Soil and Water Conservation Engg.

Surveying, Chain Surveying

Prepared By: Er. Mukesh Kumar

Assistant Professor & Head
Department of Civil Engineering

Universal Institute of Engg. & Technology

Lesson 1. Surveying – Introduction

Introduction to Surveying
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the
surface and below the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical
distances between them and by preparing a map to any suitable scale. Thus in
discipline, the measurements are taken in the horizontal plane alone.

Leveling is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points
on the surface of the earth. Therefore, in leveling, the measurements are taken only
in the vertical plane.

Objective of surveying

The aim of surveying is to prepare a plan or map to show the relative positions of
the objects on the surface of the earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale .It
shows the natural features of a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways,
rivers, etc. Maps may also include details of different engineering works, such as
roads, railways, irrigation, canals, etc.

Uses of surveying

Surveying may be used for the following various applications.

➢ To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers,

villages, towns, forests ,etc. of a country.
➢ To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses, and
other properties.
➢ To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such
as roads, railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
➢ To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications
with different parts of a country. Such a map also shows the different
strategic points important for the defence of a country.
➢ To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of reservoir and to find
the best possible route for roads, railways, etc.
➢ To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources
exist.
➢ To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.
Classification and basic principles – Linear Measurement
Surveying

The practice of measuring angles and distances on the ground so that they can be
accurately plotted on a map

GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF SURVEYING

The general principles of surveying are:

1. To work from the whole to the part, and

2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from

fixed reference points.

According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations
(i.e. controlling

Stations) and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area is then divided into
a number of parts by forming well conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral
triangle is considered to be the best well-conditioned triangle. The main survey
lines are measured very accurately with a standard chain. Then the sides of the
triangles are measured. The purpose of this process of working is to prevent
accumulation of error. During this procedure, if there is any error in the
measurement of any side of a triangle, then it will not affect the whole work. The
error can always be detected and eliminated.

But, if the reverse process (i.e. from the part to the whole) is followed, then the
minor errors in measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and
stage will come when these errors will become absolutely uncontrollable.
According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at
least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear
measurements refer to horizontal distances measured by chain or tape. Angular
measurements refer to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by a
prismatic compass or theodolite.

In chain surveying, the positions of main stations and directions of main survey
lines and check lines.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Generally, surveying is divided into two major categories: plane and geodetic
surveying.

PLANE SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the portion of the earth

being surveyed is considered a plane. The term is used to designate survey work in
which the distances or areas involved are small enough that the curvature of the
earth can be disregarded without significant error. In general, the term of limited
extent. For small areas, precise results may be obtained with plane surveying
methods, but the accuracy and precision of such results will decrease as the area
surveyed increases in size. To make computations in plane surveying, you will use
formulas of plane trigonometry, algebra, and analytical geometry.

A great number of surveys are of the plane surveying type. Surveys for the location
and construction of highways and roads, canals, landing fields, and railroads are
classified under plane surveying. When it is realized that an arc of 10 mi is only
0.04 greater that its subtended chord; that a plane surface tangent to the spherical
arc has departed only about 8 in. at 1 mi from the point of tangency; and that the
sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is only 1 sec greater than the sum of the
angles of a plane triangle for a triangle having an area of approximately 75 sq mi
on the earth’s surface, it is just reasonable that the errors caused by the earth’s
curvature be considered only in precise surveys of large areas. In this training
manual, we will discuss primarily the methods used in plane surveying rather than
those used in geodetic surveying.

GEODETIC SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the shape and size

of the earth are considered. This type of survey is suited for large areas and long
lines and is used to find the precise location of basic points needed for establishing
control for other surveys. In geodetic surveys, the stations are normally long
distances apart, and more precise instruments and surveying methods are required
for this type of surveying than for plane surveying. The shape of the earth is
thought of as a spheroid , although in a technical sense, it is not really a spheroid.
In 1924, the convention of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union
adopted 41,852,960 ft as the diameter of the earth at the equator and 41,711,940 ft
as the diameter at its polar axis. The equatorial diameter was computed on the
assumption that the flattening of the earth caused by
gravitational at traction is exactly 1/297. Therefore, distances measured on or near
the surface of the earth are not along straight lines or planes, but on a curved
surface. Hence, in the computation of distances in geodetic surveys, allowances are
made for the earth’s minor and major diameters from which a spheroid of reference
is developed. The position of each geodetic station is related to this spheroid. The
positions are expressed as latitudes (angles north or south of the Equator) and
longitudes (angles east or west of a prime meridian) or as northings and castings on
a rectangular grid.

Classifications of Surveying

Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has
been classified into:

• Control surveying :

To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

• Land surveying :

To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as property
survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.

• Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural

as well as and man-made features including elevation.

• Engineering survey :

To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of engineering

projects. Three broad steps are

1) Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions and availability of

infrastructures.

2) Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to prepare plan/map of area to be

used for planning and design.

3) Location survey : To set out work on the ground for actual

construction/execution of the project.

•Route survey : To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways,
railways, canals,pipelines, and other linear projects.
Construction surveys : Surveys which are required for establishment of points,
lines,grades, and for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been
prepared and the structural design has been done).

•Astronomic surveys : To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation

station) and azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical
observation.

•Mine surveys : To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground
mining purposes

SPECIAL SURVEYS

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, SPECIAL SURVEYS are conducted for a

specific purpose and with a special type of surveying equipment and methods. A
brief discussion of some of the special surveys familiar to you follows.

LAND SURVEYS (sometimes called cadastral or property surveys) are conducted

to establish the exact location, boundaries, or subdivision of a tract of land in any
specified area. This type of survey requires professional registration in all states.
Presently, land surveys generally consist of the following chores:

Chain Surveying
PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING

The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area to be
surveyed is divided into a number of small triangles which should be well
conditioned. In chain surveying the sides of the triangles which should be well
conditioned. In chain surveying the sides of the triangles are measured directly on
the field by chain or tape, and no angular measurements are taken. Here, the tie
lines and check lines control the accuracy of work.

It should be noted that plotting triangles requires no angular measurements to be

made, if the three sides are known.
Chain surveying is recommended when:

1. The ground surface is more or less level

2. A small area is to be surveyed

3. A small-scale map is to be prepared and

4. The formation of well-conditioned triangles is easy

Chain surveying is unsuitable when:

1. The area is crowded with many details

2. The area consists of too many undulations

3. The area is very large and

4. The formation of well-conditioned triangles becomes difficult due to obstacles.

A. Large-Scale and Small-Scale Maps

When 1 cm of a map represents a small distance, it is said to be a large-scale map.

For example,

When 1 cm of the map represents a large distance, it is called a small-scale map.

For example,

A map having an RF of less than 1/500 is considered to be large-scale. A map of

RF more than 1/500 is said to be small-scale.

WELL-CONDITIONED AND ILL-CONDITIONED TRIANGLES

A triangle is said to be well-conditioned when no angle in it is less than 300 or
greater than 1200 . An equilateral triangle is considered to be the best-condition or
ideal triangle Well-conditioned triangles are preferred because their apex points are
very sharp and can be located by a single ‘dot’. In such a case, there is no
possibility of relative displacement of the plotted point.

A triangle in which an angle is less than 300 or more than 1200 is said to be ill
conditioned Well - conditioned triangles are not used in chain surveying. This is
because their apex points are not sharp and well defined, which is why a slight
displacement of these points may cause considerable error in plotting.

RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY AND INDEX SKETCH

Before the commencement of any survey work, the area to be surveyed is

thoroughly examined by the surveyor, who then thinks about the possible
arrangement of the framework of survey. This primary investigation of the area is
termed as reconnaissance survey or reconnoitre. During reconnaissance survey, the
surveyor should walk over the area and note the various obstacles and whether or
not the selected stations are intervisible. The main stations should be so selected
that they enclose the whole area. The surveyor should also take care that .The neat
hand sketch of the area which is prepared during reconnaissance survey is known
as the ‘index sketch’ or ‘key plan’. The index sketch shows the skeleton of the
survey work. It indicates the main survey stations, sub-stations, tie stations, base
line, arrangement for framework of triangles and the approximate positions of
different objects. This sketch is an important document for the surveyor and for the
person who will plot the map. It should be attached to the starting page of the field
book.

DEFINITIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

A. Survey Stations

Survey stations are the points at the beginning and the end of a chain line. They
may also occur at any convenient points on the chain line. Such stations may be:

1. Main stations

2. Subsidiary stations and

3. Tie stations
2. Main stations Stations taken along the boundary of an area as controlling points
are known as ‘main survey lines’. The main survey lines should cover the whole
area to be surveyed. The main stations are denoted by ‘ ’ with letters A, B, C, D,
etc. The chain lines are denoted by “__ … __ ... __...__...__...__”.

3. Subsidiary stations Stations which are on the main survey lines or any other
survey lines are known as “Subsidiary stations”. These stations are taken to run
subsidiary lines for dividing the area into triangles, for checking the accuracy of
triangles and for locating interior details. These stations are denoted by ‘’ with
letters S1,S2,S3, etc.

4. Tie stations These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main survey lines.
Lines joining the tie stations are known as tie lines. Tie lines are mainly taken to
fix the directions of adjacent sides of the chain survey map. These are also taken to
form ‘chain angles’ in chain traversing, when triangulation is not possible.
Sometimes tie lines are taken to locate interior details. Tie stations are denoted by
‘’ with letters T1, T2, T3. Etc.

B. Base Line

The line on which the framework of the survey is built is known as the ‘base line’.
It is the most important line of the survey. Generally, the longest of the main
survey lines is considered the base line. This line should be taken through fairly
level ground, and should be measured very carefully and accurately. The magnetic
bearings of the base line are taken to fix the north line of the map.

C. Check Line

The line joining the apex point of a triangle to some fixed point on its base is
known as the ‘check line’. It is taken to check the accuracy of the triangle.
Sometimes this line helps to locate interior details.

D. Offset

The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known as
‘offset’. Offsets are taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line. They
may be of two kinds - perpendicular and oblique.
1. Perpendicular offsets When the lateral measurements are taken perpendicular to
the chain line, they are known as perpendicular offsets Perpendicular offsets may
be taken in the following ways:

(a) By setting a perpendicular by swinging a tape from the object to the chain
line. The point of minimum reading on the tape will be the base of the
perpendicular

(b) By setting a right angle in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5

(c) By setting a right angle with the help of builder’s square or tri-square

(d) By setting a right angle by cross-staff or optical square.

2. Oblique offsets Any offset not perpendicular to the chain line is said to be
oblique. Oblique offsets are taken when the objects are at a long distance from the
chain line or when it is not possible to set up a right angle due to some difficulties.
Such offsets are taken in the following manner.

Suppose AB is a chain line and p is the corner of a building. Two points ‘a’ and ‘b’
are taken on the chain line. The chainages of ‘a’ and ‘b’ are noted. The distances
‘ap’ and ‘bp’ are measured and noted in the field book. Then ‘ap’ and ‘bp’ are the
oblique offsets. When the triangle abp is plotted, the apex point p will represent the
position of the corner of the the building. Perpendicular offsets are preferred for
the following reasons:

(a) They can be taken very quickly

(b) The progress of survey is not hampered

(c) The entry in the field book becomes easy

(d) The plotting of the offsets also becomes easy

3. Number of offsets The offsets should be taken according to the nature of the
object. So, there is no hard and fast rule regarding the number of offsets. It should
be remembered that the objects are to be correctly represented and hence the
number of offsets should be decided on the field. Some guidelines are given below:

(a) When the boundary of the object is approximately parallel to the chain line,
perpendicular offsets are taken at regular intervals
(b) When the boundary is straight, perpendicular offsets are taken at both ends of it

(c) When the boundary line is zigzag, perpendicular offsets are taken at every point
of bend to represent the shape of the boundary accurately. In such a case, the
interval of the offsets may be irregular

(d) When a road crosses the chain line perpendicularly, the chainage of the
intersection point is to be noted

(e) When a road crosses a chain line obliquely, the chainages of intersection
points‘a’ and ‘b’ are noted. Then at least one offset is taken on both sides of the
inter-section points. More offsets may be taken depending on the nature of the
road. Here, perpendicular offsets are taken at ‘c’ and ‘d’

(f) When the building is small, its corners are fixed by perpendicular or oblique
offsets and the other dimensions are taken directly on the field and noted in the
field book.

(g) When the building is large, zigzag in shape and oblique to the chain line, then
the corners are fixed by perpendicular or oblique offsets. Then the full plan of the
building is drawn on aseparate page along with all the dimensions. This page
should be attached with the field book at the proper place.

(h) When the object is circular, perpendicular offsets are taken at short and regular
intervals

4. Limiting length of offset The maximum length of the offset should not be more
than thelength of the tape used in the survey. Generally, the maximum length of
offset is limited to 15m.

However, this length also depends upon the following factors:

(a) The desired accuracy of the map

(b) The scale of the map

(c) The maximum allowable deflection of the offset from its true direction and

(d) The nature of the ground

SELECTION OF SURVEY STATIONS

The following points should be remembered during the selection of survey
stations:

1. The stations should be so selected that the general principle of surveying may be
strictly followed.

2. The stations should be intervisible.

3. The stations should be selected in such a way that well-conditioned triangles

may be formed.

4. The base line should be the longest of the main survey lines.

5. The survey lines should be taken through fairly level ground, as far as
practicable.

6. The main survey lines should pass close to the boundary line of the area to be

surveyed.

7. The survey lines should be taken close to the objects so that they can be located
by short offsets.

8. The tie stations should be suitably selected to fix the directions of adjacent sides.

9. The subsidiary stations should be suitably selected for taking check lines.

10. Stations should be so selected that obstacles to chaining are avoided as far as

possible.

11. The survey lines should not be very close to main roads, as survey work may
then be interrupted by traffic.

EQUIPMENTS FOR CHAIN SURVEY

The following equipments are required for conducting chain survey:

1. Metric chain (20 m) = 1 no.

2. Arrows = 10 nos.

3. Metallic tape (15 m) = 1 no.

4. Ranging rods = 3 nos.

5. Offset rod = 1 no

6. Clinometer = 1 no

7. Plumb bob with thread = 1 no

8. Cross staff or optical square = 1 no

9. Prismatic compass with stand = 1 no.

10. Wooden pegs = 10 nos.

11. Mallet = 1 no

12. Field book = 10 nos.

13. Good pencil = 1 no

14. Pen knife = 1 no.

15. Eraser (rubber) = 1 no.