INTRODUCTION

 Points in a plane: A point in two-dimensional (2D) is represented on the xy -plane using two
coordinates (x, y).
 3D Coordinate system: The coordinate system in 3D space consists of three axes x, y and z.
 Distance between Points: In 2D-space, the distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
d(P, Q) = √( ) ( ) .
 Similarly in 3D-space, the distance between two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) is
d(P, Q) = √( ) ( ) ( ) .
 Direction of vectors in terms of angle:
N
W of N E of N

N of W N of E
W E
S of W S of E

W of S E of S

 SCALAR: - is any quantity in physics that has MAGNITUDE (Number value with units) ONLY.
Examples: length (20m), area (24m2), volume (15m3), mass (50kg), time (2s), speed (2m/s), age (16 years),
Temp (21° C) etc.
 A VECTOR: - is any quantity in physics that has BOTH MAGNITUDE and DIRECTION.
Vector examples: force (20 N, East), velocity (35 m/s, North), acceleration (10 m/s2, South) etc.
Note: An arrow above the symbol or bold letter is used to illustrate a vector quantity. It
indicates MAGNITUDE and DIRECTION

Exercise: Do you list more physical quantities as vectors or scalars?

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  A vector v can be represented as an ordered pair of real numbers,
 Coordinate form v = 〈x, y〉 or
 the column form v =〈 〉 , where the number x and y is the horizontal components and the vertical
components of v resp.
 If a vector v is represented in the plane with initial point (IP) at the origin P(0, 0) and terminal point(TP)
Q (x, y), then
 Component Form of a Vector is v = 〈x, y〉
 Column form of the vector is v = 〈 〉
 magnitude or length of a vector is v = 〈x, y〉 is |v| = √
 direction of the vector is determined by the slope m = = tanθ
 a vector v is called in position vector
 If a vector v is represented in the plane with initial point P(x1, y1) and terminal point Q (x2, y2), then
 Component Form of a Vector is v = 〈x2 – x1, y2 – y1〉
–
 Column form of the vector is v = 〈 –
〉

 magnitude or length of a vector v = 〈x2 – x1, y2 – y1〉is |v| = √( ) ( )

–
 direction of the vector is a slope m = = tanθ.
–

Note: v = (0, 0) is zero vector obtained if IP and TP lie at the origin

EXAMPLE: Find the coordinate form, column form and the length of the ff given vectors.
a. u with IP at origin and TP(3, -4) b. v with IP (3, –7) and TP (–2, 5).

 ADDITION: When two vectors point in the SAME direction, simply add them together. Vectors
addition can be:
 graphical method: head to tail (w/c is called parallelogram method) or
 analytic method: If u = 〈a1, b1〉 and v = 〈a2, b2〉, then u + v = 〈a1 + a2, b1 + b2〉.

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  When adding vectors,
 their directions must be taken into consideration.
 Units must be the same
Triangle Law of Addition of Vectors

r = u+v is called resultant vector

EXAMPLE: A man walks 46.5 m east, then another 20 m east. Calculate his displacement relative to where
he started. 46.5 m, E + 20 m, E 66.5 m, E
=

 When two vectors are perpendicular, you must use the Pythagorean theorem.
EXAMPLE: A man walks 95 km east then 55km north. Calculate his resultant displacement.

Properties of Vector Addition

If u, v and w are vectors, then
i. u + v = v + u (vector addition is commutative). The order of adding vectors does not matter

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 ii. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (vector addition is associative). When adding three vectors, it doesn’t matter
which two you start with

iii. u + 0 = u = u+0 (Identity Element for Vector Addition). For all vectors u ,there is a unique vector, 0 ,
that acts as an identity element for vector addition..
iv. u + (-u) = 0 (Inverse Element for Vector Addition). For every vector u , there is a unique inverse vector
(−1)u =− u such that u+(−u)= 0 and The vector −u has the same magnitude as u , | -u|= |u |, but they
point in opposite directions or
v. Negative Vectors :Two vectors are negative if they have the same magnitude but opposite directions.

vi. if u = v and v= w then u = w (transitive property of vectors)

Example: Let u = (1, –3) , v = (–2, 3) and w = (4, 2), then find
a. u + w b. v + u c. u + (v + w) d. (u + v) + w
 SUBTRACTION: When two vectors point in the OPPOSITE direction, simply subtract them.
Subtraction of vectors is actually the addition of a negative vector.
That is, If u = 〈a1, b1〉 and v = 〈a2, b2〉, then, u – v = 〈a1 – a2, b1 – b2〉.
 Subtraction used when trying to find a change in a quantity. ∆v = vf – vi
 Subtraction of vectors is not commutative and associative.

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EXAMPLE: A man walks 46.5 m east, then another 20 m west. Calculate his displacement relative to where
he started.
46.5 m, E
-

20 m, W
26.5 m, E
Example:
1. let u = (7, –8), and v = (–1, 6) be vectors. Find u- v
2. If u = 3i+ 7 j and v = i– j, then find u + v and u – v
 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS:
If u = 〈a1, b1〉, then cu =〈ca1, cb1〉, c ∈ℜ is scalar multiplication of vectors u by scalar c
 the magnitude/ length of cu is c times the magnitude of u that is |cu| = |c| |u|.
 scalar multiplication of vectors enlarge/ diminish the origin vector.
 alter or not alter the direction of the origin vector based on the sign of the scalar c.
o if c>0, then the length of cu is c times the length of u and direction the same as u.
o if c< 0, then the length of cu is c times the length of u and direction opposite to u.
o If c = 0, then cu = 0.

Eg: let v = (-4, 9). Find 5v

Properties of Multiplication by a Scalar
Let u and v are vectors and c, d are scalars;
 c(u + v) = cu + cv scalar is distributive over addition of vectors
 (c + d) u = cu + du vector is distributive over addition of scalars
 (cd)u = c(du) = d(cu) vector is associative
 1u = u identity property
 0u = 0 multiplicative property of 0 (The zero vector has length 0 and its direction is not defined).
Eg:

Exercise: Given two vectors u= (1, 3) and v = (-3, 5) in the plane. Then find 6u + 2v.

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  A unit vector denoted as ̂ is a vector whose magnitude/length is 1. That is, | ̂ | = 1. These vectors are
called standard unit base vectors and are expressed by i, j and k where
i = (1,0,0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) are coordinates of the unit vectors.
 Unit vectors are used to specify a given direction and have no other physical significance.
 Symbols i, j and k are used for unit vectors and pointing in the positive x, y and z direction respectively.
 If v is any non-zero vector, the unit vector in the direction of v is obtained by multiplying vector v by| | .
That is, the unit vector ̂ in the direction of v is ̂ .
| |
Eg: let u = (2, 4) and v = (1, 2). Find
a) a unit vector in the direction of the vector u b) a unit vector in the direction opposite to the vector v
c) a unit vector in the direction of the vector -3u + 2v d) a unit vector in the direction of the vector u-v
Exercise: If u = 2j-k and v = i-8j + 3k, then what is the unit vector in the direction of 5u + v?

Vectors in Terms of i, j and k

Any vector v can be expressed uniquely in the form
 v = xi + yj in the plane and
 v = xi + yj + zk in the space where x, y and z are scalars. In this case, v is expressed as a linear
combination of I, j and k.
 v = 〈x, y〉 = xi + yj = x(1, 0) + y(0, 1) in the plan.

 The vector v = 〈x, y, z〉 = xi + yj+ zk = x(1,0,0) + y(0, 1,0) + z(0, 0, 1) in a space.

Example: Express the following vectors in terms of the standard unit vectors and find their norm.
a (7, –8) b (–1, 5) c. (3, 4, 5)

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  If a vector v, (position vector), is represented in the plan with initial point (IP) at the origin P(0, 0) and
terminal point(TP) Q (x, y), then magnitude or norm of a vector is v = 〈x, y〉 is |v| = √
 If a vector v is represented in the plan with initial point P(x1, y1) and terminal point Q (x2, y2), then
magnitude or norm of a vector v = 〈x2 – x1, y2 – y1〉is |v| = √( ) ( )
 If a vector v is represented in the space with initial point P(0, 0, 0) and terminal point Q (x, y, z), then
magnitude or norm of a vector v = 〈x, y, z〉 is |v| = √
 If a vector v is represented in the space with initial point P(x1, y1, z1) and terminal point Q (x2, y2, z2),
then magnitude or norm of a vector v = 〈x2 – x1, y2 – y1 , z2-z1〉is
|v| = √( ) ( ) ( )
Eg:1 Find the coordinate form and the length/ norm of the vector v that has
a) initial point (3, –7) and terminal point (–2, 5).
b) IP at origin and TP(3,6)
c) A(1, 7,3) as its initial point and B(4, 3,6) as its terminal point
d) IP at origin and TP at (3,4,-7)
2.

Remark
 Two nonzero vectors are called parallel if they have the same norm and the same or opposite direction or
two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if one is a scalar multiple of the other.
That is u//v implies u = kv
 Equality of Two Vectors:
 Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.
 Two vectors having the same corresponding components and direction and represent the same physical
quantity. That is, if u = (a, b) and v = (c,d), then u= v iff a =c and b =d

Examples

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Exercise: Find the values of x, y and z so that the vectors a = xi + 2j + zk and b = 2i + yj + k are equal.

Vector multiplications can be:

 Dot product
 Cross product

Objective: Scalar products enable the angle between two vectors to be calculated.

Definition: Let u = x1i + y1j and v = x2i + y2j are vectors. Then the dot product of u and v is written using a dot
as an operator (∙) is
 u. v = x1x2+ y1y2 is the component form
 u. v = | || | is the geometric form where is the angle b/n u and v
 cos =
| || | | || |
which can be used to find the angle between two vectors.
 90 , then u. v = 0 and orthogonal vectors (u )
 0 , then u and | || |
 180 , then u but opposite in direction/ antiparallel and | || |
 | || |


Notes:
 Dot product (u. v) is multiplication results a scalar quantity.
 When vectors are added, subtracted or multiplied, the unit vectors have to be considered.
 As two vectors added or subtracted, the similar components (i with i, j with j and k with k) are
combined or subtracted together, only.
 When two vectors multiplied with dot (.), similar components multiplications are equal to one while
non-similar components multiplications are equal to zero.

Example:
1. Let u and v be vectors with | |= 4 and | |= 4 and . Then find their dot product
2. Find the dot product of the vectors u and v when
a) u= (0, 1) and v = (0, 2) b) u= (–2, 0) and v = ( 3, 3) c) u = (2, -4, 6) and v = (-2, -1, 0)
3. . Then find

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i. a. b ii. a + b and a-b iii. angle b/n a and b iv. angle b/n a + b and a-b
Exercise: If the angle b/n the vector u = (2, -1, 1) and v = (1, 1, k) is , then what is the value of k?
Properties of Scalar/dot Product
Let u, v and w are vectors, and k is a scalar. Then
i. , dot product is commutative.
ii. k( )=
iii. ( ) u.v + u.v, dot product is distributive over addition of vectors.
2 2
iv. | | = | || |
v. | |2 = (u+ v). (u + v)= 2 + 2 + 2
vi. | |2 = (u -v). (u - v)= 2 - 2 + 2
Exercise: Suppose a and b are vectors with| | 4, | |= 7 and the angle between a and b is π/3. Evaluate| |

Remark: A vector is said to be normal to a plane if it is perpendicular to every vector that lies in the plane. The
equation of a plane can be found from:
 A point A (a, b, c) on the plane.
 A normal vector n = [l, m, n]to the plane
In the diagram below, (x, y, z) is a general point on the plane .
As AP= [x- a, y- b, z- c]and n=[l, m, n] are perpendicular, their scalar product is zero and
l(x- a)+m(y- b)+n(z- c)=0. The equation of is l(x- a) + m(y- b) + n(z- c)=0

A coordinate plane is extended to three-dimension space.

Consider:
 A fixed-point O in the space w/c is called the origin
 The three lines that are mutually perpendicular at the point O which are called x- axis, y- axis and z- axis
 The x- and y- axes on a horizontal xy- plane and the z- axis vertical or perpendicular or normal to the
plane containing x- and y- axes at the point O as shown below

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 This coordinate indicates dimension space.
With these axes any point P in space can be assigned in three coordinates (x, y, z) as shown below.

Eg: Locate the following points using reference axes x, y, and z.

a. (3, 4, 5) b. (3, -5, 7) c. (0, 4, 0)

Let the IP of a vector in space be at the origin O of the coordinate system and let its TP be at P(x, y, z) as shown
below, then the vector OP is the sum of its three components in the direction of the x, y and z axes, in the form
OP= xi + yj + zk.

Eg: Let IP of a vector in space is at origin and its TP is (4, 6,5). Then
a. Represent a vector on a space.
b. Express using standard unit vectors
c. Find its magnitude

 If the IP and TP of a vector v is at origin and P(x, y,z) resp. then; norm of a vector v = 〈x, y, z〉 is
|v| = √
 If a vector v is represented in the space with initial point P(x1, y1, z1) and terminal point Q (x2, y2, z2),
then magnitude or norm of a vector v = 〈x2 – x1, y2 – y1 , z2-z1〉is
|v| = √( ) ( ) ( )

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Eg: Find the magnitude of the following vectors in space.
a, v = 2i-6j + k b. u with IP (0,0,0) and TP (3, -2, 5) c. w with IP (0, -4,0) and TP (6, 3, 4)

Exercise: Let P = (1, r, r) and Q = (r-1, 1, 1) be two points in space and the distance b/n P and Q is 3. Then what
is the value of r?

Definition: Given a non-zero vectors u = and v = . Then the cross product of

u and v is a vector:

u v=[ ]= ( ) ( )j + ( )k.

Note
 Cross product (u x v) results a vector quantity.
 The cross-product u v is orthogonal to both u and v.
 If is the angle b/n u and v then norm of cross product is, | |= | || | .
 The magnitude of the cross product determines the area of a parallelogram. That is, if u and v are
directed line segment with the same IP, then area of a parallelogram of base| | and height | | is
given by
A=| |= | || | .

EXAMPLES
1. let Then find the vector product, u x v and its norm
2. If then find the value of (u + v) x (u – v)
3. Find the sine of the angle b/n the vectors .

Exercise
1, Find a unit vector perpendicular to the vector .
2. Find the value of r for which the vectors 3 are parallel
3. Find a vector of magnitude 18 which is orthogonal to both the vectors .
4. If a and b are two vectors that | | 2, | |= 7 and a x b = , find the angle b/n a and b.

Properties of cross product: Take a note from the text book

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  Dot product is used to find an angle b/n two vectors, length of vectors and work done by force.
 Cross product is mostly used to determine a vector w/c is orthogonal to the plane surface spanned by
two vectors.
Eg:

Exercise: If the dot product of a vector v with vectors are 4, 0, and 2,

respectively, what is a vector v?

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 Remark:
 Any two points in the plane determine a straight line.
 Straight line in the plane is determined by its slope and a point through w/c it passes.
 These lines may have a certain direction. Therefore, related to vectors, you will observe how one can
write:
 Equation of lines
 Equation of circles
 Equation of tangent line to a circle.

Consider:
 A line L on xy-plane
 Two points ( ) and ( ) in the line L
 ⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗ is position vector of and .
 Direction vector( v) from to ; v = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = ( ).
 Any point R(x, y) on the line and its position vector as shown in figure below.

Then, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (vectors addition/ triangle law)

⃗⃗⃗ = , where t ∈ (since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )

Thus,
1. The vector equation of the line L is given by:

𝑟 𝑟⃗⃗ 𝑡𝒗 Where, t ∈ is direction vector of the line.

2. Let v = (p, q), ( )and R(x, y), the above equation(1) can be written as:
(x, y) = ( ) + t(p, q) = ( ) + (tp, tq) =( )
(x, y) = ( ) by equality of ordered pairs we have,
x= and y = and the equations is called parametric equations of the line L.
3. If (p, q) ( ), then from 2 above, we have
and
is called the standard equations of the line
Eg:
Exercise: What is the standard equation of the line passing through the point (2, 3) and parallel to the line given
by {( )( ) for real t?

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Consider the followings: -
 A circle with centre C( ) and radius r > 0 on xy – plane with its position vector =( )
 Any point R(x, y) on a circle with its position vector =(x, y)as shown in figure below.

Then, |⃗ ⃗ | = r and by squaring both side we have, |⃗ ⃗ | =

(⃗ ⃗ )(⃗ ⃗ ) -----------------------------------(1)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ------------------------------------(2)
By substituting the corresponding coordinates of ⃗ ⃗ ( ) ( ) , we
have,
() ( )( )+ ( )
( ) ( )+( )=
( )+( =
( ) ( ) = is called the standard form of equation of a circle.
This equation can be written as + , where
- which is called the general form of equation of a circle.
Eg:

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Consider the followings: -
 A circle with centre C( ) and radius r on xy – plane
 A tangent line L to a circle at the point of tangency, ( ).
 ( ) is a point of tangency
 An arbitrary point R (x, y) on a line L as shown in figure below.

Thus,
 ( ) ( ) = is equation of a circle.
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is orthogonal to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =r w/c implies that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
(x-x1, y-y1) . (x1-x0, y1-y0) = 0
(x-x1)( x1-x0) + (y-y1)( y1-y0) = 0 ----------------------------------(*)
Adding equation (*) and ( ) ( ) = together, we have
(x-x1)( x1-x0) + (y-y1)( y1-y0) + ( ) ( ) = ------------------------------(**)
Factorizing (x1-x0) and (y1-y0) from respective terms of equation (**), you have
(x1-x0)[x-x1 + ( y1-y0)[ y-y1 + ]=
( )( x1-x0) ( ) ( y1-y0) =
Therefore,( )( x1-x0) ( )(y1-y0) = is called equation of a tangent line to a circle with
centre C( ) at a point of tangency ( ).
Eg:
Exercise: If the circle passing through the point (-1, 0) touches the y-axis at(0, 2), then what is the equation of
the circle?

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