it is important that the pairs of ranging rods at
A, B, . . . 1, 2, etc are set out precisely. However once set out, the staff holder can find position much more
easily.

3.12 RECIPROCAL LEVELLING

When obtaining the relative levels of two points on opposite sides of a wide gap such as a river, it is
impossible to keep the length of sights short and equal. Collimation error, Earth curvature and refraction
affect the longer sight much more than the shorter one. In order to minimize these effects, the method of
reciprocal levelling is used, as illustrated in Figure 3.32.
If the instrument near A observes a backsight onto A and a foresight onto B, the difference in elevation
between A and B is:
HAB = x2 − x1 − (c − r)
72 Engineering Surveying

A B C D E F

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

A B C D E F

Fig. 3.31 Alternative Grid layout for contouring

where: x1 = BS on A
x2 = FS on B
(c − r) = the combined effect of curvature and refraction
(with collimation error intrinsically built into r)
Similarly with the instrument moved to near B:

HAB = y1 − y2 + (c − r)
where y1 = BS on B

y2 = FS on A

then 2 HAB = (x2 − x1 ) + (y1 − y2 )

1
and HAB = [(x2 − x1 ) + (y1 − y2 )] (3.6)
2

This proves that the mean of the difference in level obtained with the instrument near A and then with the
instrument near B is free from the errors due to curvature, refraction and collimation error. Random errors
of observation will still be present, however.
Equation (3.6) assumes the value of refraction is equal in both cases. Refraction is a function of
temperature and pressure and so varies with time. Thus refraction may change during the time taken to
transport the instrument from side A to side B. To preclude this it is advisable to use two levels and take
simultaneous reciprocal observations. However, this procedure creates the problem of each instrument
having a different residual collimation error. The instruments should therefore be interchanged and the
whole procedure repeated. The mean of all the values obtained will then give the most probable value for
the difference in level between A and B.
 Vertical control 73

Fig. 3.32 Reciprocal levelling

3.13 PRECISE LEVELLING

Precise levelling may be required in certain instances in construction such as in deformation monitoring,
the provision of precise height control for large engineering projects such as long-span bridges, dams
and hydroelectric schemes and in mining subsidence measurements. For example, a dam that has been
in place for many years is unlikely to be moving. However, should the dam fail the results would be
catastrophic for those on the downstream side. Being under the pressure of water when full, the dam may
be liable to distortion. The behaviour of the dam must therefore be monitored. One way of monitoring
any vertical movement along the dam is by levelling. Since early warning of small movement is required,
74 Engineering Surveying

and since conclusions about movement must be made with statistical confidence, the levelling must be
very precise.
There is more to precise levelling than precise levels. High quality equipment is very important, but so
is the method by which it is used. Indeed the two components of precise levelling are precise equipment
and precise procedures. Precise levelling uses the same principles as ordinary levelling but with:
(1) Higher quality instruments and more accurate staves
(2) More rigorous observing techniques
(3) Restricted climatic and environmental conditions
(4) Refined booking and reduction
(5) Least squares adjustment for a levelling net

3.13.1 Precise invar staff

The precise levelling staff has its graduations precisely marked (and checked by laser interferometry) on
invar strips, which are attached to wooden or aluminium frames. The strip is rigidly fixed to the base of
the staff and held in position by a spring-loaded tensioning device at the top. This arrangement provides
support for the invar strip without restraining it in any way.
Usually there are two scales on each staff, offset from each other by a fixed amount (Figure 3.33).
The staff is placed upon a change plate at intermediate stations. A conventional levelling change plate is
small and light and is designed to give a firm platform for the staff on soft ground. Precise levelling should
only ever take place on firm ground and the precise levelling change plate is designed to be unmoving on
a hard surface. It is therefore heavy. The feet are rounded so that they do not slowly sink or heave when
placed on tarmac. The top is smooth, round and polished. The change plate in Figure 3.34 is made from a
solid piece of steel and weighs about 10 kilograms.

Fig. 3.33 Segment of a precise levelling staff

 Vertical control 75

Fig. 3.34 Precise levelling change plate

For the most precise work, two staffs are used; in which case they should be carefully matched in every
detail. A circular bubble built into the staff is essential to ensure verticality during observation. The staff
should be supported by means of steadying poles or handles.
(1) The staff should have its circular bubble tested at frequent intervals using a plumb-bob.
(2) Warping of the staff can be detected by stretching a fine wire from end to end.
(3) Graduation and zero error can be counteracted by regular calibration.
(4) For the highest accuracy a field thermometer should measure the temperature of the strip in order to
apply scale corrections.

3.13.2 Instruments

The instruments used should be precise levels of the highest accuracy. They should provide high-quality
resolution with high magnification (×40) and be capable of being adjusted to remove any significant
collimation. This may be achieved with a highly sensitive tubular bubble with a large radius of curvature
that gives a greater horizontal bubble movement per angle of tilt. In the case of the automatic level a highly
refined compensator would be necessary.
In either case a parallel plate micrometer, fitted in front of the object lens, would be used to obtain
submillimetre resolution on the staff.
The instrument’s cross-hairs may be as shown in Figure 3.35(a). The distance that the staff is away
from the instrument will affect which side of the cross-hairs is to be used. If the staff is far away use the
normal horizontal hair, right-hand side of diagram. If the staff is close, the mark on the staff will appear
too large to be bisected accurately. By comparing the two white wedges formed by the sloping cross-hairs
and the mark on the staff, see the arrows in Figure 3.35(b) where the mark on the staff is not correctly
aligned and Figure 3.35(c) where it is, a more precise setting of the micrometer can be made.
76 Engineering Surveying

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.35 Precise level cross-hairs

3.13.3 Parallel plate micrometer

For precise levelling, the estimation of 1 mm is not sufficiently accurate. A parallel plate glass micrometer
in front of the object lens enables readings to be made direct to 0.1 mm, and estimated to 0.01 mm. The
parallel plate micrometer works by refracting the image of a staff graduation to make it coincident with the
cross-hair. There is, therefore, no estimation of the position of the cross-hair with respect to the graduation.
The principle of the attachment is seen from Figure 3.36. Had the parallel plate been vertical the line of sight
would have passed through without deviation and the reading would have been 1.026 m, the final figure
being estimated. However, by manipulating the micrometer the parallel plate is tilted until the line of sight is
displaced to the nearest division marked on the staff, which is 1.02 m. The rotation of the micrometer drum
is proportional to the displacement of the image of the staff. The amount of displacement s is measured
on the micrometer and added to the exact reading to give 1.02647 m, only the last decimal place is
estimated.
It can be seen from Figure 3.36 that the plate could have been moved in the opposite direction, displacing
the line of sight up. Since the parallel plate micrometer run is normally equal to the gap between two
successive divisions on the staff it will not be possible to gain coincidence on more than one division.
The displacement is related to the rotation of the parallel plate as follows. In Figure 3.37 the plate pivots
about A. The displacement is BC and the rotation is equal to the angle of incidence i. The thickness of the
plate is t and the ray of light from the staff is refracted by an angle r. µ is the refractive index of the glass
of the plate.

Displacement = BC = AB sin(i − r)

Fig. 3.36 Parallel plate micrometer

 Vertical control 77

C i

r A
B

Fig. 3.37 Parallel plate displacement

But AB = t sec r so
Displacement = t sin(i − r) sec r

= t(sin i cos r − cos i sin r) sec r

= t(sin i − cos i sin r sec r)

But from Snell’s Law of refraction sin i = µ sin r. So upon substitution and rearrangement the equation
becomes
 1 1

Displacement = t sin i 1 − (1 − sin2 i) 2 (µ2 − sin2 i)− 2

If i is small then sin2 i is negligible compared with 1 or µ2 and sin i = i radians. So


Displacement = t 1 − µ−1 i
Since t and µ are fixed properties of the plate then displacement is directly proportional to rotation. Parallel
plate micrometers are also manufactured for use with 5 mm graduations.

3.13.4 Field procedure

At the beginning and end of each levelling run a stable and precise benchmark is required. Intermediate
points are not observed. To avoid accidental damage or vandalism wall mounted benchmarks can be
removed from the wall leaving the barrel, which has been fixed with epoxy resin, capped for protection
(Figure 3.38).
The size of the levelling team depends upon the observing conditions and the equipment available.
In ordinary levelling an observer and staff holder are required. In precise levelling there are two staves and
therefore two staff holders are required. If a programmed data logger is available then the observer can
also do the booking. If the observations are to be recorded on paper a booker should also be employed.
The booker’s task, other than booking, is to do a series of quality control checks at the end of each set
of observations, before moving to the next levelling bay. Finally, in sunny weather, an umbrella holder
is required because it is necessary to shield the instrument and tripod from the heating effects of the
sun’s rays.
78 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 3.38 Wall mounted benchmark

Just as with ordinary levelling, a two-peg test is required to confirm that the instrumental collimation is
acceptable. Precise levelling procedures are designed to minimize the effect of collimation, but even so,
only a well-adjusted instrument should be used.
Precise level lines should follow communication routes where possible because they generally avoid
steep gradients; they are accessible and have hard surfaces. However, there may be vibration caused by
traffic, especially if using an automatic level.
The following procedures should be adhered to when carrying out precise levelling:

(1) Precise levelling can be manpower intensive, and therefore expensive to undertake. It is important
to carry out a full reconnaissance of the proposed levelling route prior to observations being taken to
ensure that the best possible route has been chosen.
(2) End and intermediate benchmarks should be constructed well before levelling starts to prevent settling
during levelling operations.
(3) Steep slopes are to be avoided because of the unequal and uncertain refraction effects on the tops and
bottoms of staves.
(4) Long lines should be split into workable sections, usually each section will not be more than about
3 km, because that is about as much as a team can do in one day. There must be a benchmark at
each end of the line to open and close on. The length of each line will depend upon terrain, transport,
accommodation and other logistical considerations.
(5) Each section is to be treated as a separate line of levelling and is checked by forward and backward
levelling. This will isolate errors and reduce the amount of re-levelling required in the case of an
unacceptable misclosure.
(6) On each section, if the forward levelling takes place in the morning of day 1, then the backward
levelling should take place in the afternoon or evening of day 2. This will ensure that increasing
refraction on one part of the line in one direction will be replaced by decreasing refraction when
working in the other direction. This will help to compensate for errors due to changing refraction
effects.
(7) On bright or sunny days an observing umbrella should be held over the instrument and tripod to avoid
differential heating of the level and of the tripod legs.
(8) Take the greatest care with the base plate of the staff. Keep it clean. Place it carefully onto the change
plate and do not drop the staff. This will avoid any change in zero error of the staff. When the staff
is not being used, it should be rested upon the staff-man’s clean boot.
 Vertical control 79

(9) The distances of foresight and backsight must be as nearly equal as possible so as to limit the effect
of the Earth’s curvature, refraction and bad instrumental collimation. This will also avoid the need
to re-focus the level between sightings.
(10) Take care when levelling along roads or railways. Stop levelling when traffic or vibrations are heavy.
When the staff is not being used, it should be rested upon the staff-man’s clean boot. Vibration may
damage the staff base plate and so change its zero error.
(11) On tarmac and soft ground the instrument or staff may rise after it has been set up. This may be
apparent to the observer but not by the staff person.
(12) In gusty or windy conditions stop levelling because there will be uncertainty in the readings. In variable
weather conditions consider levelling at night.
(13) The bottom 0.5 m of the staff should not to be used because of unknown and variable refraction
effects near the ground.
(14) If a precise automatic level is to be used, it should be lightly tapped and rotated before each reading
to ensure that the compensator is freely operative. This will reduce errors by ensuring that the
compensator always comes from the same direction. Some automatic levels have a press button for
this purpose.
(15) The rounded centre on the change plate should be kept polished and smooth to ensure that the same
staff position is taken up each time it is used.
(16) The change plate must be firmly placed and not knocked or kicked between foresight and backsight
readings. Remember there is no check on the movement of a change plate between these observations.
The staff holder should stand clear between observations.
(17) The observation to the back staff must be followed immediately by an observation to the forward
staff, both on one scale. This is to ensure that refraction remains constant during the forward and
back observations of one bay. Then, an observation to the forward staff is followed immediately by
an observation to the back staff on the other scale. This procedure helps to compensate for unknown
changes in refraction, by balancing the errors. Using two double scale rods the sequence of observation
would be:
(1) BS left-hand scale on staff A
(2) FS left-hand scale on staff B
(3) FS right-hand scale on staff B
(4) BS right-hand scale on staff A

Then (1)−(2) = H1 and (4)−(3) = H2 ; if these differences agree within the tolerances specified,
the mean is accepted. Staff A is now leapfrogged to the next position and the above procedure repeated
starting with staff A again (Figure 3.39).
(18) If the back staff is observed first at one set-up, then the forward staff is observed first at the
next set-up. This ensures that changing refraction will affect each successive bay in an equal and

Fig. 3.39 Staff leapfrog

80 Engineering Surveying

opposite manner. The order of observations this time will be:

(1) FS left-hand scale on staff A
(2) BS left-hand scale on staff B
(3) BS right-hand scale on staff B
(4) FS right-hand scale on staff A
Note that in each case the first observation of a bay is to the same staff, which is alternately the back
and then the forward staff.
(19) The same staff that was used for the opening backsight must also be used for the closing foresight.
This will eliminate the effect of different zero errors on the two staves. This means that there must
always be an even number of set-ups on any line.
(20) Levelling should always be carried out in both directions, forward and back. If, on the forward
levelling, the A staff was used to open and close the line, then the B staff should be used to open and
close the line on the backward levelling. This will equalize the number of readings on each staff.
(21) Lines of sight should not exceed 50 m, especially in haze, or on sloping ground. This will minimize
the effects of refraction, curvature of the Earth and difficulty of reading the staff. A good average
length of sight is 35 m.
(22) Use the procedure already outlined for levelling the circular bubble on automatic levels. This will
happen as a matter of course if the telescope is aimed at staff A each time when centring the circular
bubble.

3.13.5 Booking and computing

Figure 3.40 shows a sample of precise levelling observations. Note the order in which the observations
are made and that it agrees with paragraphs (17) and (18) above. Once the observations are complete and

0.00070 m?
∆ (R–L) <±

∆ Distances
Distances
Back Back Back Back Back Back Fwd Fwd Fwd Fwd Fwd Run Run

<50 m?

<±0.3 m?
Staff Dist Left Right R–L R+L Dist Left Right R–L R+L Diff Diff
A/B Dist Height

A 30.1 0.85419 4.01683 3.16264 4.87102 30.2 2.44140 5.60412 3.16272 8.04552 +0.1 −1.58725 ✓ ✓ ✓

B 30.5 0.21760 3.38033 3.16273 3.59793 30.3 2.09982 5.26243 3.16261 7.36225 −0.1 −3.46941 ✓ ✓ ✓

A 29.7 1.10329 4.26617 3.16288 5.36946 29.8 1.71900 4.88162 3.16262 6.60062 0.0 −4.08499 ✓ ✓ ✓

B 30.1 1.42299 4.58562 3.16263 6.00861 30.2 1.45819 4.62135 3.16316 6.07954 +0 .1 −4.12046 ✓ ✓ ✓

The order of making the observations

A 1 3 6 2 4 5

B 1 4 5 2 3 6

Fig. 3.40 Precise levelling observations

 Vertical control 81

before the back staff and the instrument leapfrog forward the following reductions and quality checks are
made. Examples from the fourth line of the observations are shown.
(1) Compute the Right minus Left readings for the back staff and the forward staff. Because these are
constants of the invar strips they should be the same. Check that they are within 0.00070 m of each other.

Back R − L = 4.58562 − 1.42299 = 3.16263

Forward R − L = 4.62135 − 1.45819 = 3.16316

Check 0.0007 > (3.16263 − 3.16316 = −0.00053) > −0.0007. It is.

(2) Check that the forward and back distances are both less than 50 m and that they agree to within 0.3 m
of each other.

Distances are 30.1 and 30.2.

(3) Compute the Running Difference Distance as the forward − back distance + the previous value. And
make sure that it stays close to 0.0 m by adjusting future forward or back distances as appropriate.

30.2 − 30.1 + 0.0 = +0.1

(4) Compute the Right plus Left readings for the back staff. This is equivalent to twice a back staff reading
plus a large but constant offset. Do likewise for the forward staff readings.

Back R + L = 4.58562 + 1.42299 = 6.00861

Forward R + L = 4.62135 + 1.45819 = 6.07954

(5) Compute the Running Difference Height as sum of its previous value + 1
2 (Forward R + L) −
2 (Back R + L).
1

Running Difference Height = −4.08499 + 1

2 6.07954 − 1
2 6.00861 = −4.12046

3.14 DIGITAL LEVELLING

The digital level is an instrument that uses electronic image processing to evaluate the staff reading. The
observer is in effect replaced by a detector which derives a signal pattern from a bar-code type levelling
staff. A correlation procedure within the instrument translates the pattern into the vertical staff reading
and the horizontal distance of the instrument from the staff. Staff-reading errors by the observer are thus
eliminated.
The basic field data are automatically stored by the instrument thus further eliminating booking errors
(Figure 3.41).

3.14.1 Instrumentation

The design of both the staff and instrument are such that it can be used in the conventional way as well as
digitally.
82 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 3.41 Digital level and staff

(1) The levelling staff

The staff is usually made from a synthetic material, which has a small coefficient of expansion. The staff
may be in one or more sections. There are precise invar staves for precise levelling. On one side of the
staff is a binary bar code for electronic measurement, and on the other side there are often conventional
graduations in metres. The black and white binary code comprises many elements over the staff length. The
scale is absolute in that it does not repeat along the staff. As the correlation method is used to evaluate the
image, the elements are arranged in a pseudo-random code. The code pattern is such that the correlation
procedure can be used over the whole working range of the staff and instrument. Each manufacturer
uses a different code on their staffs therefore an instrument will only work with a staff from the same
manufacturer.

(2) The digital level

The digital level has the same optical and mechanical components as a normal automatic level. However,
for the purpose of electronic staff reading a beam splitter is incorporated which transfers the bar code
image to a detector. Light reflected from the white elements of the bar code is divided and sent to the
observer and to the detector. The detector is a form of charge couple device (CCD) which turns the
black and white staff pattern into a binary code. The angular aperture of the instrument is quite small,
 Vertical control 83

of the order of 1◦ –2◦ , resulting in a short section of the staff being imaged at the minimum range and
up to the whole staff at the maximum range. The bar code image is compared with a stored reference
code to find the height collimation on the staff. The instrument may not need to see the part of the
staff where the cross-hairs lie. The distance from instrument to staff is dependent on the image scale of
the code.
The data processing is carried out within the instrument and the data are displayed in a simple format.
The measurement process is initiated by a very light touch on a measure button. A keypad on the
eyepiece face of the instrument permits the entry of further numerical data and pre-programmed commands.
The data can be stored and transferred to a computer when required. The instrument may have an interface,
which permits external control, data transfer and power supply.

3.14.2 Measuring procedure

There are two external stages to the measuring procedure; pointing and focusing on the staff and triggering
the digital measurement. The whole process takes a few seconds.
Triggering the measurement determines the focus position, from which the distance to the staff is
measured, and initiates monitoring of the compensator.
A coarse correlation approximately determines the target height and the image scale and a fine correlation
using calibration constants produces the final staff reading and instrument to staff distance.
For best results a number of observations are taken automatically and the result averaged. This reduces
biases due to oscillations of the compensator and air turbulence within the instrument.
The results may be further processed within the instrument, displayed and recorded. The programs
incorporated will vary from instrument to instrument but typically may include those for:
(1) A single measurement of staff reading and horizontal distance.
(2) The start of a line of levelling and its continuation including intermediate sights. Automatic reduction
of data. Setting out of levels.
(3) Calibration and adjustment of the instrument (two-peg test).
(4) Data management.
(5) Recognition of an inverted staff.
(6) Set the parameters of the instrument; a process similar to the initializing procedures used when setting
up electronic theodolites.

3.14.3 Factors affecting the measuring procedure

Every operation in a measurement procedure is a possible error source and as such requires careful
consideration in order to assess the effect on the final result.

(1) Pointing and focusing

Obviously the instrument will not work if it is not pointed at the staff. The amount of staff that needs to
be read depends on the range of the instrument to the staff. However, there will be a minimum amount
necessary at short ranges. It may not be critical to have the staff pointing directly at the instrument.
The precision of the height measurement may be independent of sharpness of image; however, a clear,
sharply focused image reduces the time required for the measurement. If the image is too far out of focus
then the instrument may not read at all. Some instruments have an auto-focus function to avoid potential
focusing problems.
84 Engineering Surveying

(2) Vibrations and heat shimmer

Vibration of the compensator caused by wind, traffic, etc., has a similar effect on the bar code image as that
of heat shimmer. However, as digital levelling does not require a single reading, but instead is dependent
on a section of the code, the effects of shimmer and vibration may not be critical.
Similarly, scale errors on the staff are averaged.

(3) Illumination

As the method relies on reflected light from the white intervals of the bar code, illumination of the staff
is important. During the day, this illumination will be affected by cloud, sun, twilight and the effects of
shadows. Up to a point these variations are catered for by the instrument but under adverse conditions
there may be an increase in the measuring time.

(4) Staff coverage

In some conditions part of the bar code section being interrogated by the instrument may be obscured.
Consult the manufacturer’s handbook to ensure that sufficient of the staff is showing to the instrument.

(5) Collimation

The collimation value is set in the instrument but can be checked and changed as required. The method
of determining the collimation is based upon one of the two peg methods described earlier. Once the
collimation value has been determined it is applied to subsequent readings thereby minimizing its effect.
Note, however, that it can never be completely removed and appropriate procedures according to the
precision required must still be applied.

(6) Physical damage

It is likely that the instrument will be seriously damaged if it is pointed directly at the sun.

3.14.4 Operating features

The resolution for most instruments is 0.1 mm for height and 10 mm for distance or better with instrumental
ranges up to 100 m. At such distances the effects of refraction and curvature become significant. The effect
of curvature can be precisely calculated, the effect of refraction cannot. Most digital levels can also be
used as conventional optical automatic levels but in that case the standard error of 1 km of double-run
levelling becomes less. Although the digital level can also measure distance, the precision of the distance
measurement is only of the order of a few centimetres.

3.14.5 Advantages of digital levelling

One advantage claimed for digital levelling is that there is less fatigue for the observer. While it is true
that the observer does not have to make observations the instrument still needs to be set up, pointed at
the target and focused. The digital display needs no interpretation such as reading the centimetre from the
E on a conventional staff and estimating the millimetre. Measurements are of consistent quality, subject
to the observer taking the same care with the instrument to ensure consistency of target distances and
illumination of the staff. Also the staff holder must not move the staff between the forward reading in one
bay and the back reading in the next, and that the staff must be kept vertical.
 Vertical control 85

There is an acceptable range of illumination, but too much or too little light may make observations
impossible. Some, but not all, digital levels will recognize when staffs are inverted, others will indicate an
error if not told that the staff is inverted. Like any automatic level, the digital level will need to be at least
coarsely levelled for the compensator to be in range.
Although exact focusing may not be required, the instrument will not work if the focusing is too far out
but if the instrument has automatic focusing this would not be a problem. Automatic data storage eliminates
the need for manual booking and its associated errors, and automatic reduction of data to produce ground
levels eliminates arithmetical errors. However, checks for levelling circuit misclosure need to be made or
at least checked and an adjustment to the intermediate points for misclosure needs to be made.
As with all surveying instruments the digital level should be allowed to adapt to the ambient air
temperature.
The scale of the height measurements is primarily fixed by the scale of the staff. An invar staff will
vary less with change of temperature. The scale will also be dependent on the quality of the CCD. How
the dimensional stability of CCDs may vary with time is not well known.
There are a number of menus and functions that can be called on to make the levelling process easier,
in particular the two-peg test for collimation error and calibration.
Overall, digital levelling is generally a faster process than levelling with an automatic level. Data can
be directly downloaded to a suitable software package to enable computation and plotting of longitudinal
sections and cross-sections. The digital level can be used in just about every situation where a conventional
level can be used, and should the batteries fail it can be used as a conventional level if necessary.

Worked examples

Example 3.2. The positions of the pegs which need to be set out for the construction of a sloping concrete
slab are shown in the diagram. Because of site obstructions the tilting level which is used to set the pegs at
their correct levels can only be set up at station X which is 100 m from the TBM. The reduced level of peg A
is to be 100 m and the slab is to have a uniform diagonal slope from A towards Jof 1 in 20 downwards.

To ensure accuracy in setting out the levels it was decided to adjust the instrument before using it, but
it was found that the correct adjusting tools were missing from the instrument case. A test was therefore
carried out to determine the magnitude of any collimation error that may have been present in the level,
and this error was found to be 0.04 m per 100 m downwards.
Assuming that the backsight reading from station X to a staff held on the TBM was 1.46 m, determine
to the nearest 0.01 m the staff readings which should be obtained on the pegs at A, Fand H, in order that
they may be set to correct levels.
Describe fully the procedure that should be adopted in the determination of the collimation error of the
tilting level. (ICE)
86 Engineering Surveying

The simplest approach to this question is to work out the true readings at A, Fand Hand then adjust them
for collimation error. Allowing for collimation error the true reading on TBM = 1.46 + 0.04 = 1.50 m.

HPC = 103.48 + 1.50 = 104.98 m

True reading on A to give a level of 100 m = 4.98 m

Distance AX = 50 m ( AXB = 3, 4, 5)
∴ Collimation error = 0.02 m per 50 m
Allowing for this error, actual reading at A = 4.98 − 0.02 = 4.96 m
Now referring to the diagram, line HF through E
will be a strike line
∴ H and F have the same level as E

1
Distance AE
= (602 + 602 ) 2 = 84.85 m
Fall from A to E
= 84.85 ÷ 20 = 4.24 m
∴ Level at E
= level at F and H = 100 − 4.24 = 95.76 m
Thus true staff readings at F and H = 104.98 − 95.76 = 9.22 m
1
Distance XF = (702 + 402 ) 2 = 80.62 m
Collimation error ≈ 0.03 m
Actual reading at F = 9.22 − 0.03 = 9.19 m
Distance XH = 110 m, collimation error ≈ 0.04 m
Actual reading at H = 9.22 − 0.04 = 9.18 m

Example 3.3. The following readings were observed with a level: 1.143 (BM 112.28), 1.765, 2.566, 3.820
CP; 1.390, 2.262, 0.664, 0.433 CP; 3.722, 2.886, 1.618, 0.616 TBM.
(1) Reduce the levels by the R-and-F method.
(2) Calculate the level of the TBM if the line of collimation was tilted upwards at an angle of 6
and each
BS length was 100 m and FS length 30 m.
(3) Calculate the level of the TBM if in all cases the staff was held not upright but leaning backwards at
5◦ to the vertical. (LU)
(1) The answer here relies on knowing once again that levelling always commences on a BS and ends on
a FS, and that CPs are always FS/BS (see table below)
(2) Due to collimation error

the BS readings are too great by 100 tan 6

the FS readings are too great by 30 tan 6

net error on BS is too great by 70 tan 6

 Vertical control 87

BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks

1.143 112.280 BM
1.765 0.622 111.658
2.566 0.801 110.857
1.390 3.820 1.254 109.603
2.262 0.872 108.731
0.664 1.598 110.329
3.722 0.433 0.231 110.560
2.886 0.836 111.396
1.618 1.268 112.664
0.616 1.002 113.666 TBM

6.255 4.869 4.935 3.549 113.666

4.869 3.549 112.280

1.386 1.386 1.386 Checks

Note that the intermediate sights are unnecessary in calculating the value of the TBM; prove it for
yourself by simply covering up the IS column and calculating the value of TBM using BS and FS only.
There are three instrument set-ups, and therefore the total net error on BS = 3×70 tan 6
= 0.366 m
(too great).
level of TBM = 113.666 − 0.366 = 113.300 m
(3) From the diagram it is seen that the true reading AB = actual reading CB × cos 5◦ Thus each BS and
FS needs
 to be corrected by multiplying it by cos 5◦ ; however, this would be the same as multiplying
the BS and FS by cos 5◦ , and as one subtracts BS from FS to get the difference, then
True difference in level = actual difference × cos 5◦
= 1.386 cos 5◦ = 1.381 m

level of TBM = 112.28 + 1.381 = 113.661 m

Example 3.4. One carriageway of a motorway running due N is 8 m wide between kerbs and the following
surface levels were taken along a section of it, the chainage increasing from S to N. A concrete bridge
12 m in width and having a horizontal soffit, carries a minor road across the motorway from SW to NE,
the centre-line of the minor road passing over that of the motorway carriageway at a chainage of 1550 m.
Taking crown (i.e. centre-line) level of the motorway carriageway at 1550 m chainage to be 224.000 m:
(a) Reduce the above set of levels and apply the usual arithmetical checks.
(b) Assuming the motorway surface to consist of planes, determine the minimum vertical clearance
between surface and the bridge soffit. (LU)
The HPC method of booking is used because of the numerous intermediate sights.
Intermediate sight check
2245.723 = [(224.981 × 7) + (226.393 × 3) − (5.504 + 2.819)]

= 1574.867 + 679.179 − 8.323 = 2245.723

88 Engineering Surveying

BS IS FS Chainage (m) Location

1.591 1535 West channel

1.490 1535 Crown
1.582 1535 East channel
−4.566 Bridge soffit*
1.079 1550 West channel
0.981 1550 Crown
1.073 1550 East channel
2.256 0.844 CP
1.981 1565 West channel
1.884 1565 Crown
1.975 1565 East channel

*Staff inverted

BS IS FS HPC RL Remarks

1.591 223.390 1535 West channel

1.490 223.491 1535 Crown
1.582 223.399 1535 East channel
−4.566 229.547 Bridge soffit
1.079 223.902 1550 West channel
0.981 224.981∗ 224.000 1550 Crown
1.073 223.908 1550 East channel
2.256 0.844 226.393 224.137 CP
1.981 224.412 1565 West channel
1.884 224.509 1565 Crown
1.975 224.418 1565 East channel

3.847 5.504 2.819 224.418

2.819 223.390

1.028 1.028 Checks

*Permissible to start here because this is the only known RL; also, in working back to 1535 m
one still subtracts from HPC in the usual way.
 Vertical control 89

Now draw a sketch of the problem and add to it all the pertinent data as shown.

Examination of the sketch shows the road to be rising from S to N at a regular grade of 0.510 m in 15 m.
This implies then, that the most northerly point (point B on east channel) should be the highest; however,
as the crown of the road is higher than the channel, one should also check point A on the crown; all other
points can be ignored. Now, from the illustration the distance 1550 to A on the centre-line:
1
= 6 × (2) 2 = 8.5 m
∴ Rise in level from 1550 to A = (0.509/15) × 8.5 = 0.288 m
∴ Level at A = 224.288 m giving a clearance of (229.547 − 224.288) = 5.259 m
Distance 1550 to B along the east channel 8.5 + 4 = 12.5 m
∴ Rise in level from 1550 to B = (0.510/15) × 12.5 = 0.425 m
∴ Level at B = 223.908 + 0.425 = 224.333 m
∴ Clearance at B = 229.547 − 224.333 = 5.214 m
∴ Minimum clearance occurs at the most northerly point on the east channel, i.e. at B

Example 3.5. In extending a triangulation survey of the mainland to a distant off-lying island, observations
were made between two trig stations, one 3000 m and the other 1000 m above sea level. If the ray from
one station to the other grazed the sea, what was the approximate distance between stations, (a) neglecting
refraction, and (b) allowing for it? (R = 6400 km) (ICE)
Refer to equation (3.1).
1 1
(a) D1 = (2Rc1 ) 2 = (2 × 6400 × 1) 2 = 113 km
1 1
D2 = (2Rc2 ) 2 = (2 × 6400 × 3) 2 = 196 km
Total distance = 309 km
1 1
(b) With refraction: D1 = (7/6 × 2Rc1 ) 2 , D2 = (7/6 × 2Rc2 ) 2 .
90 Engineering Surveying

By comparison with the equation in (a) above, it can be seen that the effect of refraction is to increase
1
distance by (7/6) 2 :
1
∴ D = 309(7/6) 2 = 334 km

Example 3.6. Obtain, from first principles, an expression giving the combined correction for the Earth’s
curvature and atmospheric refraction in levelling, assuming that the Earth is a sphere of 12740 km diameter.
Reciprocal levelling between two points Y and Z 730 m apart on opposite sides of a river gave the following
results:

Instrument at Height of instrument (m) Staff at Staff reading (m)

Y 1.463 Z 1.688
Z 1.436 Y 0.991

Determine the difference in level between Y and Z and the amount of any collimation error in the
instrument. (ICE)
6D2
(1) (c − r) = = 0.0673D2 m
14R
(2) With instrument at Y , Z is lower by (1.688 − 1.463) = 0.225 m
With instrument at Z, Z is lower by (1.436 − 0.991) = 0.445 m
0.225 + 0.445
True height of Z below Y = = 0.335 m
2
Instrument height at Y = 1.463 m; knowing now that Z is lower by 0.335 m, then a truly horizontal reading
on Z should be (1.463 + 0.335) = 1.798 m; it was, however, 1.688 m, i.e. −0.11 m too low (− indicates
low). This error is due to curvature and refraction (c − r) and collimation error of the instrument (e).
Thus: (c − r) + e = −0.110 m
6D2 6 × 7302
Now (c − r) = = = 0.036 m
14R 14 × 6370 × 1000
∴ e = −0.110 − 0.036 = −0.146 m in 730 m
∴ Collimation error e = 0.020 m down in 110 m

Example 3.7. A and B are 2400 m apart. Observations with a level gave:
A, height of instrument 1.372 m, reading at B 3.359 m
B, height of instrument 1.402 m, reading at A 0.219 m
 Vertical control 91

Calculate the difference of level and the error of the instrument if refraction correction is one seventh
that of curvature. (LU)
Instrument at A, B is lower by (3.359 − 1.372) = 1.987 m
Instrument at B, B is lower by (1.402 − 0.219) = 1.183 m
True height of B below A = 0.5 × 3.170 m = 1.585 m
Combined error due to curvature and refraction

= 0.0673D2 m = 0.0673 × 2.42 = 0.388 m

Now using same procedure as in Example 3.6:

Instrument at A = 1.372, thus true reading at B = (1.372 + 1.585)
= 2.957 m
Actual reading at B = 3.359 m
Actual reading at B too high by + 0.402 m

Thus: (c − r) + e = +0.402 m

e = +0.402 − 0.388 = +0.014 m in 2400 m

Collimation error e = +0.001 m up in 100 m

Exercises

(3.1) The following readings were taken with a level and a 4.25-m staff:
0.683, 1.109, 1.838, 3.398 [3.877 and 0.451] CP, 1.405, 1.896, 2.676 BM (102.120 AOD), 3.478 [4.039
and 1.835] CP, 0.649, 1.707, 3.722
Draw up a level book and reduce the levels by
(a) R-and-F,
(b) height of collimation.
What error would occur in the final level if the staff had been wrongly extended and a plain gap of over
12 mm occurred at the 1.52-m section joint? (LU)

Parts (a) and (b) are self checking. Error in final level = zero.
(Hint: all readings greater than 1.52 m will be too small by 12 mm. Error in final level will be calculated
from BM only.)

(3.2) The following staff readings were observed (in the order given) when levelling up a hillside from
a TBM 135.2 m AOD. Excepting the staff position immediately after the TBM, each staff position was
higher than the preceding one.
1.408, 2.728, 1.856, 0.972, 3.789, 2.746, 1.597, 0.405, 3.280, 2.012, 0.625, 4.136, 2.664, 0.994, 3.901,
1.929, 3.478, 1.332
Enter the readings in level-book form by both the R-and-F and collimation systems (these may be
combined into a single form to save copying). (LU)
92 Engineering Surveying

(3.3) The following staff readings in metres were obtained when levelling along the centre-line of a straight
road ABC.

BS IS FS Remarks
2.405 Point A (RL = 250.05 m AOD)
1.954 1.128 CP
0.619 1.466 Point B
2.408 Point D
−1.515 Point E
1.460 2.941 CP
2.368 Point C

D is the highest point on the road surface beneath a bridge crossing over the road at this point and the
staff was held inverted on the underside of the bridge girder at E, immediately above D. Reduce the levels
correctly by an approved method, applying the checks, and determine the headroom at D. If the road is to
be regraded so that AC is a uniform gradient, what will be the new headroom at D?
The distance AD = 240 m and DC = 60 m. (LU)

(Answer: 3.923 m, 5.071 m)

(3.4) Distinguish, in construction and method of use, between dumpy and tilting levels. State in general
terms the principle of an automatic level.

(3.5) The following levels were taken with a metric staff on a series of pegs at 100-m intervals along the
line of a proposed trench.

BS IS FS Remarks
2.10 TBM 28.75 m
2.85 Peg A
1.80 3.51 Peg B
1.58 Peg C
2.24 Peg D
1.68 2.94 Peg E
2.27
3.06
3.81 TBM 24.07 m

If the trench is to be excavated from peg A commencing at a formation level of 26.5 m and falling to peg E
at a grade of 1 in 200, calculate the height of the sight rails in metres at A, B, C, D and E, if a 3-m boning
rod is to be used.
Briefly discuss the techniques and advantages of using laser beams for the control of more precise
work. (KU)

(Answer: 1.50, 1.66, 0.94, 1.10, 1.30 m)

 Vertical control 93

(3.6) (a) Determine from first principles the approximate distance at which correction for curvature and
refraction in levelling amounts to 3 mm, assuming that the effect of refraction is one seventh that of the
Earth’s curvature and that the Earth is a sphere of 12740 km diameter.
(b) Two survey stations A and B on opposite sides of a river are 780 m apart, and reciprocal levels have
been taken between them with the following results:

Instrument at Height of instrument (m) Staff at Staff reading (m)

A 1.472 B 1.835
B 1.496 A 1.213

Compute the ratio of refraction correction to curvature correction, and the difference in level between A
and B.

(Answer: (a) 210 m (b) 0.14 to 1; B lower by 0.323 m)

3.15 TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING

Trigonometrical levelling is used where difficult terrain, such as mountainous areas, precludes the use
of conventional differential levelling. It may also be used where the height difference is large but the
horizontal distance is short such as heighting up a cliff or a tall building. The vertical angle and the slope
distance between the two points concerned are measured. Slope distance is measured using electromagnetic
distance measurers (EDM) and the vertical (or zenith) angle using a theodolite.
When these two instruments are integrated into a single instrument it is called a ‘total station’. Total
stations contain algorithms that calculate and display the horizontal distance and vertical height, This latter
facility has resulted in trigonometrical levelling being used for a wide variety of heighting procedures,
including contouring. However, unless the observation distances are relatively short, the height values
displayed by the total station are quite useless, if not highly dangerous, unless the total station contains
algorithms to apply corrections for curvature and refraction.

3.15.1 Short lines

From Figure 3.42 it can be seen that when measuring the angle
h = S sin α (3.7)
When using the zenith angle z
h = S cos z (3.8)
If the horizontal distance is used
h = D tan α = D cot z (3.9)
The difference in elevation ( H) between ground points A and B is therefore
H = hi + h − ht

= h + hi − ht (3.10)
where hi = vertical height of the measuring centre of the instrument above A
ht = vertical height of the centre of the target above B
94 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 3.42 Trigonometric levelling – short lines

This is the basic concept of trignometrical levelling. The vertical angles are positive for angles of elevation
and negative for angles of depression. The zenith angles are always positive, but naturally when greater
than 90◦ they will produce a negative result.
What constitutes a short line may be derived by considering the effect of curvature and refraction
compared with the accuracy expected. The combined effect of curvature and refraction over 100 m =
0.7 mm, over 200 m = 3 mm, over 300 m = 6 mm, over 400 m = 11 mm and over 500 m = 17 mm.
If we apply the standard treatment for small errors to the basic equation we have

H = S sin α + hi − ht (3.11)

and then

δ( H) = sin α · δS + S cos α δα + δhi − ht (3.12)

and taking standard errors:

σ 2 H = (sin α · σs )2 + (S cos α · σα )2 + σi2 + σt2

Consider a vertical angle of α = 5◦ , with σα = 5

(= 0.000024 radians), S = 300 m with σs = 10 mm

and σi = σt = 2 mm. Substituting in the above equation gives:

σ 2 H = 0.92 mm2 + 7.22 mm2 + 22 mm2 + 22 mm2

σ H = 7.8 mm

This value is similar in size to the effect of curvature and refraction over this distance and indicates that
short sights should never be greater than 300 m. It also indicates that the accuracy of distance S is not
critical when the vertical angle is small. However, the accuracy of measuring the vertical angle is very
critical and requires the use of a theodolite, with more than one measurement on each face.
 Vertical control 95

Refracted line r
of sight D

ht

B Level line
α

Horizontal line
E ∆H
c

F Level line
J

G
hi Level line

0 = centre of the earth

Fig. 3.43 Trigonometric levelling – long lines

3.15.2 Long lines

For long lines the effect of curvature (c) and refraction (r) must be considered. From Figure 3.43, it can
be seen that the difference in elevation ( H) between A and B is:

H = GB = GF + FE + EH − HD − DB

= hi + c + h − r − ht

= h + hi − ht + (c − r) (3.13)

Thus it can be seen that the only difference from the basic equation for short lines is the correction for
curvature and refraction (c − r).
Although the line of sight is refracted to the target at D, the telescope is pointing to H, thereby measuring
the angle α from the horizontal. It follows that S sin α = h = EH and requires a correction for refraction
equal to HD.
96 Engineering Surveying

The correction for refraction is based on a quantity termed the ‘coefficient of refraction’(K). Considering
the atmosphere as comprising layers of air which decrease in density at higher elevations, the line of sight
from the instrument will be refracted towards the denser layers. The line of sight therefore approximates
to a circular arc of radius Rs roughly equal to 8R, where R is the radius of the Earth. However, due to the
uncertainty of refraction one cannot accept this relationship and the coefficient of refraction is defined as
K = R/Rs (3.14)
An average value of K = 0.15 is frequently quoted but, as stated previously, this is most unreliable
and is based on observations taken well above ground level. Recent investigation has shown that not
only can K vary from −2.3 to +3.5 with values over ice as high as +14.9, but it also has a daily cycle.
Near the ground, K is affected by the morphology of the ground, by the type of vegetation and by other
assorted complex factors. Although much research has been devoted to modelling these effects, in order to
arrive at an accurate value for K, the most practical method still appears to be by simultaneous reciprocal
observations.
As already shown, curvature (c) can be approximately computed from c = D2 /2R, and as D ≈ S we
can write
c = S 2 /2R (3.15)
Now considering Figures 3.43 and 3.44 the refracted ray JD has a radius Rs and a measured distance S and
subtends angles δ at its centre, then
δ = S/Rs
δ/2 = S/2Rs
As the refraction K = R/Rs we have
δ/2 = SK/2R

Fig. 3.44 Curvature and refraction

 Vertical control 97

Without loss of accuracy we can assume JH = JD = S and treating the HD as the arc of a circle of radius S:
HD = S · δ/2 = S 2 K/2R = r (3.16)

(c − r) = S 2 (1 − K)/2R (3.17)
All the above equations express c and r in linear terms. To obtain the angles of curvature and refraction,
EJF and HJD in Figure 3.43, reconsider Figure 3.44. Imagine JH is the horizontal line JE in Figure 3.43
and JD the level line JF of radius R. Then δ is the angle subtended at the centre of the Earth and the angle
of curvature is half this value. To avoid confusion let δ = θ and as already shown:
θ/2 = S/2R = ĉ (3.18)
where the arc distance at MSL approximates to S. Also, as shown:
δ/2 = SK/2R = r̂ (3.19)
Therefore in angular terms:
(ĉ − r̂) = S(1 − K)/2R rads (3.20)
Note the difference between equations in linear terms and those in angular.

3.15.3 Reciprocal observations

Reciprocal observations are observations taken from A and B, the arithmetic mean result being accepted.
If one assumes a symmetrical line of sight from each end and the observations are taken simultaneously,
then the effect of curvature and refraction is cancelled out. For instance, for elevated sights, (c − r) is added
to a positive value to increase the height difference. For depressed or downhill sights, (c − r) is added to
a negative value and decreases the height difference. Thus the average of the two values is free from the
effects of curvature and refraction. This statement is not entirely true as the assumption of symmetrical
lines of sight from each end is dependent on uniform ground and atmospheric conditions at each end, at
the instant of simultaneous observation.
In practice over short distances, sighting into each other’s object lens forms an excellent target, with
some form of communication to ensure simultaneous observation.
The following numerical example is taken from an actual survey in which the elevation of A and B had
been obtained by precise geodetic levelling and was checked by simultaneous reciprocal trigonometrical
levelling.

Worked example

Example 3.8.
Zenith angle at A = ZA = 89◦ 59
18.7

(VA 0◦ 00
41.3

)

Zenith angle at B = ZB = 90◦ 02
59.9

(VA = −0◦ 02
59.9

)

Height of instrument at A = hA = 1.290 m

Height of instrument at B = hB = 1.300 m

Slope distance corrected for meteorological conditions = 4279.446 m

Each target was set at the same height as the instrument at its respective station.
98 Engineering Surveying

As the observations are reciprocal, the corrections for curvature and refraction are ignored:

HAB = S cos ZA + hi − ht

= 4279.446 cos 89◦ 59
18.7

+ 1.290 − 1.300 = 0.846 m

HBA = 4279.446 cos 90◦ 02
59.9

+ 1.300 − 1.290 = −3.722 m

HAB = 3.722 m

Mean value H = 2.284 m

This value compares favourably with 2.311 m obtained by precise levelling. However, the disparity between
the two values 0.846 and −3.722 shows the danger inherent in single observations uncorrected for curvature
and refraction. In this case the correction for curvature only is +1.256 m, which, when applied, brings the
results to 2.102 m and −2.466 m, producing much closer agreement. To find K simply substitute the mean
value H = 2.284 into the equation for a single observation.
From A to B:
2.284 = 4279.446 cos 89◦ 59
18.7

+ 1.290 − 1.300 + (c − r)

where (c − r) = S 2 (1 − K)/2R

and the local value of R for the area of observation = 6 364 700 m

2.284 = 0.856 − 0.010 + S 2 (1 − K)/2R

1.438 = 4279.4462 (1 − K)/2 × 6 364 700 m

K = 0.0006

From B to A:

2.284 = −3.732 + 1.300 − 1.290 + S 2 (1 − K)/2R

K = 0.0006

Now this value for K could be used for single ended observations taken within the same area, at the same
time, to give improved results.
A variety of formulae are available for finding K directly. For example, using zenith angles:

ZA + ZB − 180◦ R
K =1− × (3.21)
180◦ /π S
and using vertical angles:

K = (θ + α0 + β0 )/θ (3.22)

where θ = the angle subtended at the center of the Earth by the arc distance ≈ S and is calculated using:

θ

= Sρ/R where ρ = 206 265

In the above formulae the values used for the angles must be those which would have been observed had
hi = ht and, in case of vertical angles, entered with their appropriate sign. As shown in Figure 3.45,
 Vertical control 99

Fig. 3.45 Correction for unequal instrument and target height

By sine rule: α0 = α − e and for an angle of depression it becomes β0 = β + e.

ht−i sin(90◦ − α)
sin e =
S
 
−1 ht−i cos α
e = sin
S

ht−1 h3
= cos α + t−i3 cos3 α + · · ·
S 6S
∴ e = (ht−i cos α)/S (3.23)
For zenith angles:
e = (ht−i sin Z)/S (3.24)

3.15.4 Sources of error

Consider the formula for a single observation, found by substituting equations 3.8 and 3.17 into 3.13:
H = S sin α + hi − ht + S 2 (1 − K)/2R
The obvious sources of error lie in obtaining the slope distance S, the vertical angle α the heights of
the instrument and target, the coefficient of refraction K and a value for the local radius of the Earth R.
Differentiating gives:
δ( H) = δS sin α + S cos α · δα + δhi + δht + S 2 δK/2R + S 2 (1 − K) δR/2R2
and taking standard errors:
σ 2 H = (σs sin α)2 + (S cos ασ α )2 + σi2 + σt2 + (S 2 σK /2R)2 + (S 2 (1 − K)σR /2R2 )2
Taking S = 2000 m, σS = 0.005 m, α = 8◦ , σα = 7

(= 0.000034 radians), σi = σt = 2 mm, K = 0.15,
σK = 1, R = 6380 km, and σR = 10 km, we have
σ 2 H = (0.7)2 + (48.0)2 + 22 + 22 + (156.7)2 + (0.4)2 mm2

σ H = 164 mm
100 Engineering Surveying

Once again it can be seen that the accuracy required to measure S is not critical.
However, the measurement of the vertical angle is critical and the importance of its precision will
increase with greater distance. The error in the value of refraction is the most critical component and
will increase rapidly as the square of the distance. Thus to achieve reasonable results over long sights,
simultaneous reciprocal observations are essential.

3.15.5 Contouring

The ease with which total stations produce horizontal distance, vertical height and horizontal direction
makes them ideal instruments for rapid and accurate contouring in virtually any type of terrain. The data
recorded may be transformed from direction, distance and elevation of a point, to its position and elevation
in terms of three-dimensional coordinates. These points thus comprise a digital terrain or ground model
(DTM/DGM) from which the contours are interpolated and plotted.
The total station and a vertical rod that carries a single reflector are used to locate the ground points
(Figure 3.46). A careful reconnaissance of the area is necessary, in order to plan the survey and define the
necessary ground points that are required to represent the characteristic shape of the terrain. Break lines,
the tops and bottoms of hills or depressions, the necessary features of water courses, etc., and enough
points to permit accurate interpolation of contour lines at the interval required, comprise the field data.
As the observation distances are relatively short, curvature and refraction might be ignored. However, in
most total stations corrections for curvature and refraction may be applied.

Fig. 3.46 Contouring with a total station and detail pole

 Vertical control 101

Fig. 3.47 Radiation method

From Figure 3.42, it can be seen that if the reduced level of point A (RLA ) is known, then the reduced
level of ground point B is:
RLB = RLA + hi + h − ht
When contouring, the height of the reflector is set to the same height as the instrument, i.e. ht = hi , and
cancels out in the previous equation. Thus the height displayed by the instrument is the height of the ground
point above A:
RLB = RLA + h
In this way the reduced levels of all the ground points are rapidly acquired and all that is needed are their
positions. One method of carrying out the process is by radiation.
As shown in Figure 3.47, the instrument is set up on a control point A, whose reduced level is known,
and sighted to a second control point (RO). The horizontal circle is set to the direction computed from the
coordinates of A and the RO. The instrument is then turned through a chosen horizontal angle (θ ) defining
the direction of the first ray. Terrain points along this ray are then located by measured horizontal distance
and height difference. This process is repeated along further rays until the area is covered. Unless a very
experienced person is used to locate the ground points, there will obviously be a greater density of points
near the instrument station. The method, however, is quite easy to organize in the field. The angle between
successive rays may vary from 20◦ to 60◦ depending on the terrain.
Many ground-modelling software packages interpolate and plot contours from strings of linked terrain
points. Computer processing is aided if the ground points are located in continuous strings throughout
the area, approximately following the line of the contour. They may also follow the line of existing
watercourses, roads, hedges, kerbs, etc. (Figure 3.48).
Depending on the software package used, the string points may be transformed into a triangular or
gridded structure. Heights can then be determined by linear interpolation and the terrain represented
by simple planar triangular facets. Alternatively, high-order polynomials may be used to define three-
dimensional surfaces fitted to the terrain points. From these data, contours are interpolated and a contour
model of the terrain produced.
102 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 3.48 Plotting

Worked examples

Example 3.9. (a) Define the coefficient of refraction K, and show how its value may be obtained from
simultaneous reciprocal trigonometric levelling observations.
(b) Two triangulation stations A and B are 2856.85 m apart. Observations from A to B gave a mean
vertical angle of +01◦ 35
38

, the instrument height being 1.41 m and the target height 2.32 m. If the
level of station A is 156.86 m OD and the value of K for the area is 0.16, calculate the reduced level of B
(radius of Earth = 6372 km). (KU)
(a) Refer to Section 3.15.2.
(b) This part will be answered using both the angular and the linear approaches.
Angular method
Difference in height of AB = H = D tan[α + (ĉ − r̂)] where ĉ = θ/2 and

D 2856.85
θ= = = 0.000 448 rad
R 6 372 000
∴ ĉ = 0.000 224 rad

r̂ = K(θ /2) = 0.16 × 0.000 224 = 0.000 036 rad

∴ (ĉ − r̂) = 0.000 188 rad = 0◦ 00
38.8

∴ H = 2856.85 tan(01◦ 35
38

+ 0◦ 00
38.8

) = 80.03 m

Refer to Figure 3.42.

RL of B = RL of A + hi + H − ht

= 156.86 + 1.41 + 80.03 − 2.32 = 235.98 m

 Vertical control 103

Linear method

H = D tan α + (c − r)
 2
D 2856.852
where (c − r) = (1 − K) = × 0.084 = 0.54 m
2R 2 × 6 372 000
D tan α = 2856.85 tan(01◦ 35
39

) = 79.49 m

where ∴ H = 79.49 + 0.54 = 80.03 m

Example 3.10. Two stations A and B are 1713 m apart. The following observations were recorded: height
of instrument at A 1.392 m, and at B 1.464 m; height of signal at A 2.199 m, and at B 2 m. Elevation to signal
at B 1◦ 08
08

, depression angle to signal at A 1◦ 06
16

. If 1

at the Earth’s centre subtends 30.393 m at
the Earth’s surface, calculate the difference of level between A and B and the refraction correction. (LU)
 
α+β (h
− hi
) − (ht − hi )
H = D tan + t
2 2
where hi = height of instrument at A; ht = height of target at B; hi
= height of instrument at B;
ht
= height of target at A.
 ◦



(1 08 08 ) + (1◦ 06
15

) (2.199 − 1.464) − (2.000 − 1.392)
∴ H = 1713 tan +
2 2
= 33.490 + 0.064 = 33.55 m

Using the alternative approach of reducing α and β to their values if hi = ht .

Correction to angle of elevation:
1.392 − 2.000
e

≈ × 206 265 = −73.2


1713.0
∴ α = (1◦ 08
08

) − (01
13.2

) = 1◦ 06
54.8

Correction to angle of depression:

(2.199 − 1.464)
e

≈ × 206 265 = 88.5


1713.0
∴ β = (1◦ 06
15

) + (01
28.5

) = 1◦ 07
43.5


 ◦

(1 06 54.8

) + (1◦ 07
43.5

)
∴ H = 1713 tan = 33.55 m
2

1
Refraction correction r̂ = (θ + α + β)
2
where θ

= 1713.0/30.393 = 56.4


1
= [56.4

+ (1◦ 06
54.8

) − (1◦ 07
43.5

)] = 3.8


2
r̂ 3.8


and also K= = = 0.14
θ /2 28.2


104 Engineering Surveying

Example 3.11. Two points A and B are 8 km apart and at levels of 102.50 m and 286.50 m OD, respectively.
The height of the target at A is 1.50 m and at B 3.00 m, while the height of the instrument in both cases
is 1.50 m on the Earth’s surface subtends 1

of arc at the Earth’s centre and the effect of refraction is one
seventh that of curvature, predict the observed angles from A to B and B to A.
Difference in level A and B = H = 286.50 − 102.50 = 184.00 m
184 ◦
∴ by radians φ

= × 206 265 = 4744

= 1 19
04


8000
8000
Angle subtended at the centre of the Earth = θ

= = 258


31
∴ Curvature correction ĉ = θ /2 = 129

and r̂ = ĉ/7 = 18

Now H = D tan φ

where φ = α + (ĉ + r̂)

∴ α = φ − (ĉ − r̂) = 4744

− (129

− 18

) = 4633

= 1◦ 17
13

Similarly φ = β − (ĉ − r̂)

∴ β = φ + (ĉ − r̂) = 4855

= 1◦ 20
55

The observed angle α must be corrected for variation in instrument and signal heights. Normally the
correction is subtracted from the observed angle to give the truly reciprocal angle. In this example, α is
the truly reciprocal angle, thus the correction must be added in this reverse situation:

e

≈ [(ht − hi )/D] × 206 265 = [(3.00 − 1.50)/8000] × 206 265 = 39

∴ α = 4633

+ 39

= 4672

= 1◦ 17
52

Example 3.12. A gas drilling-rig is set up on the sea bed 48 km from each of two survey stations which
are on the coast and several kilometres apart. In order that the exact position of the rig may be obtained,
it is necessary to erect a beacon on the rig so that it may be clearly visible from theodolites situated at the
survey stations, each at a height of 36 m above the high-water mark.
Neglecting the effects of refraction, and assuming that the minimum distance between the line of sight
and calm water is to be 3 m at high water, calculate the least height of the beacon above the high-water
mark, at the rig. Prove any equations used.
Calculate the angle of elevation that would be measured by the theodolite when sighted onto this beacon,
taking refraction into account and assuming that the error due to refraction is one seventh of the error due
to curvature of the Earth. Mean radius of Earth = 6273 km. (ICE)
From Figure 3.49:
1
D1 = (2c1 R) 2 (equation 3.1)
∴ D1 = (2 × 33 × 6 273 000) = 20.35 km
∴ D2 = 48 − D1 = 27.65 km
1
∴ since D2 = (2c2 R) 2
c2 = 61 m, and to avoid grazing by 3 m, height of beacon = 64 m
 Vertical control 105

Fig. 3.49 Lines of sight

Difference in height of beacon and theodolite = 64 − 36 = 28 m; observed vertical angle α = φ − (ĉ − r̂)
for angles of elevation, where
28 × 206 265
φ

= = 120.3


480 00
ĉ = θ/2
 


48
where θ = × 206 265 = 1578.3


6273
∴ ĉ = 789.2

and r̂ = ĉ/7 = 112.7

∴ α = 120.3

− 789.2

+ 112.7

= −556.2

= −0◦ 09
16

The negative value indicates α to be an angle of depression, not elevation, as quoted in the question.

3.16 HEIGHTING WITH GPS

This aim of this short section is to introduce an alternative technology, which can be very useful for
heighting, where many points in a given area are required. The subject of satellite positioning is covered in
depth in Chapter 8. The main advantages of using Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers for heighting
are that no line of sight is required between instrument and target and the speed with which heights with
their plan positions can be collected. The practical limit is usually the speed at which the GPS receiver can
be moved over the ground. Suppose the heights of some open ground are required with a density of not
less than a point every 5 m and a vehicle with a GPS antenna mounted on its roof is available. If the GPS
records 10 points every second, then the maximum theoretical speed of the vehicle would be 180 km per
hour! Although it is unlikely that the surveyor would be travelling at such speeds over rough terrain this
example illustrates the potential of the system.
On the negative side, GPS has limits as to the practical precision that can be achieved. Height of
one instrument relative to another nearby instrument may be obtained with a precision of about 0.02 m.
However, the heights are related to the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) ellipsoidal model of the
Earth and to be useful would need to be converted to heights above the local datum. The relationship
between WGS84 and the local datum will not be constant and will vary smoothly by up to 0.1 m per
kilometre across the area of interest. Therefore external data will be required to apply the appropriate
corrections to make the GPS derived heights useful to the surveyor. If the GPS antenna is mounted on a
vehicle then the relationship between the antenna and the ground will vary as the vehicle bounces across
106 Engineering Surveying

the terrain adding further random error to the heights of individual points. This may not be so important if
the purpose to the heighting is to determine volume of ground to be cut or filled, as the errors in individual
heights will tend to cancel each other out.
GPS equipment is rather more expensive than conventional levelling equipment or total stations. GPS
equipment works very well in a GPS friendly environment, i.e. where there is an open sky. It becomes
much less useful if there are many obstructions such as tall buildings or under tree canopies. In such cases
conventional techniques would be more appropriate.