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The document promotes a collection of ebooks focused on science and engineering projects using Arduino and Raspberry Pi, highlighting various titles and their authors. It provides links for instant downloads and emphasizes the educational value of these resources in exploring STEM concepts. Additionally, the document includes details about the authors and the content structure of one specific book, including chapters on technology tools, data logging, and various science projects.

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9 views

Science and Engineering Projects Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi: Explore STEM Concepts with Microcomputers 1st Edition Paul Bradt - The full ebook with complete content is ready for download

The document promotes a collection of ebooks focused on science and engineering projects using Arduino and Raspberry Pi, highlighting various titles and their authors. It provides links for instant downloads and emphasizes the educational value of these resources in exploring STEM concepts. Additionally, the document includes details about the authors and the content structure of one specific book, including chapters on technology tools, data logging, and various science projects.

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ehnesbeskaxm
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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TECHNOLOGY IN AC TION™

Science and
Engineering Projects
Using the Arduino
and Raspberry Pi
Explore STEM Concepts with
Microcomputers

Paul Bradt
David Bradt
Science and
Engineering Projects
Using the Arduino
and Raspberry Pi
Explore STEM Concepts
with Microcomputers

Paul Bradt
David Bradt
Science and Engineering Projects Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi:
Explore STEM Concepts with Microcomputers
Paul Bradt David Bradt
Houston, TX, USA Houston, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-5810-1 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-5811-8


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5811-8

Copyright © 2020 by Paul Bradt and David Bradt


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a trademark
symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image we use the names, logos,
and images only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no
intention of infringement of the trademark.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not
they are subject to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal
responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
Managing Director, Apress Media LLC: Welmoed Spahr
Acquisitions Editor: Aaron Black
Development Editor: James Markham
Coordinating Editor: Jessica Vakili
Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media New York, 233
Spring Street, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10013. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax (201) 348-4505, e-mail
orders-ny@springer-sbm.com, or visit www.springeronline.com. Apress Media, LLC is a
California LLC and the sole member (owner) is Springer Science + Business Media Finance Inc
(SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
For information on translations, please e-mail rights@apress.com, or visit http://www.apress.
com/rights-permissions.
Apress titles may be purchased in bulk for academic, corporate, or promotional use. eBook
versions and licenses are also available for most titles. For more information, reference our Print
and eBook Bulk Sales web page at http://www.apress.com/bulk-sales.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the author in this book is
available to readers on GitHub via the book’s product page, located at www.apress.com/
978-1-4842-5810-1. For more detailed information, please visit http://www.apress.com/
source-code.
Printed on acid-free paper
The authors dedicate this book to
all of the Science, Technology, Engineering,
Math (STEM) teachers who guide and
shape the paths of many young minds (including ours)
to question, learn, and utilize new technology to
solve problems. Without these unsung heroes,
the world would not have powerful cell phones,
highly reliable cars, the Internet, and many other
amazing things we routinely take for granted.
Table of Contents
About the Authors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

About the Technical Reviewer�����������������������������������������������������������xiii


Acknowledgments������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv
Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii

Chapter 1: Key Technology Tools����������������������������������������������������������1


Arduino Basics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Arduino Setup��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
Ports and Interfaces����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Lessons Learned About the Arduino����������������������������������������������������������������6
Raspberry Pi Basics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Raspberry Pi Setup����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Lessons Learned About the Raspberry Pi������������������������������������������������������15
Basic Electronics Definitions������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18

Chapter 2: Data Logging Basics����������������������������������������������������������19


Data Logging with the Arduino����������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Data Logging with the Raspberry Pi�������������������������������������������������������������������26
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Physics and Mathematics Basics������������������������������������37


Temperature��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37
Force�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
Pressure��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39
Basic Concept of Algebra������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
Statistical Concepts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Direct Compared to Inferred Measurements�������������������������������������������������������41
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42

Chapter 4: Simple Science and Engineering Projects������������������������43


Buoyancy of Air���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Arduino Buoyancy of Air Version��������������������������������������������������������������������45
Raspberry Pi Buoyancy of Air Version������������������������������������������������������������52
Buoyancy Recap��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
Demonstrating Pressure�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
Pressure/Force Recap�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Capturing Counts������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Counts Recap������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70

Chapter 5: Advanced Physics and Mathematics for Science and


Engineering����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Basics Terms of Calculus������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
How Heat Transfer Works������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
Conduction Heat Transfer������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
Convection Heat Transfer�������������������������������������������������������������������������������74
Radiation Heat Transfer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
All Three Heat Transfer Mechanisms Work Together!������������������������������������77

vi
Table of Contents

Mass�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Velocity and Acceleration������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Inertia������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
Momentum����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
Friction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
More Advanced Aspects of Calculus�������������������������������������������������������������������83
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84

Chapter 6: Time/Condition-­Dependent Projects���������������������������������85


Conduction Heat Transfer Through an Aluminum Rod�����������������������������������������85
Ensure Consistency in Temperature Sensor Readings����������������������������������90
Aluminum Rod Conduction Heat Transfer Recap�������������������������������������������94
Conduction Heat Transfer Through a Window�����������������������������������������������������94
Window Conduction Heat Transfer Recap����������������������������������������������������103
Convection Heat Transfer����������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Convection Heat Transfer Recap������������������������������������������������������������������108
Zero Gravity Demonstration������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
Zero Gravity Recap��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������118
Measuring Frictional Force Projects�����������������������������������������������������������������118
Arduino Frictional Force Project������������������������������������������������������������������119
Operational Schematic��������������������������������������������������������������������������������121
Arduino Frictional Force Recap�������������������������������������������������������������������124
Raspberry Pi Frictional Force Project����������������������������������������������������������124
Raspberry Pi Frictional Force Recap�����������������������������������������������������������131
Acceleration Projects����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������131
Acceleration Direct to Computer�����������������������������������������������������������������131

vii
Table of Contents

Acceleration with Computer Recap�������������������������������������������������������������������139


Acceleration Measurement Without a Computer�����������������������������������������139
Acceleration Without Computer Recap�������������������������������������������������������������148
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������148

Chapter 7: Light and Imaging Projects���������������������������������������������149


Radiation Heat Transfer�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������149
Analysis of Heat Transfer�����������������������������������������������������������������������������161
Radiation Heat Transfer Recap��������������������������������������������������������������������162
Astrophotography with the Raspberry Pi Camera���������������������������������������������162
Assembling the Meade ETX-60AT and Raspberry Pi�����������������������������������165
Astrophotography Meade ETX-60AT Setup Recap���������������������������������������169
Assembling the 4 1/2-Inch Reflector Telescope and the Raspberry Pi�������������169
Components Needed to Assemble the Raspberry Pi 3
Mounting System to the 4 1/2-Inch Telescope�������������������������������������������172
Reflector Telescope Setup Recap����������������������������������������������������������������175
Basic Raspistill Previewing an Image with the Terminal Command Line����������175
Using Raspistill to Capture an Image�����������������������������������������������������������177
More Advanced Raspistill Input Without a Keyboard�����������������������������������177
Raspistill Image Capture Recap�������������������������������������������������������������������179
Astrophotography Raspberry Pi Python GUI������������������������������������������������������179
Initiating the GUI������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������183
PI_SN003 Raspberry PI GUI Recap��������������������������������������������������������������184
Assembling the Raspberry Pi and Touchscreen in the Case�����������������������������184
Raspberry Pi, Touchscreen, and Case����������������������������������������������������������184
Modification of the Case and Assembly������������������������������������������������������185
Components and Assembly of the Raspberry Pi Case Recap����������������������188

viii
Table of Contents

Camera Modifications, Camera Case, and Power Cables����������������������������������188


Camera Modifications����������������������������������������������������������������������������������188
Building the Camera Case���������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Final Assembly of the Camera in the Case��������������������������������������������������196
Power Cord Combination�����������������������������������������������������������������������������197
Camera, Camera Case, and Power Cord Assembly Recap���������������������������197
Building the Shelf for the Meade ETX-60AT������������������������������������������������197
Shelf Components and Assembly Recap�����������������������������������������������������203
Helpful Hints Using the Telescope and Raspberry Pi����������������������������������������203
Lessons Learned Recap������������������������������������������������������������������������������207
Example Images and Enhancing Them Using a Video Capture GUI�������������������207
Example Images Taken with the Upgraded Meade ETX-60AT
Astrophotography System���������������������������������������������������������������������������208
Recap of Example Images and Enhancement Techniques��������������������������217
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������217

Appendix: Reference Material����������������������������������������������������������219


Soldering Safety������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������219
General Shop Safety������������������������������������������������������������������������������������220
Manufacturing Techniques��������������������������������������������������������������������������������220
Soldering�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������221
Basic Arduino and Raspberry Pi Python Commands�����������������������������������222
3D Printing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������224
Computer-Aided Design Options�����������������������������������������������������������������������225
Project Management for Engineering���������������������������������������������������������������226
Decision Analysis for Engineering���������������������������������������������������������������������226
Thermal Conductivity Coefficients��������������������������������������������������������������������227
Coefficients of Friction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������228

ix
Table of Contents

Astronomy Terms����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������228
Specifications of the Meade ETX-60AT�������������������������������������������������������������229
Setup, Updates, and Repairs�����������������������������������������������������������������������231
Helpful Books����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������232

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������233

x
About the Authors
Paul Bradt has a BS in Computer Science
from the University of Houston–Clear
Lake. He currently owns a small business
and writes books, develops code, and does
IT support work. He has experimented
with the Arduino and Raspberry Pi system
and believes them to be excellent tools for
developing an understanding of electronic
components and hardware interaction in
integrated systems. He believes they are very
useful as a teaching aid in learning computer
programming, science, and engineering. He likes to perform sophisticated
troubleshooting of computer problems and has found that online
resources can be a great help for novice users to get their experiments
operating quickly and effectively.

David Bradt has a BS in Mechanical


Engineering from New Mexico State University
with many years of experience in the
aerospace industry and in the petrochemical
industry. He enjoys building and designing
devices to measure and control systems. He
has found the Arduino and Raspberry Pi to be
incredibly powerful little devices that with a
little bit of work can do many different tasks.
He is a big fan of Star Trek: The Original Series
and astronomy.

xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Sri Manikanta Palakollu is an undergraduate student pursuing his
bachelor’s degree in Computer Science and Engineering at SICET under
JNTUH. He is a founder of the OpenStack Developer Community in his
college. He started his journey as a competitive programmer. He always
loves to solve problems that are related to the data science field. His
interests include data science, app development, web development,
cybersecurity, and technical writing. He has published many articles
on data science, machine learning, programming, and cybersecurity in
publications like Hacker Noon, freeCodeCamp, Noteworthy, and DDI
through the Medium platform.

xiii
Acknowledgments
This book would not be possible without the authors’ gaining early
technical insight regarding the Raspberry Pi and Arduino from others.
Jared Brank and Dennis Pate provided a lot of basic information, key
insights, and Arduino hardware early in the process. The authors thank
the following individuals who listened to them on many occasions and
provided help, insight, and inspiration with their own experiences with
the Raspberry Pi and other projects: Jeff Dunehew, Todd Franke, and Fitz
Walker. Additionally, significant assistance with 3D printing was provided
by Mitch Long and David Thoerig.
Producing this book would not have been possible without the
excellent help and guidance regarding scope and early editorial reviews
by Joanna Opaskar and Ed Weisblatt. The authors also utilized many
ideas from Andrew Bradt and Laura Brank’s science fair experience. Most
important was the support and advice from Andrea Bradt.

xv
Introduction
The authors’ journey developing this book started in 2013 when they
discovered the Arduino microcontroller. It is interesting how something big
really starts with one step as they found the Arduino incredibly powerful.
Users are able to program it with computer code, and then it executes its
instructions for as long as it has power. The authors started evaluating
various applications of the Arduino around the house and in their hobby
endeavors. In 2017, they started experimenting with the Raspberry Pi
minicomputer which enables users to take projects to a whole new level
with a low-cost computer that interfaces with sensors. Since a Raspberry
Pi is very affordable, a real computer can now be dedicated to operating a
system permanently. While requiring some technical steps to set up, both
of these tools can be used to gather data, automate tasks, and provide a
lot of fun. The authors found it very satisfying to watch a device do several
tasks, especially when they set it up. This book chronicles some science
and engineering projects the authors developed over the past few years
and provides helpful hints, along with a few things to avoid.
There are two primary areas of focus or goals of this book. The first goal
is to help the reader explore the Arduino and Raspberry Pi. The second
goal is exploring science and engineering in interesting and fun ways.
The projects and concepts in this book are meant to accomplish
the first goal by providing information to get an Arduino or Raspberry
Pi system set up, running, and ready to capture data. The text provides
enough detail for users with average assembly or electrical skills to
complete them. Additionally, the goals of learning are to gain knowledge
and skills. When the reader engages in a project that requires them to
try new things, it reinforces how they learn and gain confidence and
encourages them to try even more complex tools and techniques.

xvii
Introduction

The second goal is exploring concepts of STEM (Science, Technology,


Engineering, Mathematics) and working through examples to demonstrate
basic scientific and engineering concepts. Finally, the authors provide
some detail on the mathematics needed to understand and explain the
science demonstrated.
Science and engineering provide critical skill sets for the modern world
that can be used in everyday life. People use these skills to develop the
technology that the modern world relies on. This book can establish these
skill sets for a fruitful and rewarding career.
The authors hope this book inspires the reader to expand and explore
their own STEM projects by including a wide range from beginner to
advanced. From these examples, the reader can learn many techniques,
tools, and technologies and apply them beyond the ones listed here; but
first, the authors introduce STEM.

What Is STEM?
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) is a program
based on educating students in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics in an integrated, interdisciplinary approach to learning.
School systems today strive to improve education in STEM. This goal is
an area where educators can use outside help developing and improving
students’ knowledge when they actively contribute, design, and build
hands-on projects. In many ways, the young mind is excited and motivated
building projects. They develop an in-depth understanding of what is
required and how it works. The authors believe this is the best way to learn
and remember these concepts, which results in a solid STEM foundation
for students.
A question not often understood is how the scientific method is different
from an engineering approach. Understanding the difference between
science and engineering can be seen in the original Star Trek series.

xviii
Introduction

Mr. Spock was the science officer, and Montgomery Scott (Scotty) was
the chief engineer. Their jobs and how they approached new scenarios
or problems really provide a great explanation about the differences
and similarities between science and engineering. Let’s examine some
examples.
Mr. Spock used the term fascinating when describing a new event
or phenomenon. The role of science is to expand knowledge and
investigate new events. This fascination with new and unique areas is
key for a scientist. Scotty, the engineer, on the other hand always had to
fix the warp engines, the transporter, or some other critical system. The
normal role of an engineer is to develop and implement solutions to
problems. In one of the episodes, Scotty indicated he would rather read
his engineering journals to learn about how others solved problems
than go on shore leave!

Science
Researchers use the scientific method as a tool to understand questions
in their area of interest. Based on the information they have initially,
they develop a hypothesis and then methods to test the validity of the
hypothesis. When sufficient test data are gathered and analyzed, the
researcher either accepts or rejects the hypothesis. In many cases, positive
or negative results point to the next step or direction of exploration and
contribute to the general body of scientific and engineering knowledge.

Engineering
The primary goal of engineering is to evaluate alternatives and choose
the optimal solution to minimize or eliminate specific problems or issues.
Solutions are not necessarily new, but may be repurposed concepts
applied to different problem areas. Other aspects of engineering include

xix
Introduction

planning the work, selecting components to meet requirements, and


following through on managing and completing a project. Often projects
or systems fail because the planning, scheduling, and logistics of activities
are not adequately engineered for an optimum solution. These skills are
important and necessary in any job.
Science and engineering use many of the same tools and techniques,
but it is important to understand the distinction between scientific
experimentation and the engineering process of developing optimal
solutions. For one thing, they both use the language of mathematics to
describe percentages, results, probability, and other physical parameters.
However, science’s goal is to expand knowledge which is different than
engineering’s goal of selecting an optimum solution and proceeding with
solving the problem. One other difference is a scientific test often gains
new knowledge, whereas an engineering test often demonstrates how a
system performs a function. In many ways, they are synergistic as science
often provides new tools and ideas for engineers to use to solve problems.
In the authors’ minds, the roots of some key technological
advancements that exist now can be traced back 50 years to the original
Star Trek TV show. For example, in the show, they used tricorders to gather
data about aliens, equipment failures, medical problems, and a host of
other out of this world challenges. They had communicators that allowed
them to contact crewmembers all over alien worlds. Finally, they had the
replicators that allowed them to produce any type of food they desired.
Today we don’t have tricorders, but we do have some examples that 50
years ago would have been amazing. Today there are personal computers,
cell phones, 3D printing, and incredible sensors based on the early
transistors of the 1960s. The Arduino and the Raspberry Pi, two examples
of new technology, can be built into devices similar to the incredibly
versatile Star Trek tricorders.

xx
Introduction

Both Mr. Spock and Scotty realized they needed each other (science
and engineering) to accomplish the goals of exploration and keep
the Enterprise flying safely through space. In today’s complex world,
integrating science and engineering is key to researching problems and
developing solutions.
In the following chapters, the authors will demonstrate all of the
components of STEM needed to research scientific questions, use new
technology (Arduino and Raspberry Pi), employ engineering techniques,
and use mathematics to quantify the scientific data. As Star Trek boldly
went forth to explore new worlds, the authors hope the students of today
do the same!

xxi
CHAPTER 1

Key Technology Tools


This chapter will highlight some of the basics about the Arduino and the
Raspberry Pi. It will help the reader get started if they are unfamiliar with
these powerful devices. It is amazing what these devices can do and this
chapter provides some basic aspects for getting them set up to run.

A
 rduino Basics
The Arduino is a powerful microcontroller that is ready to program and
acts as an intermediary device between a personal computer and various
sensors. It is relatively new technology that is a great tool for gaining
insight into physical properties and other scientific parameters.
The Arduino board was first developed in Italy in 2004 as a tool to help
train students in programming. It is an open source tool and as such has
developed a large base of helpful web sites and user groups. It represents
a breakthrough as an easy-to-use, relatively inexpensive, programmable
interface between a computer and various sensors. The software
development package and all of the online resources help make this an
ideal data logging tool for science fair/college projects.
The Arduino, Adafruit, SparkFun, Hacktronics, and other web sites are
great places to start. There are also several introductory books to help the
researcher get started using this device. Getting started with Arduino by
Banzi is a very good beginner’s book on Arduino.
Other sources of information for the Arduino novice are maker faires
and user group activities.
© Paul Bradt and David Bradt 2020 1
P. Bradt and D. Bradt, Science and Engineering Projects Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5811-8_1
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

There are several versions and sizes, but for the projects in this book,
the Arduino Uno and the Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
version 1.89 were utilized. Figure 1-1 shows an example of the Arduino
Uno. The authors recommend for the person unfamiliar with Arduinos
to use an official version and not a clone. The authors have never
experienced a problem with an official Arduino, but there are many clones,
and the authors have experienced problems with one of them.

Figure 1-1. Arduino Uno

A
 rduino Setup
Setting up an Arduino is relatively straightforward; the reader should
follow these basic steps to get the device running:

1. The Arduino is connected to a computer via a USB


connection to the input port (see Figure 1-3).

2. Load code using the IDE (see Figure 1-2).

3. Open the serial monitor to get data.

These steps sound basic, and after the reader completes these steps a few
times, they will see how easy it is to connect and run an Arduino. In many cases,

2
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

the challenges occur with the code. If the reader is copying code from a source,
it is important to type it in exactly as it looks. Even then there could be errors, but
that is part of the adventure, and it’s very rewarding when the code runs.

Figure 1-2. Arduino IDE

P
 orts and Interfaces
Figure 1-3 shows the main ports of the Arduino Uno.

3
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

Figure 1-3. Arduino Ports

There are five primary port groupings that are used to connect to the
Arduino:

Computer port: This is the primary port that is


directly connected to the computer. It is a ­micro-­
USB port that powers and enables the user to
upload the sketches or programs to the Arduino.

Battery power port: This port allows an Arduino


to be unplugged from a computer and use battery
power to operate. A standard wall power supply that
provides 9–12 V DC can also be used.

Sensor power ports: These plug connections


provide 3.3 V and 5 V DC power. There is also a reset
connection and input voltage connection.

Analog device ports: These connections are for


analog inputs.

Digital device ports: These are for digital inputs


and outputs.

4
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

IDE (Integrated Development Environment):


The IDE is the program that is used to develop the
code. It is the programming tool that runs on a
computer and has features to help the developer
write code. The IDE tool must be downloaded from
the Arduino web site.

Sketch: The code that runs on an Arduino is called


a sketch. Once the code is developed in the IDE, it is
uploaded to the Arduino.

Libraries: These are code modules that are installed


on the Arduino and called up by the program when
needed. Libraries add a lot of functionality and do
not require any additional coding.

There are other components and hardware that can be used with the
Arduino:

Shields/breakout boards: These are add-on boards


that are either inserted into the standard Arduino
board ports or connected via wires.

Sensors: A sensor is a device that senses some type


of data. It can be used to directly measure a physical
aspect, or it can be used with some mathematics to
infer a physical measurement.

Effectors: An effector imparts some change in the


physical world when activated. Motors, solenoids,
and servos are some examples.

LCDs: Liquid Crystal Display can be used to show


data.

LEDs: Light-Emitting Diodes or other incandescent


lights can also indicate an event has occurred.

5
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

Lessons Learned About the Arduino


The Arduino is relatively easy to use, but the authors found there are a few
key points that will help when using this powerful device:

• Each Arduino attaches to a specific com port. The port


may have to be changed or selected in the tools tab
under “port” to get the IDE to recognize the Arduino.

• If the code is being pasted into the IDE, do not copy


from Microsoft Word or another word processor. First,
put it in a text editor such as Notepad, Notepad++,
or some other C/C++ IDE editor and then copy it
from there. Important note: Notepad and Notepad++
are not development tools like the IDE. One other
very important item of note is when the code was
transcribed into the book format some of the code text
that must be on one line may show up on two lines in
this book. The authors have tried their best to highlight
the code that should be on one line in the IDE by
bolding it in the Listing. Please contact the authors if
there are questions at contact@pdanalytic.com.

• It is a good idea to test the devices with a basic program


to be sure they work, before moving to a more complex
program.

• If the final code is complex, get each piece of code


working before adding more modules. This way, it is
easier to find the module where the problem is located.

• The authors recommend for long timing events or


complex programs to not use the “delay command,”
because it locks the Arduino and prevents it from doing
anything else. Instead, use the “milli command” that

6
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

tracks time intervals between events and still allows


other actions to occur. The milli code might be a little
more complex, but it allows the Arduino to perform
other functions simultaneously. Using the delay
command for short events or simple programs like
the ones in this book, such as a switch debounce, is
recommended.

• A feature built into the Arduino IDE is the “auto-format


command.” It can be found under the tools tab or using
“Alt+T.” This command helps identify missing items and
also helps organize the code for improved readability.

• One more key aspect of Arduino coding is the “loop


command.” There are a few different types, but common
ones such as “void loop” and the “for command”
perform several operations and then repeat them.

• Check the wiring twice before applying power. It can be


difficult to see which port a wire is plugged into when
there are several wires.

• It is hard to know what code is on an Arduino. One easy


way that helps determine what is loaded on an Arduino
is saving code with a descriptive name, date, and even
time information. This helps programmers who may
need to go back to a previous code version.

• One other very helpful trick is to put the descriptive


name of the code on a piece of tape and stick it on top
of the computer port. This helps when working on, or
programing, several different Arduinos.

• One of the advantages of the Arduino is that once it is


programmed, it remembers the code. When a power
source is plugged into the battery power port, it will

7
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

operate the Arduino. According to the Arduino web site,


any power source that can supply 9–12 V DC, 250 mA, or
more will work. The plug must be 2.1 mm with the center
pin providing positive voltage and the exterior of the plug
the negative terminal. Some power supplies do not deliver
enough current or do not provide stable power. If an
Arduino is behaving strangely, try a different power supply.

• Some programs need special ways to use and


communicate with the Arduino. To do this, the reader
should understand these special connection ports on
the Arduino Uno: analog A5 is the SCL (Clock port) and
A4 is the SDA (Data port).

Raspberry Pi Basics
The Raspberry Pi 3 is a powerful minicomputer. This piece of technology
comes with a lot of features like any other modern computer. It is an
experimental/hobbyist device developed around 2011 in the United
Kingdom to teach programming. For its low cost, it has many capabilities
and allows the user to configure it in many ways. There are several models
on the market. For this book, the authors choose the Raspberry Pi 3
Model B V1.2 (Figures 1-4 and 1-5). There is a new Raspberry Pi 4 that
was recently released that has more features. The authors researched the
setup and use of the Raspberry Pi 4, and it appears to be the same as the
Raspberry Pi 3. We believe these projects will work the same if you have a
Raspberry Pi 4.

8
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

Figure 1-4. Raspberry Pi

Figure 1-5. Raspberry Pi Ports

Once the Raspberry Pi 3 is up and running, it is just like a normal


personal computer. It has a graphical user interface (GUI) similar to any
computer that enables you to open programs or files with the click of a
mouse. It uses a version of the Linux program for the operating system
(OS) called Debian, so it is a bit of a hobbyist machine and occasionally
may have an issue. There are a lot of online resources to find help.

9
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

The Raspberry Pi 3 has a 1.2 GHz 64-bit quad-core CPU, 1 GB RAM, an


integrated wireless connection, four USB ports, an Ethernet port, and an
HDMI connection. It is a truly powerful device for only ≈ $25. The Raspberry
Pi 4 has a 1.4 GHz 64-bit quad core CPU, options of 2, 4, 8 GB RAM and
costs from $35 to 75. The Raspberry Pi 4 will run hotter than the Pi 3 and it is
recommended to have a cooling fan but it is faster.

Raspberry Pi Setup
These are the general steps to set up the Pi:
1. Insert the SD card.
2. Plug in the monitor.
3. Plug in the keyboard.
4. Plug in the mouse.

5. Start the system.

The authors recommend that the reader do all their programming in


versions of Python 3.X or later. The exception to this recommendation is if
the reader has legacy code that runs on an earlier version like Python 2.7.X.
Some projects in this book require additional modules to run. The
“pip” command is typed into the terminal area to install code modules.
The reader should be aware that the pip command installs a module in the
base Python area, which may be specific to Python 2.7.3. If the reader has
upgraded to or is using a newer version of Python, they will need to use
pip3 or Python 3.
Operating the Raspberry Pi is much like a personal computer. It has a
GUI along with several programs such as a spreadsheet, word processor,
and other built-in items. Figure 1-6 provides an example of the interface.

10
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools

Figure 1-6. Raspberry Pi GUI with Spreadsheet

For the purposes of this book, the authors will focus primarily on how
to connect sensors to the Raspberry Pi and get data out of them. There are
many other uses for the Raspberry Pi that will not be covered in this text.
Figure 1-7 shows the General-Purpose Input/Output or GPIO pins,
although it may not be easy to determine the pin number on the Raspberry Pi.
A ribbon cable is also shown that connects to a nice interface board made
by MCM. This interface board has pin numbers and makes it a lot easier to
connect sensors to the Raspberry Pi. More about this in the next chapter.

11
Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
indeed to be endless; but a mere statement of even the more
interesting of these would lead us beyond our limits, and
descriptions of the details of manipulation are out of our province
altogether. But a few of the more recent applications and
developments of the art scarcely or not at all alluded to in the
foregoing pages should receive some attention.
The extraordinary sensitiveness of the gelatine-bromide film which
makes it possible to impress on it a photographic image in the
merest fraction of a second of time, enables us to take pictures of
objects in rapid motion. Express trains at their highest speed have
been successfully photographed, and so has almost every moving
object in nature. The photographs that have been taken of men, of
birds, horses, and other animals in every phase of their most rapid
actions, have solved many disputed and perplexing problems as to
the nature of their movements, and sometimes the solutions have
been of a very unexpected kind. Taking a photographic “shot” at a
bird has become almost more than a figure of speech; for there are
contrivances by which a bird on the wing may be aimed at with the
lens, and hit off on the sensitive plate with a certainty surpassing
that of the fowling-piece. There are also photographic repeaters by
which six or more successive photographs of the bird, etc., can be
taken in a single second. Mr. Muybridge has published a number of
such photographs of the horse, and by projection of the different
images on a screen from a magic lantern, in rapid succession, he has
been able to reproduce the visual appearance of horses trotting,
leaping, galloping, etc., on the principle of the zoetrope (page 399).
Photography has afforded wonderfully delicate observations in many
departments of science, by recording phenomena too rapid for the
eye to seize, or too recondite for direct perception. A few examples
may be mentioned. First, the advantage of photographing the lines
of spectra, such as those described in our article on the
spectroscope, will at once suggest themselves, and accordingly this
method of recording spectra has been largely used, and in the hands
of Mr. Lockyer, Dr. Draper, and others has been successfully applied
to the study of the solar and stellar spectra. But more than this, it is
the sensitive photographic plate that has enabled us to explore the
region of the solar spectrum lying far beyond its visible limits in the
red and in the violet rays. The ultra-violet portion of the spectrum is
shown photographically to be occupied by multitudes of the thin
insensitive spaces—breaks in the continuity of the active rays—which
are impressed on the photographic print as black lines, similar in
every respect to the lines mapped out in the visible spectrum by
Fraunhofer. It is known by these that the ultra-violet spectrum,
produced by glass prisms, extends to a distance beyond the last
visible rays of nearly double the space occupied by the colour
spectrum. The principal lines, or rather the greater groups of lines in
the invisible spectrum, are distinguished by the capital letters of the
alphabet, in continuation of Fraunhofer’s method, beginning from H
and nearly exhausting the letters of the alphabet to designate them.
These are photographed in the dark; for all the solar beams that are
allowed to enter the stereoscope are first passed through blue glass
of such a depth that every kind of emanation capable of affecting
the human eye is intercepted.
Another extremely interesting example of the application of the art
to scientific research is celestial photography. An image of the sun
may be impressed on a sensitive plate in an ordinary camera, in an
amazingly short space of time, but such image is much too small to
show any of the markings on the disc of our luminary, even when
the image is magnified, for its diameter is only about ⅒ th of an
inch for each 12 inches of the focal length of the lens. In order to
obtain an image of 4 inches diameter, a lens of 40 feet focal length
must therefore be used. The first attempts in solar photography
appear to have been made in France, in 1845, and the solar
prominences were daguerrotyped in 1851; but it was not until 1860,
that Mr. De La Rue succeeded in obtaining some beautiful negatives
of the phenomena presented in an eclipse of the sun, and was thus
enabled to determine a great astronomical problem, by showing that
the red flames, or prominences, really belonged to the sun itself. At
the present time, photographs of parts of the sun’s disc are regularly
taken at Kew, and other observatories, without the very long and
heavy telescopes, which introduced many mechanical difficulties into
the operation; for, by means of Foucault’s siderostat, the great lens
and the photographic apparatus can be used in one fixed position.
The siderostat is an instrument on which a flat mirror, made of glass
worked to a perfect plane and silvered externally, is caused by
clockwork to follow the motion of the sun, so that the reflected
beams can be projected in any required direction unchangeably, and,
therefore the image of the sun (or other heavenly bodies) viewed in
the mirror, is absolutely stationary. The lens, carried in a short tube,
has its axis directed to this image, just as it would be pointed at the
luminary itself. In solar photography, the exposure is made through
a very narrow slit in an opaque screen, which is caused to move
rapidly in front of the image. Very fair photographic images of the
sun, of several inches diameter, can, however, be obtained with an
ordinary telescope of five feet or so focal length, by substituting a
small photographic lens and camera in the eye-piece, and by
enlarging the image in printing.
As early as 1840, Dr. Draper succeeded in daguerrotyping the moon,
but it was not until 1851, that lunar photographs, obtained by
Professor Bond, another American astronomer, were first exhibited in
England. Many other distinguished experimenters have since
successfully turned their attention to this subject, such as Dancer, of
Manchester, Secchi, Crookes, Huggins, Phillips, and De La Rue. The
latter, and also Mr. Fry, by photographing the moon, at different
periods of her libration, have obtained very beautiful and interesting
stereoscopic prints of our satellite, in which she presents to the eye
the roundness and solidity of a cannon ball. Mr. Rutherford, in
America, had an object glass of 11¼ inches diameter, made
expressly with correction for the chemical rays, and with this
instrument he has produced some of the finest photographs of the
moon that have yet been taken. Reflecting telescopes, which have
the advantage of uniting all the rays in one focus, have been used
with excellent results, and it is said that some taken with the great
reflector at Melbourne, where also the atmospheric conditions are
very favourable, are almost perfect.
Excellent photographs of the planets have also been taken by Mr.
Common and others; but they are of course small, and have
contributed so far, much less to our astronomical knowledge than
those already mentioned. Very different are the results obtained in
what, a short time ago, appeared a less promising field. The image
of a so-called fixed star, in even the most powerful telescopes,
presents itself as a mere luminous point, and this is the case
whether the star is one of the brightest or one of the least
conspicuous. The telescopic appearance is simply a more or less
brilliant point. The various degrees of brightness which distinguish
one star from another (stella enim a stellâ differt in claritate), and
which the unassisted eye attributes to difference of size, led, long
before the invention of telescopes, to a classification of them
accordingly. The brightest stars are said to be of the 1st
“magnitude,” those of the next inferior degree of brilliancy, of the
2nd “magnitude,” and so on, down to the 6th, which includes the
faintest star discernible by an acute eye under favourable
circumstances. But stars too faint to be thus seen came into view in
the field of the telescope, and therefore those of the 7th magnitude,
and beyond, are termed telescopic stars, and each additional power
given to the instrument brings others in view that previously were
invisible. The classification has been carried down to the 18th or
20th magnitude, which expresses the limit of visibility with the most
powerful telescopes yet constructed. In the methods hitherto
employed for this classification, there is necessarily much that is
arbitrary and vague, and it is quite common to find a different
magnitude assigned to the same star by different authorities. Now
the photographic plate enables the astronomer to determine the
relative brightness of stars quite definitely. Everyone knows that the
time required to impress an image on the sensitive plate is longer, as
that image is less luminous. Hence, by finding the time required for
the images of different stars to be impressed, we have a measure of
their relative luminosities. Suppose the image of a group of stars is
allowed to act on a plate for, say, 5 seconds, we should find only the
brightest stars represented. If a second plate have double the
exposure given, it would be impressed by the images of not only the
brightest stars of the group, but also by those of the next degree of
brilliancy; and a third plate exposed for 20 seconds would show
more stars than the two former exposures. So that plate after plate
might be exposed under the same group for successively longer and
longer intervals indefinitely. Exposures extending over hours have
been made, notably by Mr. Common in England, and by Mr. Gill at
the Cape of Good Hope, showing not only how magnitude may be
determined to any extent, and the heavens most accurately mapped
out, but with this very remarkable result:—thousands of stars,
invisible even in the most powerful telescopes, are portrayed in the
photographs. Let us consider for a moment the significance of this
fact with regard to the new space-exploring powers it has placed in
the hands of science. The number of stars visible to the unassisted
eye in the whole expanse of the heavens has been variously
estimated, but the figures usually given lie between 3,000 and
4,000, and the highest estimate for the most acute eyesight, under
the most favourable atmospheric conditions, places the limit at
5,000. The brightest star in the heavens is Sirius, and Sir. J. Herschel
ascertained that its light is about 324, that of an average star of the
6th magnitude. Taking the average luminosities of stars of the first
six magnitudes, Sir W. Herschel, from his own observations,
represents their relative brightness by the following figures: 100; 25;
12; 6; 2; 1. The different degrees of brightness seen is, probably,
due to the following three causes, combined in various proportions:
(1) the different sizes of these luminaries themselves; (2) differences
in their intrinsic luminosity; and, (3) differences in their distances
from us. And it is also extremely probable that the last is generally
by far the largest factor of the three. It has been found by
photometrical experiments, that the light we receive from the sun is
20,000,000,000 (twenty thousand million) times more than that of
Sirius. If we suppose Sirius to be in reality only as large and as
bright as our sun, it follows that its distance from us must be no less
than 13,433,000,000,000 miles. The distance of stars of the 16th
magnitude has been estimated to be such that their light—travelling
at the rate of 185,000 miles per second—takes between five and six
thousand years to reach us. For a long time no sensible parallax
could be discovered in any of the fixed stars; that is, no change in
their positions was discernible when viewed from points 183,000,000
miles apart, namely from the extremities of a diameter of the earth’s
orbit. In other words, if we suppose the line of the length just
mentioned to form the base of a triangle, having a star at its vertex,
the angle formed by the sides is so small that the most refined
instruments failed to measure it. In recent times, however, the
parallax of a few stars—about a dozen or so—has been detected and
approximately measured. The greatest observed parallax belongs to
in α the constellation of the Centaur, a star of the first magnitude,
30° from the south pole of the heavens, and of this the parallax
amounts to but a little more than nine-tenths of a second of angular
measurement, corresponding with a distance of nearly
20,000,000,000,000 miles, a space which takes light 3½ years to
pass over. This star is, therefore, believed to be the nearest of any to
our system. The smallest parallax that has been measured in any of
these few stars is a fraction of a second of angle corresponding with
a distance twenty times greater than the other, and requiring
seventy years for light to traverse it. Now, as the photographic plate
shows us stars of magnitudes indefinitely smaller even than the
telescopic sixteenth, we cannot but marvel at the manner in which
the light travelling from these suns in the immeasurable depths of
space, and taking untold thousands (nay, millions, it may be) of
years in its journey is yet able so to agitate the atoms of our silver
compounds that images of things that will themselves, probably,
never be seen by mortal eyes are presented to our view. A
circumstance requiring explanation will occur to the reader’s mind in
connection with stellar photography; and that is, how does it happen
that, if the image of a star is a mere point, it nevertheless impresses
the plate as a visible dot? It is probably because the point is a centre
whence the photographic influence radiates laterally on the plate to
a small but yet sensible distance.
Among the cosmic objects presented to our observation there are
none more fully charged with interest and instruction than the
Nebulæ. These are faintly luminous patches, in some few cases
visible to the naked eye, but for the most part telescopic. The milky
way, which extends round the celestial sphere, is a very conspicuous
phenomenon of the same kind. A few other hazy, cloudlike patches
are seen in various parts of the heavens, visible on a clear moonless
night when the eye is directed towards the proper quarter. The well
known group of the Pleiades sometimes presents this appearance,
but most persons are able by the unassisted vision to discern in it a
group of six stars at least, and an opera-glass or ordinary hand
telescope easily resolves the object into a cluster of 20 or 30 distinct
stars. Telescopes of higher powers bring more stars into view, and
as many as 118 have been counted in the group. There are several
other groups of this kind perceptible to the naked eyes merely as
diffused patches of light, but resolvable by the telescope into thickly
clustered groups of minute stars; but in many of the resolvable
nebulæ the separate stars appear spread on a back-ground of
diffused luminosity. Again, there are other nebulæ which telescopes
of the highest powers we possess fail to resolve at all. Not only has
the photographic method shown stellar components of some of
these last, but it has depicted the form of nebulæ never seen at all,
and whose existence was previously unknown and unsuspected. For
example, the photograph has revealed the existence of a back-
ground of nebulous patches to the stars of the Pleiades—a thing that
had never before been suspected, although the group has been
repeatedly observed by the most powerful telescopes. Those who
are at all acquainted with astronomy, will understand the significance
of this discovery for the science. The results already obtained afford
a marvellous support to the famous speculation known as the
nebular hypothesis. And as the forms of these objects are accurately
shown for us by their own light, changes in their appearance may
thus be detected as time goes on which may serve to lift the above
named theory into the region of demonstrated truth. The nebulæ
which neither telescope nor camera can resolve are such as the
spectroscope proves to be masses of glowing gas or vapour.
It has been already mentioned that the light from these
immeasurably distant stars and nebulæ is so faint that the most
sensitive photographic plates have to be exposed for hours. This
would be a matter of no difficulty if the clockwork mechanism by
which the apparatus is made to follow the apparent motion of the
heavens could be constructed with absolute perfection. But as this is
not obtainable, even with the most careful workmanship, and the
smallest jar or irregularity would distort and confuse the images, this
source of disturbance is eliminated in the following manner:
attached to the photographing apparatus and driven with it is a
telescope, provided with cross wires, and through this an observer
views some star during the whole period of the exposure, his
business being to keep the image of the star accurately on the cross
wire, which he is enabled to do by having the means of slightly
modifying the movement of the clockwork. In the Paris Exhibition of
1889 were shown many very fine large photographic prints of
nebulæ (notably of great nebula in Orion), which have recently been
obtained in this manner, and those nebulæ that had been
photographically resolved had the stellar components marked with
wonderful distinctness. Comets and meteorites have been
photographed, and even the aurora borealis and the lightning’s path
have been brought within the camera’s ken.
Space would fail us to describe the many applications now found for
photography in microscopy, in medicine and surgery, in
anthropology, in commerce, and in the arts. It is obvious also from
the improvements that are continually made, that many of these
applications have not yet received their full developments.
Photography has been enlisted into the service of the army and
navy, and regular courses of instruction in the art are given in their
training schools. A well equipped photographic waggon now
accompanies every army corps, and in almost every ship of war,
some proficient operator is to be found. By an ingenious combination
of photography, aerostatics and electricity, it is possible to obtain
with perfect safety accurate information of the disposition of an
enemy’s forces and fortifications. A small captive balloon is sent up,
to which is attached a camera. At a height of a few hundred yards,
the balloon is practically safe from any projectiles, and in its cable
are interwoven two electric wires by which currents are conveyed to
electro-magnets, which produce all the movements required for any
number of exposures. Jurisprudence has found its account in
recognizing the art, for the photograph is received in evidence for
proving identity, etc. The administration of the criminal law takes
advantage of the art to secure the likeness of prisoners for future
identification, and the modern instantaneous process renders
unnecessary the subjects’ concurrence with the operation. Again, if
the “hue and cry” has to be raised for an individual “wanted” for any
offence, and a photographic likeness of him is procurable, thousands
of copies can be made of it in a few hours, by night as easily as by
day, and distributed to every police station in the whole country.
Modern processes now enable us to obtain prints from negatives in
as many seconds as a few years ago hours were required, and this
by artificial light. A process of printing lately introduced and yielding
artistic results which deserve to find more general favour, is that
called the platinotype. Instead of the ordinary print produced on
lightly glazed paper by the reduction of silver compounds, and of
questionable permanency, the image is formed in the paper by
metallic platinum, the most changeless of all possible substances
under ordinary influences. The pictures are of a rich velvety black,
with soft gradations, and the surface is without glaze or glare. The
print has, in fact, the appearance and all the best qualities of the
most highly finished mezzotint engraving, combined with the minute
fidelity characteristic of the photograph. The problem of producing a
photograph in colours, permanently showing nature’s tints in all their
gradations, has still a great fascination for some experimenters, and
startling announcements are made from time to time of some
discovery in this direction. It does not appear, however, that any
success has really been arrived at, beyond the results long ago
obtained by Becquerel as described on page 614; and, indeed, as
our knowledge of the science of the subject increases, the less likely
does the possibility of photographing colours appear. It is, however,
never safe to lay down the limits of discovery in science.[14] Note that
precisely in the matter of rendering colour even in its due gradation
of tone or luminous intensity, the photograph is quite untruthful.
Everybody has noticed how unnaturally dark and heavy the foliage
of trees appears in the prints; if we suppose a lady in a blue dress,
with yellow trimmings, to sit for her portrait, the photograph will
show her in a white dress with black trimmings; a sitter with light
yellow or auburn hair will appear of quite a dark complexion; if you
photograph a lemon and a plum together, the latter will probably
come out lighter than the former; or if a daffodil be the subject, the
flower will be drawn in tones much darker than the leaves. This
incorrectness of tone relations can, however, be greatly lessened by
the device of reducing the quantity of the blue rays, by interposing a
piece of optically plane yellow-tinted glass, by using the sensitive
plates tinted with certain coal-tar dyes, which are now prepared and
sold under the name of “ortho-chromatic plates,” or by both
methods combined.

14. See page 630.


If any illustration were needed of the great popularity now attained
by the practice of photography, reference might be made to the
large number of periodicals devoted to the subject, and appearing
weekly, fortnightly, quarterly or annually, in every civilised country,
and also to the multitudes of societies that have been formed for the
promotion of the art. In Great Britain alone there are now at least
150 such societies in active operation, and they are correspondingly
numerous elsewhere. If, when we consider all that has been
accomplished up to the present time, with the jubilee year of
photography scarcely passed, and observe the increasing numbers
of its cultivators guided by the explanations of its phenomena that
science is beginning to furnish, we can expect a corresponding
progress in the next fifty years, then the centenary may be reached
with a roll of achievements that could we know them now we should
think marvellous.
As already remarked elsewhere, the practical side of photography
has outstripped the theoretical one, for so far its progress has been
much less indebted for processes and technic to the direct guidance
of science than almost any other of our Nineteenth Century
acquisitions, such as telegraphy, electric lighting, etc. The materials
employed, and the mode of manipulation, have certainly not been
deduced from previous knowledge of the nature of light or from the
laws of chemistry, although when, by repeated trials and happy
guesses, the right direction had been found, the field into which it
led could be more easily explored under the direction of chemistry
and physics. But even yet the fundamental principle, or the precise
nature of the action of light on certain compounds, has not been
definitely made out, and although some theories on the subject have
been proposed, no one has been generally accepted as an adequate
explanation of the known facts, and still less have any quantitative
relations been established for these actions. The photographer
cannot compose a formula for the composition of his emulsions and
developers from assured data like those that enable the chemist to
weigh out with accuracy the constituents that go to produce a
required compound.
The attainment of permanency in its products, which, by several
processes, photography can now boast of, is one of its triumphs, and
will tend greatly to enlarge the sphere of its utility. For example, we
have a public institution, known as the National Portrait Gallery, in
which it is sought to gather together and preserve the likenesses of
the most eminent Englishmen, and presentments of such of far less
fidelity than photographic portraits are eagerly sought after. It has
been suggested that something like a National Gallery of permanent
photographic portraits of the chief men of their time would be a
fitting and acceptable legacy to the public of the future. This idea
has much to recommend it, particularly as authentic likenesses
would thus be secured for the nation beyond the chance of loss.
Photography has been applied in preparing blocks in relief for
printing along with letterpress in the same way as woodcut blocks.
The process has the great advantage of producing in a wonderfully
short time a perfect facsimile of the artist’s drawing without the
intervention of any engraver. A plate of zinc, brass, or copper, coated
with a dried film of bichromated albumen, is exposed to light under
the transparent negative of a drawing in pure line, that is, one
having in it only lines of uniform colour throughout. The parts of the
film reached by the light, which correspond with the lines of the
original design, are rendered insoluble, while the rest can readily be
removed by water. These unprotected parts have then to be
removed by the action of acids, but these are used alternately with
the application to the plate of certain compositions, the purpose of
which is to prevent lateral erosion of the lines in relief before the
requisite depth of the metal has been removed. Fig. 147f is the
reproduction of a pen-and-ink sketch by this or some similar
process. But nature and the ordinary photograph show us graduated
tones which ordinary printers’ ink cannot really reproduce, inasmuch
as it is incapable of gradation, and can give the effect of gradation
only by such devices as are mentioned on page 642 (last sentence).
Now, the photograph cannot yield a printing-block until its
continuous tones are broken up into lines or dots. Not a few
methods of doing this have been contrived, but that which is by far
the most commonly used, and is most successfully practised on the
commercial scale, is simple in principle, although in actual working it
calls for much experience and skill. The negative is taken upon a wet
collodion plate, in front of which, within the camera, and at a very
1
short distance (say 30 th inch) from the film, is a transparent screen,
bearing two sets of parallel opaque lines at right angles to each
other. These lines are mechanically ruled with the utmost regularity,
and are separated by only very small intervals. There may be from
80 to 200 of them in the space of one inch, according to the class of
work required. The effect of this is that the light reaches the
photographic film through a series of minute transparent squares,
1 1
the sides of which may be only from the 140 th to the 400 th of an inch
in length. Now it is found that the brighter lights from the original
positive, after passing these small apertures, spread so as to more
or less cover the opposite parts of the negative, while the feebler
lights, from the shades of the original, impress the plate to a less
degree, the developed image in these showing, perhaps, merely a
small dot or, in the very darkest parts, a blank. In this way, then,
may the photographic negative be obtained with a granulated
texture following in graduation the tones of the original. After this,
the rest is easy, for the process of exposing a metal plate, coated
with a sensitive film under the negative, and of etching it with acids,
etc., is essentially the same as in the foregoing. Such is the half-tone
process, which is now so largely superseding wood and other
engraving. It is unnecessary to describe technical details here, such
as the employment of bitumen of Judæa as the coating for the metal
plate, or how the image must be reflected into the lens from a
mirror to avoid a reversal in the final print, etc. There are endless
modifications of the processes briefly mentioned above, and some of
these are guarded as valuable trade secrets. Several of the
illustrations in this work are prepared by the half-tone process, of
which plates I., IV., V., etc., are examples, and they should be
examined with a strong lens, in order that the different rendering of
the light and the dark parts may be compared.
PHOTOGRAPHY IN COLOURS.

I t is the statement as to the futility of assigning limits to scientific


discovery that has been justified by facts. The preceding edition
of this work was not long in the hands of its readers before the
solution of the problem of photography in colours was announced
from Paris, where, at the close of 1890, the physicist M. Lippmann
had succeeded in photographing the solar spectrum in its natural
colours, and at the beginning of 1891, he was able to exhibit at the
Academy of Science untouched photographs of a stained glass
window in three colours, of a dish of oranges and red flowers, and of
a gorgeously coloured parrot, all in their natural tints. The method
employed had no apparent relation to that of Becquerel, but was of
the simplest, and, moreover, one which any reader who has followed
the first few pages of our section on the “Causes of Light and
Colours” will have little difficulty in completely understanding, if he
has devoted a little attention to Fresnel’s interference experiment. M.
Lippmann took a photographic plate, coated to a greater depth than
usual with a gelatine film containing the sensitive salts of silver, and
in the camera this plate was exposed with the glass towards the
lens, while at the other side of the film was a metallic reflecting
surface, namely, quicksilver. Supposing a ray of red light to enter the
glass and traverse the film, it would be reflected from the metallic
surface, and would meet the direct ray within the substance of the
film, with a difference of length of path that would produce the
interferences already described, and so give rise to alternate lines or
bands of darkness and brightness. It would, of course, be in the
lines of maximum brightness that the silver would be first deposited
by the photographic action, and these microscopically fine lines or
striæ of silver would give back, from ordinary light, a colour
corresponding to the waves of red light that produced them.
Similarly with the other colours. Anyone may observe the production
of colour from ordinary white light in the iridescent tints of mother-
of-pearl, where the effects are due to the varying distances of fine
edges of the layers of the substance. If an impression is taken from
a piece of mother-of-pearl by solid paraffin, or by white wax, or even
by common red sealing-wax, the colours will seem to be adhering to
the impression, but the operation may be repeated times without
number. It is the distance apart of the lines or striæ that
determinates the colour, and this is always some definite multiple of
the wave lengths, given on p. 411, for the various colours. M.
Lippmann’s products are true colour photographs, and they form a
new and elegant experimental demonstration of the doctrine of
luminiferous undulations.
The colour effects of nature have also been reproduced by taking
photographs of the same scene through coloured glass. Thus a
screen of yellow glass will intercept the blue and the red rays, and
the sensitive film will be impressed with images of objects containing
yellow rays only, and that in proportion to the quantity of these rays
that enter into any given tint. Similarly with images taken through
red and blue glasses. The positives from these partial images being
projected by three optical lanterns on the same space on a screen,
and each being coloured by passing through tinted glasses like the
original, the superposed images thus combined give a very lively
impression of the natural colours in all their gradations.
Among the many processes for reproducing photographs by non-
photographic processes, some have been more or less successfully
combined with colour printing. Some of these productions are very
effective, and are more attractive to many persons than the
monochromatic tints of ordinary photographs.
Fig. 312.—Portrait of Aloysius
Senefelder.
PRINTING PROCESSES.

A s it is beyond contradiction that printing is one of those


inventions which have most influenced the progress of mankind,
so it will be admitted that certain modern processes, by greatly
facilitating the operations, and vastly extending the resources, of the
art, possess an interest and importance surpassed by few of the
subjects we have discussed. In a former article the reader has been
made acquainted with the steam printing-press and other
applications of machinery by which the impressions of a form of
type, or of a pattern, can be rapidly multiplied. Here we have to
describe some ingenious methods of preparing the forms or originals
for letterpress and other printing, and certain beautiful processes for
multiplying drawings, engravings, and pictures.
STEREOTYPING.

T his term is applied to the process of obtaining the impression of


a form of movable types, or of a woodcut, on a plate of metal
which can be printed from. These plates, after the required number
of copies have been printed, can be stored away; and they are ready
for use whenever another issue of the work is required. When the
pages that are to be stereotyped have been set up in ordinary type,
there are several methods by which the stereotype plates may be
obtained from them; or rather, there are several materials used to
form the matrix or mould in which the metal is cast. When plaster of
Paris is used, the form is first slightly oiled, to prevent adhesion of
the plaster; a thin mixture of plaster and water is then poured upon
the form, which is surrounded by a raised rim, to retain the plaster.
The thin plaster is carefully led into all the recesses of the type, and
then some thicker material is poured on. The plaster soon sets, and
is lifted off the type, and, after drying, is ready to receive the molten
metal of which the stereotype plate is formed. This metal is an easily
fusible alloy of lead, antimony, and other metals, which takes the
form of the mould with great accuracy, and is, when solid,
sufficiently hard to print from.
Fig. 313.—Press for Stereotyping by Clay
Process.

Another plan is to make use of prepared clay, spread upon an iron


plate, for the formation of the mould. The face of the type is
brushed with benzine, the plate with the clay is laid upon it, and
pressure is applied. The whole is then dried in a slow oven, and the
clay, when detached from the type, is ready to form the mould. The
advantages of the clay process are that the type does not require to
be afterwards cleaned from oil, and that the material does not fill up
the deeper spaces of the form, so that a thinner stratum of metal
suffices to form the stereotype plate.
A third mode of obtaining the mould has been already mentioned in
connection with the Walter Printing Press (page 313), in the working
of which the papier maché process is ingeniously made to supply the
curved stereotype plates for the cylinders. This process is also
largely used for other newspaper presses, and sometimes for
bookwork, as it forms an invaluable means of expeditiously obtaining
a number of stereotype plates from the movable types. This
production of a number of similar forms makes it possible to strike
off a very large number of copies in a short time, for many presses
can be employed simultaneously. For the paper process a number of
sheets of tissue-paper are pasted together, and the moist paper is
laid upon the form; then the operator, by light strokes of a brush,
beats down the paper into the hollows of the type, beginning at the
centre of the page, and going towards the margins. A sheet of stout
unsized paper, called “plate paper,” constitutes the upper layer; and
when the whole has been well beaten down upon the type, pressure
is applied by means of a screw acting upon a plate of iron covering
the whole. In this condition a gentle heat, produced by steam, is
made to completely dry and harden the paper matrix, which is very
soon fit to be used for casting the metal. The apparatus for this
purpose consists of a hollow iron table, within which steam is made
to circulate. On this the form is placed, and the platen is pressed
down upon it by means of a screw. In many cases the platen also is
heated by steam, to accelerate still further the drying of the matrix,
which is effected in about four or five minutes. One paper matrix, by
careful use, will serve for the production of a series of casts without
receiving any damage from the molten metal, as this is fusible at a
low temperature.
The mould for casting flat stereotype plates from the paper matrix is
made of iron, and has parallel surfaces, which admit of being so
adjusted that the thickness required in the plates may be obtained
very nearly. The paper matrix is laid on the horizontal iron bed of the
mould; gauge-bars are adjusted, which retain it in its position; and
then the second plate is folded down—the distance between that
and the paper being determined by the gauge-bars. The cover is
secured by clamping-screws, and then the mould is turned upright to
receive the metal, which is removed, when solid, after the mould has
been turned back into its horizontal position.
However the stereotype plates have been produced, it is necessary
accurately to adjust their thickness by planing off some of the
material from the back. The edges have also to be cut and trimmed
to the exact dimensions required by the press. Various machines
have been devised for effecting all these operations with accuracy
and dispatch. The plates are afterwards mounted on wooden or
metal blocks to bring them to the height of ordinary type.
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