1

Concept:
Mugdha Sinha (IAS)
Joint Secretary, Ministry of Culture

Research and Design:

Team Indian Culture Portal
 INTRODUCTION

India is a land of myriad cultures, linguistic diversity and traditions. Each state of this country reflects
the age-old elements of socio-cultural significance through its distinct languages. Besides being a
medium of expression, language also plays a pivotal role in identity formation. The idea of forming
the Indian states on the basis of linguistic prominence is unique and remarkable. Several dialects
and scripts associated with these languages are considered instrumental in making India a land of
linguistic diversity. A popular proverb represents India’s linguistic diversity rather well: Kos-kos
par badle paani, chaar kos par baani, meaning the language spoken in India changes every few
kilometres, just like the taste of the water.

The Ministry of Culture, Government of India is celebrating the Festival of Libraries 2023 with the
aim to promote conversations on the development and digitisation of libraries across India. As part of
this initiative, the Ministry of Culture has introduced this ‘Cursive Writing Book’ to popularise Indian
languages and scripts.

The idea behind this book is to nurture the enthusiasm of future generations, encouraging them to
learn, read and identify scripts from different languages and literature of the country. This Cursive
Writing Book focuses on introducing India through its rich heritage of 22 scheduled languages as
per the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, its dialects and scripts to promote the idea of
‘Ek Bharat Shresht Bharat’. The book contains practice pages for the alphabets of each of the 22
languages along with information on the origin and history of these languages.

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 MAA
Words, more than just communicating, often hold great significance in reflecting a society’s deep
emotions and cultural nuances. In languages, one such word that encompasses love and warmth is
‘Maa’ (Mother)

From the moment babies begin to explore their world, Maa often becomes their first utterance. It is a
word of trust, safety, and the beginning of a lifelong connection. Yet, ‘Maa’ extends its meaning beyond
the realm of individual mothers. In the broader context, it is also used to refer to the motherland, India.
Just as a child seeks solace in their mother’s embrace, Indians find a deep sense of belonging, identity,
and protection in the motherland. The word ‘Maa’ encapsulates the profound emotions associated
with one’s homeland, evoking patriotism, pride, and an unbreakable bond with the country.

As languages shift across the geography of India, the word for ‘Maa’ transforms. From ‘Mouj’ in
Kashmiri to ‘Āmmā’ in Malayalam, and Walaḍā’ in Sindhi to ‘Bou’ in Odia, each language brings its
own unique set of words, grammar, and syntax. However, the power of this word lies in its ability to
communicate beyond the confines of language itself. It is a testament to the universality of the mother-
child relationship and the deep-rooted connection that transcends linguistic barriers.

Take a look at the adjoining page, with the regional terms for Maa in 22 scheduled languages listed
in the Indian Constitution. This visual identification of Maa instills a deep sense of belonging and
connection even with the diverse vocabulary found across the nation.

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 NOTE
1. For the purpose of basic identification of vernacular scripts, this book contains
only the vowels and consonants from the 22 scheduled languages of the
constitution of India.

2. Many of these langauges are written in multiple scripts. However, the practice
papers of this book include the most widely recognized script of each language.
They are:

INTRODUCTION
S.No. Languages Script
1. Assamese Assamese
2. Bengali / Bangla Bengali
3. Bodo Devanagari
4. Dogri Dogri
5. Gujarati Gujarati
6. Hindi Devanagari
7. Kannada Kannada
8. Kashmiri Sharada
9. Konkani Devanagari
10. Maithili Mithilakshara
11. Malayalam Malayalam
12. Manipuri Meitei
13. Marathi Modi
14. Nepali Newari
15. Odia Odia
16. Punjabi Gurmukhi
17. Sanskrit Devanagari
18. Santhali OI Chiki
19. Sindhi Khudawadi
20. Tamil Tamil
21. Telugu Telugu
22. Urdu Urdu

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Background Image: GAMOSA
(Textile6tradition of Assam)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Assamese or Axomiya is an Indo-Aryan language that reportedly evolved before the 7th century CE
from the Magadhi Prakrit language. It is said to have been derived from the Kamrupi dialect of the
Prakrit language. Assamese script has evolved from the ancient Indian script of ‘Brahmi’. Brahmi had
various classes, and Assamese is believed to have originated from the Gupta Brahmi Script.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Assamese is the official language of Assam. According to the 2011 census, Assamese speakers comprise
48% of the state population. However, it is also spoken variably across the northeast. Assamese is
one of the 22 official languages of India and was made part of the Eighth Schedule of the Indian
Constitution in 1950. The currently prevalent Assamese language has its roots in the Sivasagar dialect
of Eastern Assam.

DIALECTS

The Assamese language mainly consists of four dialect groups used across the state of Assam. The
Eastern Assamese dialects spoken in the districts of Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur, Dhemaji,
Sivasagar, Jorhat, Golaghat and Sonitpur. The Central Assamese group of dialects spoken primarily in
the Nagaon and Morigaon districts.The Kamrupi group of dialects spoken in the districts of Kamrup,
Nalbari, Barpeta, Darrang, Kokrajhar and Bongaigaon.The Goalparia group of dialects spoken
primarily in the Dhubri and Goalpara districts.

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8
9
10
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Background Image: JAMDANI
12
(Textile tradition of West Bengal)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Bangla is an Indo-Aryan language that developed as a successor to Magadhi Apabhramsa. The Bangla
script has been derived from Brahmi, an ancient Indian script, which was written from left to right. It
is believed that a dialect of the language, colloquially referred to as ‘Old Bangla’ was spoken around
1000 CE. Around 1300 CE, a variation of the language was spoken in the region of Bengal, which was
heavily influenced by Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic. It is in the 17th and 18th centuries that the modern
form of the language prevalent today, emerged.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

There exist a large number of speakers of the language across the world. In India alone, it is widely
spoken in West Bengal, Tripura, Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha, Delhi and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Bangla is one of the 22 official languages of India and was made a part of the Eighth Schedule
of the Indian Constitution in 1950. Apart from West Bengal, it has also been declared as one of the
official languages of Jharkhand. Moreover, it is the national language of Bangladesh and also an
official language in the African country of Sierra Leone. It is the seventh most spoken language in the
entire world.

DIALECTS

Bangla is commonly divided into two dialects, denoting geographical regions. They are ghoti
(predominantly spoken in West Bengal) and bangal (predominantly spoken in Bangladesh). There is a
strong sense of diglossia in the language - the shuddha bhasa is the formal language, which is heavily
derived from Sanskrit, while the chalit bhasa is the standardized colloquial tongue.

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15
16
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Background Image: TRADITIONAL BODO SCARF
(Textile18tradition of Assam)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

The Bodo language is a part of the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.
Initially, it was written using the Latin (Roman) script. However, in recent years it has changed to
the Devanagari script. The language resembles other dialects such as Garo, Tiwa, Dimasa, Rabha,
Kokoborok, and Bru (Reang).

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Bodo language is mostly spoken by the Bodo tribe residing in parts of Assam. But there are Bodo
speakers residing in West Bengal, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. A small section of
the population in neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan also speak the language.
It attained the status of an official language in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution in 2003.
Further in 2021, the Bodo language became the Associate Official Language of Assam.

DIALECTS

While there exist different dialects of Bodo, it can largely be divided into three categories of dialects
- Western Bodo dialect, Eastern Bodo dialect and Southern Bodo dialect.

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21
22
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Background Image: CHAMBA RUMAL
24 of Himachal Pradesh)
(Textile tradition
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Dogri, recognized as an independent modern literary language of India is of Indo-Aryan origin with
a vocabulary influenced by languages such as English and Persian. Dogri is a member of the Western
Pahari Language group and has its own grammar. The Dogri script referred to as Dogra or Dogra
Akkhar based on the Takri script is made up of 10 vowels and 28 consonants and is written from
left to right. In addition, it has the presence of five supra-segmental phonemes (distinct sounds that
distinguish one word from the other) such as length, stress, nasalization, tone and juncture. The earliest
written reference is found in poetry belonging to the 14th century.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Dogri is spoken in the mountainous and sub-mountainous regions as well as the adjoining plains
between the Pirpanjal and Dhauladhar ranges in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh as well as
Punjab, Manawar Tawi and the Sutlej River. It is widely spoken in Jammu, regions of North Punjab
and Himachal Pradesh in India and in some areas of Pakistan. The belt where Dogri is spoken is often
referred to as the Duggar belt.

Dogri is recognized as one of the 22 official languages of India. Through the Ninety-Second Amendment
of the Constitution of India in 2003, Dogri was made a part of the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.
The language is spoken by approximately 2.6 million people.

DIALECTS

Dogri dialects vary on the basis of pronunciation in the plains, the ravine areas and in the mountains.
The inhabitants of the Pahari or mountainous regions use syncopated forms of the language while
the inhabitants of the Kandi or plains and ravines do not. Pahari, Gojari, Bhadrawahi belong to the
Pahari belt while Kandyali, Kangri, Kulhuri and Basohali Dogri belong to the plain areas. Mandyali,
Chambeali, Rampuri, Pongali, Hoshiarpuri are some variations specific to the regions they are spoken
in.

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 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
26
 ā a aā嬀 ā崀i ā āi i嬀 ī i 崀 iī ī u ī uī uū u uū ūe ū ūe eai e ai
e aio ai ai
o oau o au
o au au au

𑠌𑠌𑠌𑠌𑠌𑠌𑠌𑠌 𑠍𑠍𑠍𑠍
𑠍𑠍𑠍𑠍 𑠎𑠎𑠎𑠎
𑠎𑠎𑠎𑠎 𑠏𑠏𑠏𑠏
𑠏𑠏𑠏𑠏 𑠐𑠐𑠐𑠐
𑠐𑠐𑠐𑠐 𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑 𑠒𑠒𑠒𑠒
𑠒𑠒 𑠓𑠓𑠓𑠓
𑠒𑠒 𑠓𑠓
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
ɑː]
] [ə][ɑː]
[ə][ɑː]
[ɪ][ɑː][ɑː]
[ɪ] [ɪ][iː][ɪ] [iː]
[ɪ] [iː]
[ʊ][iː][iː]
[ʊ][ʊ]
[uː][ʊ][uː]
[ʊ][uː]
嬀e崀[uː][uː]
嬀e崀嬀e崀
[ɛ]嬀e崀嬀e崀
[ɛ][ɛ]
嬀o崀[ɛ][ɛ]
嬀o崀嬀o崀
[ɔ]嬀o崀嬀o崀
[ɔ][ɔ] [ɔ][ɔ]

崀崀 崀嬀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 嬀嬀 崀崀 崀 崀嬀 嬀崀嬀 嬀 嬀 崀崀嬀 崀 崀崀嬀嬀崀 嬀嬀嬀嬀 嬀崀 崀崀 崀 崀 崀崀嬀 嬀嬀嬀 嬀 嬀崀崀崀崀 嬀崀 崀 嬀嬀 嬀嬀嬀 崀崀崀崀崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 嬀嬀崀崀崀 崀 崀崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 嬀 嬀崀嬀崀崀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀崀嬀 崀 崀
ahga
gaga
ã ga
ah
嬀
gha
ã ahṛ ah gha
gha
ṛgha
ah
崀
ṛ nga
ṛ ṛi ṛ ṛi ṛinga
ṛi nga
nga
halat
嬀
halat
ṛihalat
崀
caca
halat ca
halat ca 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀
cha
cha
cha
cha
崀 嬀
jaja
ja ja
崀 嬀 崀
jha
jha jha
jha
嬀 崀
nn
nya
崀h崀嬀 崀̃ 嬀h崀
嬀 崀̃ 嬀h崀
嬀r崀嬀h崀嬀h崀
嬀r崀 嬀r崀
嬀r:崀嬀r崀嬀r:崀
嬀r崀 嬀r:崀
嬀k崀嬀r:崀嬀r:崀
嬀k崀嬀k崀 嬀k崀嬀k崀
ɡə] [ɡə]
[ɡə]
[ɡə] [ɡʱə] [ɡʱə]
[ɡʱə]
[ɡʱə] [ŋə] [ŋə]
[ŋə]
[ŋə] [tʃə] [tʃə] [tʃʰə]
[tʃə]
[tʃə] [tʃʰə][dʒə]
[tʃʰə]
[tʃʰə] [dʒə][dʒʱə]
[dʒə]
[dʒə] [dʒʱə][ɲə
[dʒʱə]
[dʒʱə] [ɲ
[ɲ

𑠖𑠖 𑠌𑠌𑠗𑠗 𑠍𑠍𑠘𑠘 𑠙𑠙𑠏𑠏𑠐𑠐𑠙𑠙𑠏𑠏𑠏𑠏𑠐𑠐𑠐𑠐𑠚𑠚𑠑𑠑𑠚𑠚

𑠚𑠚𑠚𑠚 𑠛𑠛 𑠜𑠜𑠜𑠜
崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 崀 嬀 嬀崀嬀 嬀 崀崀崀嬀

𑠋𑠋𑠖𑠖
𑠖𑠖 𑠖𑠖 𑠌𑠌𑠗𑠗
𑠗𑠗 𑠗𑠗 𑠍𑠍𑠎𑠎𑠘𑠘
𑠌𑠌𑠘𑠘 𑠘𑠘 𑠏𑠏𑠙𑠙
𑠎𑠎𑠎𑠎𑠏𑠏𑠎𑠎𑠙𑠙 𑠑𑠑𑠛𑠛
𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠒𑠒𑠑𑠑𑠛𑠛 𑠛𑠛 𑠜𑠜𑠜𑠜 𑠝𑠝𑠝𑠝
sonants
onsonants
ants
Consonants 崀嬀嬀 崀 嬀 嬀崀 崀崀 嬀崀嬀 嬀嬀 嬀 嬀崀崀崀崀 嬀崀嬀 崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 崀 嬀嬀 崀 嬀 嬀崀崀 崀 崀 嬀嬀 嬀 崀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀

𑠊𑠊 𑠊𑠊𑠋𑠋
𑠊𑠊𑠋𑠋𑠌𑠌𑠋𑠋𑠋𑠋 𑠍𑠍𑠌𑠌𑠍𑠍 𑠍𑠍 𑠎𑠎 𑠐𑠐𑠐𑠐 𑠒𑠒 𑠒𑠒
𑠓𑠓𑠒𑠒𑠒𑠒
𑠓𑠓𑠓𑠓𑠓𑠓 𑠓𑠓
ahaka崀崀kha
ka
崀嬀 kha
嬀ga
嬀崀 嬀kha
kha
ga崀ga
崀嬀崀gha
嬀 崀 ga
嬀 崀嬀崀嬀gha
ga
嬀 gha
nga
崀gha
嬀崀崀嬀 崀 gha
嬀nga
嬀 崀nga
嬀嬀崀 崀 canga
nga
崀ca
嬀崀崀嬀嬀嬀ca
cha
嬀嬀 崀嬀ca
崀崀 cha
cacha
嬀崀ja
嬀崀嬀 嬀cha
嬀 cha
嬀崀 ja
崀崀崀崀 ja
jha嬀ja
嬀崀 嬀嬀jha
ja
嬀 嬀崀jha
崀 崀nya
崀崀 崀 jhanya
jha
嬀嬀 嬀nya
嬀 嬀 崀崀nya
崀 崀 崀nya
嬀 嬀 崀嬀嬀 嬀 崀 崀崀
ḍa
ə] ḍa
ʰə]
[kə]ḍa
ḍa嬀
[kʰə]
[kə]
崀
[kʰə]
[ɡə]ḍha
[kʰə]
[kʰə]
[ɡə]
嬀ḍha
ḍha
ḍha
[ɡə]
[ɡʱə]
崀
[ɡə]
[ɡʱə]
[ɡə] ṇa
[ɡʱə]
[ŋə]
嬀 ṇa崀
ṇa
ṇa
[ɡʱə]
[ɡʱə]
[ŋə]
[ŋə]
[tʃə] ta
[ŋə]
嬀 ta
[ŋə]ta
[tʃə]ta
[tʃə]
崀
[tʃʰə]
[tʃə]
[tʃʰə]
[tʃə] tha
嬀
tha
[tʃʰə]
[dʒə]thatha
崀
[tʃʰə]
[dʒə]
[tʃʰə]
嬀
[dʒə]
[dʒʱə]
[dʒə]
崀 da 嬀
da
da[dʒʱə]
da
[dʒʱə]
[dʒə] [ɲə]
[dʒʱə]dha
[dʒʱə]
[ɲə]
崀 dha
dha
[ɲə]dha嬀
[ɲə]
[ɲə]
崀
nann

𑠔𑠔ɖə] 𑠔𑠔[ɖə]
𑠕𑠕[ɖə]
[ɖə]𑠔𑠔
𑠕𑠕 𑠕𑠕
𑠖𑠖 [ɖʱə]
𑠕𑠕𑠖𑠖
𑠕𑠕[ɖʱə] [ɳə]
[ɖʱə]
[ɖʱə]
𑠖𑠖𑠗𑠗
𑠖𑠖 𑠖𑠖
𑠗𑠗𑠗𑠗
𑠘𑠘 [ɳə] 嬀t̪ə嬀t嬀t崀̪ ə嬀t
[ɳə]
[ɳə]
𑠗𑠗 𑠘𑠘
𑠗𑠗
𑠘𑠘 𑠙𑠙
𑠘𑠘𑠘𑠘
𑠙𑠙 𑠙𑠙 ̪崀ə崀 崀 嬀t̪ʰ嬀t嬀tə崀
̪ ə𑠚𑠚 𑠙𑠙 𑠚𑠚
𑠙𑠙 𑠚𑠚
𑠛𑠛 ʰ嬀t
̪ 𑠚𑠚 ʰə崀 嬀d̪嬀d
̪ə崀
̪ ʰə崀
𑠛𑠛
𑠚𑠚𑠛𑠛
𑠜𑠜𑠛𑠛 嬀d̪ 嬀d
ə崀
𑠛𑠛
𑠜𑠜 ̪ ə崀 嬀d̪嬀d
ə崀
ə崀
̪𑠜𑠜𑠝𑠝𑠜𑠜 𑠜𑠜
𑠝𑠝 嬀d̪ 嬀d
ʱə崀
𑠝𑠝 ̪ ʱə崀 [nə
̪ ʱə崀
ʱə崀
𑠝𑠝 𑠝𑠝 [n
[n

𑠠𑠠𑠠𑠠𑠠𑠠𑠠𑠠 𑠡𑠡𑠡𑠡
𑠡𑠡𑠡𑠡 𑠢𑠢𑠢𑠢
𑠢𑠢𑠢𑠢 𑠣𑠣𑠣𑠣
𑠣𑠣𑠣𑠣 𑠤𑠤 𑠤𑠤𑠤𑠤𑠤𑠤 𑠥𑠥𑠥𑠥
𑠥𑠥𑠥𑠥 𑠦𑠦𑠦𑠦𑠦𑠦𑠦𑠦 𑠧𑠧𑠧𑠧
𑠧𑠧
嬀 崀
崀 崀嬀崀崀崀 嬀 崀
嬀 嬀崀嬀嬀嬀 嬀 崀
崀 嬀崀嬀崀崀 崀 嬀
嬀 崀嬀崀嬀嬀 嬀 崀
嬀崀崀崀嬀崀 嬀 嬀 崀
崀嬀嬀嬀崀嬀 崀 嬀 崀
崀 崀嬀嬀崀嬀 嬀
嬀 嬀崀崀嬀崀 崀 嬀崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀嬀嬀 崀 崀 嬀嬀崀 嬀嬀嬀 崀崀嬀 崀崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 嬀 崀 崀崀 崀 嬀 嬀 嬀崀嬀嬀嬀 崀 崀 崀崀
ahaṭa ṭha
ṭa ṭha
ḍaṭhaṭha
ḍa ḍa
ḍhaḍaḍha
ḍaḍha
ṇaḍha
ḍha
ṇa ṇata ṇa ṇa
ta ta
thata tha
ta tha
dathatha
da da
dhadadha
dadha
nadha
dha
na na na na
ə]
ʰə]
[ʈə]
[ʈʰə]
[ʈə][ʈʰə]
[ɖə]
[ʈʰə]
[ʈʰə]
[ɖə]
[ɖə]
[ɖʱə]
[ɖə]
[ɖʱə]
[ɖə]
[ɖʱə]
[ɳə]
[ɖʱə]
[ɖʱə]
[ɳə]
[ɳə]
嬀t̪ ə[ɳə]
崀 [ɳə]
嬀t̪ ə嬀t̪崀嬀t̪əʰ崀ə崀
嬀t̪ ə嬀t̪嬀t̪崀 ʰəə崀
嬀t̪崀 嬀d
ʰə崀
̪ 嬀t̪ə崀ʰə崀
嬀t̪嬀dʰ̪ ə崀
嬀d
嬀d
̪ ə崀
̪ ʱə崀
嬀d̪ə崀
嬀d
嬀d̪ ̪ ʱə崀
ə崀
嬀d̪[nə]
ʱə崀
嬀d̪ʱə崀
嬀d
[nə]
̪ ʱə崀
[nə][nə]
[nə]

𑠞𑠞ba
𑠟𑠟𑠞𑠞
ba𑠞𑠞
崀崀𑠟𑠟
ba
ba
嬀崀崀 𑠟𑠟
𑠠𑠠嬀嬀崀嬀嬀𑠟𑠟bha
𑠟𑠟
𑠠𑠠bha
崀 嬀𑠠𑠠
bha
崀嬀崀𑠡𑠡
bha崀 𑠠𑠠
嬀 崀嬀崀嬀 𑠠𑠠
𑠡𑠡嬀 𑠡𑠡
𑠢𑠢ma
ma
嬀崀𑠡𑠡
崀嬀崀 嬀 𑠡𑠡
ma ma𑠢𑠢崀嬀 嬀𑠢𑠢
崀嬀 崀𑠣𑠣𑠢𑠢𑠢𑠢
𑠣𑠣
崀 崀嬀嬀崀嬀 𑠣𑠣𑠤𑠤
ya yaya ya嬀 嬀崀𑠣𑠣
崀嬀崀 𑠣𑠣
𑠤𑠤 𑠤𑠤ra
嬀𑠥𑠥嬀崀嬀 嬀 𑠤𑠤崀𑠥𑠥
崀嬀崀𑠤𑠤崀 𑠥𑠥
rara
ra 𑠦𑠦嬀𑠥𑠥
嬀崀 嬀 𑠥𑠥
la𑠦𑠦la
嬀 崀 崀嬀𑠦𑠦
la𑠧𑠧
崀 崀 𑠦𑠦嬀𑠧𑠧
la 嬀𑠦𑠦嬀 嬀𑠧𑠧
嬀嬀 崀崀 𑠧𑠧
wawa
崀 崀 崀崀𑠧𑠧
wa wa嬀
嬀 嬀 崀嬀嬀 嬀 崀 崀 崀崀
śaś
ahapapha
papha
bapha
pha
ba ba
bhababha
babha
mabha
bha
mamayamama
ya yara ya ya
ra rala ra ra
la lawala wa
la wa
śawawa
śa śa śa śa
bə][bə]
[bə]
[bə] [bʱə]
[bʱə]
[bʱə]
[bʱə] [mə]
[mə]
[mə][mə] [jə] [jə]
[jə][jə] [ɾə/rə] [ɾə/rə]嬀[lə]
[ɾə/rə]
[ɾə/rə] [lə][lə][wə/ʋə]
[lə] [wə/ʋə][ʃə]
[wə/ʋə]
[wə/ʋə] [ʃ[
ə]
ʰə]
[pə]
[pʰə]
[pə]
[pʰə]
崀 嬀崀崀 [bə]
[pʰə]
嬀 崀嬀嬀[pʰə]
[bə]
[bə]
[bʱə]
[bə]
[bʱə]
[bə]
[bʱə]
[mə]
[bʱə]
[bʱə]
[mə]
崀 嬀崀崀嬀 崀 嬀 崀嬀嬀崀 嬀 [mə]
[jə]
[mə]
[mə]
[jə][ɾə/rə]
[jə] [jə]
嬀崀 崀嬀崀 嬀 崀嬀 嬀崀嬀 崀[ɾə/rə]
[jə]
[ɾə/rə]
[lə]
[ɾə/rə]
[ɾə/rə]
[lə]
[wə/ʋə]
[lə] [lə]
崀 崀嬀嬀 崀嬀 嬀 嬀崀崀 嬀崀 [wə/ʋə]
[lə]
[wə/ʋə]
[wə/ʋə]
[ʃə][wə/ʋə]
嬀崀嬀 嬀 崀嬀崀 崀 [ʃə][ʃə] [ʃə][ʃə]
崀嬀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 嬀崀 崀 崀崀 嬀嬀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀崀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 嬀崀嬀 嬀 崀 崀 崀

𑠨𑠨𑠪𑠪𑠪𑠪𑠪𑠪𑠨𑠨𑠪𑠪
𑠩𑠩𑠨𑠨 𑠫𑠫𑠪𑠪𑠫𑠫
𑠪𑠪𑠫𑠫
𑠩𑠩𑠩𑠩𑠪𑠪𑠩𑠩𑠫𑠫𑠩𑠩 𑠗𑠗
𑠫𑠫 𑠪𑠪𑠫𑠫𑠪𑠪𑠫𑠫 𑠫𑠫𑠗𑠗
𑠗𑠗𑠗𑠗
𑠗𑠗𑠗𑠗𑠗𑠗𑠊𑠊𑠗𑠗𑠊𑠊
𑠫𑠫 𑠗𑠗 𑠊𑠊𑠊𑠊
𑠊𑠊𑠊𑠊
𑠊𑠊 𑠑𑠑𑠊𑠊𑠊𑠊 𑠑𑠑𑠟𑠟𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟 𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟𑠟
𑠑𑠑𑠑𑠑
asaṣa ṣa
sa
嬀 sa
ha
崀 sa sa
ha崀 ha
嬀 ṛaha
嬀 崀 ha
ṛa ṛa
ṛhaṛa
崀 嬀 ṛha
ṛa ṛha
嬀 崀qaṛhaṛha
qa
崀 嬀 qa
za嬀 qa
崀 qa
za za崀fa嬀 za za
嬀fa崀 fa fa
崀 嬀 fa 嬀 崀
ha ha
ha
ə]/hə]
[ʂə]ha
[sə/hə]
[ʂə]
[sə/hə]
[hə] ṛa
ṛa[hə]
[sə/hə] ṛa
[sə/hə]
[hə] ṛa
[ɽə]
[hə]
[hə] ṛha
[ɽə][ɽə]ṛha
[ɽʰə] ṛha
ṛha
[ɽə]
[ɽʰə]
[ɽə]
[ɽʰə]
[qə] qa
[ɽʰə] qa
qa
[ɽʰə]
[qə] qa
[qə]
[zə]
[qə]
[qə]
[zə]za
[zə] za
za
[fə] za
[zə]
[zə] fa
[fə][fə][fə]
[fə]fafa
fa
hə][hə] [ɽə]
[hə]
[hə] [ɽə] [ɽʰə]
[ɽə]
[ɽə] [ɽʰə] [qə]
[ɽʰə]
[ɽʰə] [qə] [zə]
[qə]
[qə] [zə] [fə]
[zə]
[zə] [fə]
[fə]
[fə]

27
28
29
Background Image: PATOLA TEXTILE
(Textile30tradition of Gujarat)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Known for its rich literary tradition with a diverse range of poetry, prose and plays, Gujarati is an
Indo-Aryan language that finds its roots in the ancient Sanskrit and Prakrit languages. The language
has been greatly shaped by Persian, Arabic and European languages over the centuries.

The language is written in the Gujarati script or Lipi, derived from the Devanagari script written from
left to right. The script has distinguishing features, such as the lack of distinct upper and lower case
letters and the horizontal lines that connect the letters within words.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution enlists Gujarati as one of the 22 Scheduled Languages
of India. It is the official language of the western Indian state of Gujarat and along with its dialects, is
spoken by more than 55 million people in the country. The Gujarati-speaking population constitutes
a significant share in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
West Bengal and Delhi.

Across borders, the Gujarati-speaking population has a presence in Pakistan, the United States of
America and the United Kingdom. With their trade and business ventures, Gujaratis traveled far and
wide across the globe, settling in parts of Bangladesh, East Africa, Fiji, Kenya, New Zealand, South
Africa and Zimbabwe.

DIALECTS

The language has many dialects spoken across various regions and territories of India. These include
Kathiyawadi (spoken in Northern Gujarat or Saurashtra), Uttar Gujarati/ Patni (spoken in North
Gujarat), Charotari (spoken in middle Gujarat in cities like Nadiad, Aiianda and Baroda), Surati
(spoken in South Gujarat), Gamadia, Kharwa, Khakari, Tarimukhi and East African Gujarati. The
northern Gujarati dialects borrow significantly from Arabic and Persian, while the southern ones have
more of Hindi, English, and Portuguese influences.

31
32
33
34
35
Background Image: BANARASI BROCADE
(Textile36
tradition of Varanasi)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Hindi or Manak Hindi is an Indo-Aryan language, which is the modern standardized and formalized
version of the composite ‘Hindustani’ languages. It developed during the early modern and modern
periods in North India. Modern standard Hindi is written in the Devanagari or Nagari script, based on
an ancient Indian script called Brahmi, written from left to right. Hindi is believed to have its origins
in Sanskrit. The multilingual tradition of writing in North India during the 18th century is believed to
have shaped modern Hindi.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

In 1950, Hindi became the official language of the new Republic or Union of India. As per Article
343 of the Constitution of India, Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of the Union.
While more than half of the population of India knows Hindi according to the 2001 Census of India,
it is the mother tongue of around 26% of the population. In India, it is widely spoken in Delhi and the
states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, and Rajasthan. Variants of Hindi are also spoken in countries like Fiji, Singapore,
Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Mauritius, French Guiana, and New Zealand as a mother tongue or a
first language.

DIALECTS

The languages of the part of North India commonly referred to as the Hindi belt , are sometimes
considered as the regional or colloquial dialects or forms of the common Hindustani lingua franca.
These forms include Brajbhasha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Haryanvi, Garhwali, Kumauni, Khadi Boli,
Bagheli, Marwari, Bundeli, etc. According to the 2001 Census of India, Hindi has 48 officially
recognized dialects.

37
38
39
40
41
Background Image: KASUTI SAREE
42 of Karnataka)
(Textile tradition
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Kannada is a Dravidian language with a long and fascinating history. Some scholars suggest that
Kannada evolved from a language which may be called Proto-South Dravidian. Kannada words have
been discovered in Prakrit inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE. Western scholars like Pliny the
Elder (1st century CE) and Ptolemy (2nd century CE) have also referred to places with Kannada
names. However, the earliest full-length Kannada inscription currently known is dated to 370 CE.

Conventionally, three stages are recognised in the evolution of Kannada - Haḷegannaḍa or Old Kannada
(450 CE - 1200 CE), Naḍugannaḍa or Middle Kannada (1200 CE - 1700 CE), and Hosagannaḍa or
Modern Kannada (1700 CE onwards). Both Sanskrit and Prakrit have played a significant part in
the development of the language. The Kannada script is closely related to the Telugu script as both
evolved from southern variants of the ancient Brahmi script.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Kannada is mainly spoken in the state of Karnataka located in southwestern India. It is the official
language of the state and is spoken by about two-thirds of the population (2011 Census). Kannada is
spoken in the neighbouring states of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala
and Goa. It became one of the 22 official languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution
of India in 1950. Further, it was designated as one of the six classical languages of India in 2008.

DIALECTS

The written and spoken forms of Kannada differ considerably. While the written form remains more
or less consistent throughout Karnataka, the spoken language varies between places and communities.
Around 20 different dialects of Kannada have been identified. The four major regional dialects include
Mangalore/Udupi Kannada, Mysore/Bangalore Kannada, Kota/Kundapur Kannada and Hubli/
Dharwad Kannada.

43
44
45
46
47
 Background Image: KANI SHAWL
48 of Jammu & Kashmir )
(Textile tradition
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

The Kashmiri language is also known as Koshur and it belongs to a sub-category of Indo-Aryan
languages called the Dardic or Hindu Kush Indo-Aryan. Kashmiri contains elements from Sanskrit,
Prakrit, Punjabi, and Persian. According to some scholars the roots of the Kashmiri language can be
traced back to the Vedic Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. During the Medieval period, around the
14th century, this region came into contact with different cultures which affected the trajectory of the
Kashmiri language. Its writing system can be divided into three categories: a. The Sharada script,
which is believed to have evolved from the western branch of Brahmi nearly 1200 years ago, b. The
Perso-Arabic script, and c. The Devanagari script.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

In India, Kashmiri is primarily spoken in Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages
of India. Kashmiri became the official language of Jammu and Kashmir under the Jammu and Kashmir
Official Language Bill-2020.

DIALECTS

There are several dialects of Kashmiri across Jammu and Kashmir which vary in pronunciation,
vocabulary and grammar. The speech within the valley is divided into three broad categories: mara:z
spoken in the southern and southeastern region, kamra:z spoken in the northern and northwestern
region, and yamra:z spoken in Srinagar and some of its surrounding areas. Kashtawari/Kishtwari,
Poguli, Sarazi and Rambani are other dialects spoken outside the valley.

49
 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀嬀嬀 崀崀崀 嬀嬀嬀 崀崀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀

嬀 崀 嬀嬀 嬀 崀崀 崀 嬀嬀 崀 崀嬀 崀
嬀
嬀
崀
崀
嬀
嬀
崀
崀
嬀
嬀
崀
崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
50
 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 崀 嬀 嬀 嬀嬀嬀 崀 崀崀崀 崀 嬀 嬀嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 崀 嬀嬀 嬀 崀 嬀嬀崀 崀 崀崀 嬀嬀嬀嬀 崀崀崀 崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 嬀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀嬀 崀 嬀 崀
崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 崀崀崀 嬀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 嬀崀 崀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀 嬀崀 嬀 崀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀崀嬀 嬀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀 嬀嬀崀 崀崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 崀 嬀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 嬀 崀 崀 崀崀
嬀 嬀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀崀 嬀 嬀 嬀崀崀 崀崀
嬀 嬀 嬀 崀嬀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 崀 嬀嬀 崀 崀 嬀

嬀嬀 崀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 嬀崀 崀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 嬀崀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀 崀嬀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 崀 崀 嬀嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 嬀 崀 崀
崀 嬀 嬀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀嬀崀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀嬀 嬀 崀 崀崀 崀 嬀 嬀嬀 崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀 崀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀
嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀 崀 嬀 嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

崀 嬀嬀 崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

崀 嬀嬀 崀崀 嬀嬀 崀崀

51
52
53
Background Image: KUNBI SAREE
54 tradition of Goa)
(Textile
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language that belongs to the Indo-European language family. While
Konkani is said to have been a spoken language for most of its history, some scholars believe that the
earliest inscription dates to 1187 CE. Konkani is written in different scripts. In Goa, some used the
Nagari script, while others used the Roman script. In Karnataka, two scripts have been in use - Nagari
and Kannada. Konkani is said to be the only language currently written in five scripts - Devanagari,
Kannada, Malayalam, Roman and Perso-Arabic.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Konkani, predominantly spoken along the Konkan Coast of India, is the official language of Goa.
However, Konkani-speaking communities migrated to the neighbouring areas of Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Kerala. It is one of the 22 languages included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution
of India.

DIALECTS

The maximum concentration of the Konkani-speaking community has been in Goa and over centuries,
the various foreign settlers who came to Goa have had an influence on the language. Hence, Konkani
shares words with Persian, Arabic and also Portuguese. People who migrated to the coastal parts
of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala have developed their own dialects, highly influenced by the
predominant languages of the regions - Marathi, Kannada and Malayalam respectively.

55
56
57
58
59
Background Image: MADHUBANI
60tradition of Bihar)
(Textile
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Maithili is an Indo-Aryan language. One of the earliest mention of the language was in the Alphabetum
Brahmanicum (1771), where it was mentioned as Taurutiana (Tirhutiya). It was earlier written in the
Mithilakshara or Tirhut script and in Kaithi. The script is believed to be a derivative of the Gupta
script. Now, it is written in Devanagari. During the medieval period, it was used as the primary script
for maintaining genealogical records. Several inscriptions written in Maithili have been discovered in
Bihar and Nepal.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Maithili is predominantly spoken in the Mithila region (covering the modern day region of Tirhut)
in Bihar. It is also spoken by a small population in Nepal. As a matter of fact, it is one of five most
spoken languages in Nepal. It became one of the 22 official languages under the Eighth Schedule of
the Indian Constitution in 2003.

DIALECTS

Geography has played a key role in determining the dialects of Maithili. Based on regional
differentiation, Maithili can be classified into the following dialects: Standard Maithili (spoken in
North Bihar), Chhika Chhiki, Western Maithili and Siripuria dialect.

61
62
63
64
65
Background Image: KASAVU SAARE
(Textile66tradition of Kerala)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Malayalam is a classical language that belongs to the Dravidian family of languages. Many scholars
believe that Malayalam and Tamil were once the same language and trace their origin to Proto-Tamil
Malayalam. Many believe that Malayalam was only a spoken language and not a written language until
the 9th century CE. The history of Malayalam as a written language can be traced to the Vazhapalli
inscription of 830 CE. However, the literary journey of the language, with prose and poetry, is
said to have begun in the 12th century CE. The earliest inscriptions and documents were written in
Vattezhuthu script. The Vattezhuthu script was later replaced by Kolezhuthu and Malayanma scripts.
However, modern-day Malayalam is written in Grantha script, which traces its roots to the ancient
Brahmi script.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Spoken predominantly by the people of Kerala - the southernmost state of India - Malayalam was
declared a Classical Language in 2013. Malayalam is the official language of Kerala and the Union
Territory of Lakshadweep. It is also widely used in the neighbouring states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and the Union Territory of Puducherry. On account of the migrations that have taken place from
Kerala to foreign countries, Malayalam has had a presence on the world map. The majority of Indians
settled in the United Arab Emirates belong to the Malayalam-speaking community. According to a
survey conducted in the United States of America in 2019, Malayalam was one of the fastest-growing
South Asian languages. In 1992, it became one of the 22 languages included in the Eighth Schedule
of the Constitution of India.

DIALECTS

Malayalam is highly influenced by the society of Kerala, hence, the dialects and sub-dialects differ in
number. While different communities dominate the various regions of the state and have influenced
the spoken language, dialects of Malayalam can be colloquially categorised based on the geography
of the region. The dialects differ as one moves from North to Central Kerala and then to Southern
Kerala. As a whole, the Malayalam vocabulary was influenced by both Tamil and Sanskrit. Given the
state’s trade relations and the foreign settlers of the region, Malayalam was also influenced by Dutch,
Arabic and English to a great extent.

67
 嬀愀崀 嬀ā崀 嬀椀崀 嬀⬁崀 嬀甀崀 嬀欁崀 嬀嬞崀

嬀崞崀 嬀㜞崀 嬀攀崀 嬀愀椀崀 嬀漀崀 嬀愀甀崀

嬀愀崀 嬀ā崀 嬀 嬀愀愀崀嬀崀嬀愀椀 崀 嬀 嬀āā崀嬀崀ā⬁ 崀崀 嬀 嬀椀 崀椀嬀崀嬀甀椀 崀崀 嬀 嬀⬁ ⬁崀 嬀崀 嬀⬁ 欁

崀崀 嬀 嬀甀甀崀嬀崀甀
嬞 崀崀

嬀崞崀 嬀[㜞 崀ḷ ] 嬀 嬀崞 崞崀 嬀崀[崞攀ḹ崀]崀 嬀 嬀㜞 嬀崀㜞[崀愀

嬀e㜞 椀崀]崀 嬀 嬀[攀攀ē崀嬀 崀漀
攀] 崀 嬀 嬀愀愀椀嬀崀椀嬀愀崀愀椀 甀
崀 崀 嬀 嬀漀漀崀嬀崀漀 崀
嬀欀愀崀 嬀欀栀愀崀 嬀最愀崀 嬀最栀愀崀 嬀䔞愀崀 嬀挀愀崀 嬀挀栀愀崀

嬀樀愀崀 嬀樀栀愀崀 嬀愀崀 嬀琀愀崀 嬀洞栀愀崀 嬀ഞ愀崀 嬀ഞ栀愀崀

嬀甀崀 嬀欁崀 嬀嬞崀

嬀欀愀崀 嬀欀栀愀崀 嬀 嬀欀欀嬀愀嬀最
愀欀崀 愀
崀愀崀崀 嬀 嬀欀欀栀嬀嬀栀欀愀
最愀栀崀栀崀愀愀崀崀 嬀 嬀最最愀嬀愀最
嬀崀䔞崀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀最最栀嬀栀最
嬀愀挀愀栀崀愀崀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀䔞䔞挀愀嬀愀
栀䔞崀 崀愀愀崀崀
嬀䜞愀崀 嬀琀愀崀 嬀琀栀愀崀 嬀搀愀崀 嬀搀栀愀崀 嬀渀愀崀 嬀瀀愀崀

嬀愀崀 嬀ā崀 嬀椀崀 嬀⬁崀 嬀甀崀 嬀欁崀 嬀嬞崀

嬀漀崀 嬀愀甀崀
嬀 樀栀愀愀崀 崀
嬀瀀 嬀嬀戀樀 栀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀樀 愀
樀愀
嬀嬀崀樀戀崀愀栀愀崀 愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀樀 栀
樀栀
嬀嬀愀
嬀樀洀
愀琀栀崀愀崀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀愀嬀嬀愀礀崀洞 崀栀
愀愀崀崀 嬀 嬀琀 琀愀嬀嬀愀爀ഞ崀琀崀愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀嬀嬀洞ഞ洞栀
嬀 嬀栀氀 愀洞愀愀栀崀崀崀愀 崀

嬀崞崀 嬀㜞崀 嬀攀崀 嬀愀椀崀 嬀漀崀 嬀愀甀崀

嬀嬀瘀䜞愀愀崀崀 嬀 嬁嬀 琀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀䜞䜞愀嬀嬀愀嬀䜞崀琀猀崀栀愀愀愀崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀琀 琀愀嬀愀崀挞琀搀崀愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀 嬀琀 琀栀嬀栀嬀愀琀栀
搀愀栀崀愀
栀崀愀崀愀崀 崀 嬀欀愀渀
嬀 嬀搀搀嬀愀 搀崀挞崀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀搀嬀搀嬀栀
瀀嬀琀栀搀愀
爀愀愀
栀崀 崀崀愀 崀

嬀嬀䔞瀀愀栀崀愀 崀 嬀 挀嬀 愀戀 崀愀 崀 嬀嬀嬀瀀挀瀀栀嬀栀栀瀀嬀愀愀戀愀栀崀崀栀崀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀戀戀愀嬀愀

嬀戀崀洀
崀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀戀戀栀嬀嬀栀戀愀礀愀栀崀愀崀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀洀洀嬀愀爀洀
愀愀
崀 崀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀礀礀嬀愀嬀氀愀礀愀
崀 崀愀崀 崀
嬀樀愀崀

嬀欀愀崀 嬀欀栀愀崀 嬀最愀崀 嬀最栀愀崀 嬀䔞愀崀 嬀挀愀崀 嬀挀栀愀崀

嬀嬀洞瘀栀愀愀崀 崀 嬀嬀ഞ嬁愀愀崀崀 嬀瘀瘀愀
嬀ഞ 栀嬀愀瘀嬀崀愀崀猀愀崀 愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀嬁嬁愀嬀愀嬁崀嬀 崀挞愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀猀猀愀嬀愀栀猀崀 崀愀 崀 嬀 嬀挞挞嬀愀嬀愀
欀挞崀 挞崀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 嬀栀栀嬀愀嬀琀愀栀崀爀崀愀 崀

嬀 嬀搀嬀樀樀栀
愀愀崀 崀 嬀 渀嬀 樀愀栀崀愀 崀 嬀 嬀樀 
樀
瀀 嬀樀愀崀 崀愀 崀
嬀愀 嬀琀愀崀 嬀洞栀愀崀 嬀ഞ愀崀 嬀ഞ栀愀崀

嬀嬀礀䜞愀愀崀崀 嬀 爀嬀愀琀 愀崀 崀 嬀 氀嬀愀琀 栀

崀 愀崀 68
嬀搀愀崀 嬀搀栀愀崀 嬀渀愀崀 嬀瀀愀崀
 嬀嬀欀崞 愀
崀崀 嬀 欀嬀 栀
㜞 崀愀 崀 嬀 最嬀 攀愀崀崀 嬀嬀 最
愀栀椀 崀愀 崀 嬀嬀 䔞
漀愀崀崀 嬀嬀 愀挀 甀
愀 崀崀 嬀挀栀愀崀

嬀愀崀 嬀ā崀 嬀椀崀 嬀⬁崀 嬀甀崀 嬀欁崀 嬀嬞崀

嬀樀愀崀 嬀樀栀愀崀 嬀愀崀 嬀 琀. 愀 崀 嬀洞栀愀崀 嬀ഞ愀崀 嬀ഞ栀愀崀

嬀嬀欀崞 愀
崀崀 嬀 欀嬀 栀
㜞 崀愀 崀 嬀 最嬀 攀愀崀崀 嬀嬀 最
愀栀椀 崀愀 崀 嬀嬀 䔞
漀愀崀崀 嬀嬀 愀挀 甀
愀 崀崀 嬀挀栀愀崀
嬀䜞愀崀 嬀琀愀崀 嬀琀栀愀崀 嬀搀愀崀 嬀搀栀愀崀 嬀渀愀崀 嬀瀀愀崀

嬀 ā嬀嬀崀愀愀崀崀 嬀 椀愀嬀嬀崀āā
崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀⬁ ā
崀嬀嬀椀崀椀崀崀 嬀 甀嬀嬀嬀椀崀⬁⬁崀崀崀 嬀⬁嬀甀
嬀欁 崀甀崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀嬞 甀崀嬀嬀崀欁欁崀崀 嬀嬀欁
嬞嬞崀崀
嬀 嬀瀀樀 栀愀 愀崀 崀 嬀戀 樀 栀愀愀崀 崀 嬀戀栀 愀愀崀崀 嬀洀 琀 愀愀崀 崀 嬀 礀洞 栀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 ഞ爀 愀愀崀崀 嬀 ഞ嬀栀氀 愀愀崀崀

嬀 㜞嬀嬀崀嬀欀崞崞愀
崀崀 嬀嬀嬀攀欀崞嬀嬀崀崀栀
㜞㜞崀崀愀 崀 嬀 愀嬀嬀最
椀嬀㜞嬀崀攀
崀攀崀崀 嬀嬀嬀最
嬀漀 攀崀 崀椀椀崀崀
愀愀 椀漀漀崀崀愀
嬀 愀嬀嬀甀䔞 崀崀 崀 嬀 嬀漀嬀愀挀愀崀 甀
愀甀崀崀 嬀 嬀挀嬀 瀀愀栀愀甀愀崀崀崀
嬀 瘀䜞愀愀崀崀崀 嬀 嬁嬀 琀愀愀崀 崀 嬀嬀琀猀愀栀愀愀崀崀 嬀 挞搀栀 愀愀 崀崀 嬀搀 栀栀 愀愀 崀崀 嬀嬀欀渀挞愀愀崀 崀 嬀琀爀愀崀

嬀嬀嬀瀀樀樀栀愀愀愀崀 崀崀 嬀戀
樀 栀愀愀崀 崀 嬀戀
栀愀愀
崀崀 嬀洀
琀 愀愀崀 崀 嬀 礀洞 栀愀愀崀 崀 嬀 ഞ爀 愀愀崀崀 嬀 ഞ嬀栀氀 愀愀崀崀

嬀 欀 嬀栀嬀嬀瘀䜞
欀欀愀愀愀
愀愀崀 崀崀崀崀 嬀 最嬀嬀嬀欀愀欀嬁嬀愀崀栀琀栀愀愀
崀愀愀崀 崀崀崀 嬀嬀最欀嬀嬀栀
最栀嬀琀猀愀栀
嬀最 愀愀崀愀
崀 崀崀 嬀最 嬀愀挞搀栀栀
䔞嬀嬀最最 崀 愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀最 栀
挀嬀嬀嬀愀䔞崀愀栀
䔞搀
栀 愀崀愀
愀 崀崀 崀 嬀 挀 栀嬀 䔞嬀嬀愀嬀嬀欀挀渀
挀愀崀挞愀愀
崀 愀崀崀崀 崀
愀 嬀嬀嬀挀嬀挀嬀瀀挀栀琀栀愀愀
爀愀愀愀崀崀崀崀崀

嬀嬀嬀樀嬀瀀嬀栀 樀栀愀愀愀愀崀崀 崀崀
樀樀 嬀嬀樀嬀嬀嬀愀戀
樀樀栀崀栀愀愀愀崀 崀崀 嬀嬀嬀琀嬀樀嬀戀
栀栀
愀
 崀愀愀愀
崀崀 崀 嬀嬀洞栀嬀嬀嬀愀
洀
琀愀 崀崀愀崀崀 崀
琀愀愀 嬀 ഞ嬀嬀嬀嬀琀愀礀洞洞愀栀崀栀
愀崀愀愀
崀 崀崀 嬀 ഞ 栀嬀愀嬀洞嬀嬀ഞ
爀ഞ
栀崀 愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀嬀ഞഞ嬀嬀ഞ
栀氀栀愀愀愀崀崀崀

嬀嬀嬀琀嬀瘀䜞愀䜞愀愀崀愀崀崀崀 嬀嬀琀嬀䜞栀嬁嬀嬀愀琀愀琀愀崀愀崀 崀崀 嬀 嬀搀嬀嬀琀琀愀

猀愀栀栀愀
崀崀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀嬀搀琀嬀嬀栀嬀挞搀搀愀愀愀愀崀崀崀崀 嬀嬀嬀嬀搀搀
嬀渀 栀搀愀栀
愀 崀愀栀崀愀
崀愀崀崀 嬀 瀀嬀愀嬀搀嬀嬀欀崀渀栀
渀挞愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀嬀嬀瀀瀀渀琀 愀爀愀愀崀崀 崀

嬀瀀瀀
嬀嬀嬀戀 樀 愀栀栀崀愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀 瀀戀嬀栀
嬀戀戀愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀嬀洀
嬀戀
嬀戀戀愀愀栀栀崀崀愀愀崀崀 嬀嬀礀戀嬀愀
嬀栀洀
崀愀愀愀崀 崀崀
洀 嬀 爀嬀嬀愀
洀
嬀礀礀崀愀愀崀崀 嬀 氀 嬀愀礀嬀嬀崀爀爀愀愀愀崀崀崀 嬀嬀爀氀氀愀愀崀崀

嬀 嬁嬀嬀愀瘀瘀崀愀愀崀崀 嬀 嬀瘀猀嬀嬁嬁愀愀愀崀 崀崀 嬀嬀嬁挞嬀嬀愀愀猀猀崀崀愀愀崀崀 嬀 栀嬀 猀嬀愀

嬀挞挞愀崀愀愀崀 崀崀 嬀 欀嬀嬀挞嬀栀栀愀愀愀崀 崀崀 嬀 琀[嬀爀嬀栀
嬀愀欀欀愀崀挞]挞崀愀愀崀崀
ḻa 嬀嬀欀嬀琀琀挞爀爀]愀愀崀崀
[ zha

嬀嬀樀樀愀愀崀崀 嬀樀愀崀

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[ rra ]

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Background Image: LEIRUM PHEE TEXTILE
(Textile72
tradition of Manipur)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

The Manipuri language, also known as Meitei, Meeteilon, Meiteilon, or Meiteiron, is a language of
the Tibeto-Burman sub-family of the Sino-Tibetan Language family. It is the official language of
Manipur and is also spoken in parts of Myanmar and Bangladesh. Manipuri is the only language that
has its own script among the Tibeto-Burman group of languages in northeast India. The Manipuri
Script is locally called Meetei-Mayek. The coins of the Meitei rulers Wura Konthouba (568-658A.D.)
and Lairenba (1394-99 A.D.) containing archaic Manipuri Script give valuable information about the
introduction of the Manipuri alphabet before the 6th century CE.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

The Manipuri or Meitei language is the most widely spoken Sino-Tibetan language of India and the
most spoken indigenous language of northeast India after Assamese and Bengali. According to the
2011 census, there are 1.76 million Manipuri speakers in India. The majority of these speakers are
found in Manipur, where they represent just over half of its population. It is however spoken by some
smaller groups in the neighbouring states like Assam, Tripura and Nagaland. Manipuri is one of the
22 official languages of India and was made part of the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution in
1992.

DIALECTS

There are three main dialects of the Manipuri or Meitei language based on the extensions of new
sounds and tonal shifts. These three dialects include Meitei proper, Loi and Pangal. Meitei proper is
considered more dynamic than the other two dialects.

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Background Image: HIMROO TEXTILE
78
(Textile tradition of Maharashtra)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

The Marathi language belongs to the southern family of the Indo-Aryan group of languages. The
origin of the language can be traced to Maharashtri Prakrit. It is believed that Maharashtri was
spoken as early as the fifth century CE. The earliest record of the Marathi language can be found in
John Fryer’s A new account of East-India and Persia published in 1698 CE.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

The Marathi language is a part of 22 Scheduled languages recognized by the Constitution of India. In
1966, it became the official language of the state of Maharashtra. It is one of the official language in
the state of Goa. It is the fourth most spoken language in India. Outside India, the language is even
spoken in Australia, Canada, Israel, and Mauritius.

DIALECTS

Of the numerous dialects that Marathi is spoken in, the three major ones are, Deshi, Konkani, and
Warhadi. The differentiating factor in these dialects is mainly the peculiar intonation and specific
utterances. The Marathi language has two forms of the alphabet, Balbodh, and Modi. While Balbodh
form reflects the Devanagari script, Modi is a stylized version of Balbodh.

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 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀 嬀 崀

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Background Image: NYIBA TEXTILE
84tradition of Nepal)
(Textile
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

The Nepali language is also known as Nepalese, Gurkha, Gurkhali, Gorkhali, or Khaskura. Its origin
can be traced back to the Indo-Aryan language family, specifically the Eastern Pahari branch. Nepali is
related to Apabhramsha, Prakrit, and Sanskrit. It is believed to be a descendant of the language spoken
by the Khasa people, who ruled western Nepal during the 11th–14th centuries. Further, the unification
of Nepal under the Gorkha Kingdom in the 18th century played a crucial role in the standardisation
and spread of the Nepali language. Nepali is written in the Newari and Devanagari script.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

In 1992, the Nepali language was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. It is an
official language in the state of Sikkim and the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration of West Bengal.
Nepali also has a significant number of speakers in other Indian states like Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Uttarakhand. Further, it is the lingua franca
of Nepal.

DIALECTS

Different geographical territories have various dialects and sub-dialectic families of the Nepali
language. Some of the major dialects of this language are Purbeli, Majhhali, Orapachchhima,
Majhapachchhima, Parpachchhima, Khas-Kura, Bheri-Karnali and Doteli/Achhami. The Purbeli
dialect is spoken in the region of Assam, and it is also sub-categorised into Prabati and Gorkhali.

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Background Image: PATTACHITRA
(Textile90tradition of Odisha)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Odia is an Indo-Aryan language historically divided into Old Odia (10th -13th century), Early Middle
Odia (13th-15th century), Middle Odia (15th-17th century), Late Middle Odia (17th -18th century) and
Modern Odia (18th century till present day). The Odia script was developed from the Kalinga script,
one of the many descendants of the Brahmi script of ancient India. The earliest known inscription in
the Odia language, in the Kalinga script, dates back to the 10th century CE. The curved style of the
Odia script is a result of the tradition of writing on palm leaves that tend to tear if too many straight
lines are used.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Odia is the official language of Odisha and it is spoken by 75% of the population of the state. It is
also spoken in parts of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. It is the one of the
official languages of Jharkhand. Odia is one of the 22 official languages of India and was made part
of the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution in 1950. This language has also been designated as
an Indian classical language.

DIALECTS

The Odia language consists of several dialects. These include Baleswari which is mostly spoken
in Baleswar, Bhadrak, Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts. Baleswaria is a variant of this dialect
spoken in Baleswar. Kataki is a dialect spoken in coastal and central regions of the state. Ganjami,
Sundargadi, Sambalpuri, Desia, Medinipuri Odia, Singhbhumi Odia, Phulbani Odia, and Debagadia
Odia are some other dialects of Odia spoken in Odisha and across the eastern region of India.

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Background Image: PHULKARI
(Textile96tradition of Punjab)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Native to Punjab - the land of five rivers, Punjabi, also spelled as ‘Panjabi’ in India is an Indo-Aryan
language with salient characteristics. Rich in history and cultural heritage, the language has roots in
the ancient Apabhramsa, Sanskrit and Prakrit languages. The Gurmukhi script is used to write Punjabi
in India.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Punjabi is enlisted in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution as one of the 22 Scheduled
languages of India. It was declared the official language of the Indian state of Punjab by the Punjab
(State) Language Act of 1967. It is also one of the official languages of the national capital, Delhi, and
is widely spoken in the neighbouring states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.

The language is also spoken by the Punjabi communities residing in various parts of the world.
Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America are countries with significant Punjabi-
speaking populations.

DIALECTS

The rich history of the Punjabi language and the territorial expanse over which it is spoken have given
rise to a number of unique dialects. Majhi, widely considered to be the standard form of Punjabi is
spoken in the districts of Amritsar and Gurdaspur. It also serves as a linguistic benchmark for Punjabi
literature and education.

Other dialects such as Doabi, spoken in the districts of Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur and Kapurthala; Malwi,
dominant in Ferozpur, Bhatinda, Sangrur, Ludhiana and the western parts of Patiala and Powadhi,
found in eastern parts of Patiala and Sangrur and the district of Ropar contribute to the language’s
variety.

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Background Image: PICHHAURA
102
(Textile tradition of Uttarakhand)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Sanskrit is a Proto-Indo-Iranian language of the Proto-Indo-European language group, which is written

in the Devanagari or Nagari scripts. Today, around 46% of the world speaks some or the other Indo-
European language, out of which the most popular are English, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Portuguese,
Russian, and Spanish. Out of the languages spoken and written in the Indian subcontinent, Sanskrit
has also been used in various Buddhist and Jain texts. Sanskrit is a standardized and formalized
version of the Old Indo-Aryan language, which began as Vedic Sanskrit around 1500 BCE. In ancient
times, Sanskrit was perhaps the most widely spoken language of the Indian subcontinent but it is
still used today for Hindu religious rituals, Buddhist chants, and Jain textual writing. Vedic Sanskrit
was followed by the development of Classical Sanskrit after Panini, an ancient Indian linguist and
grammarian, wrote his work, Ashtadhyayi, which is considered the authoritative source of Sanskrit
grammar and vocabulary.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Sanskrit is one of the six languages that enjoy a Classical status according to the Eighth Schedule of
the Constitution of India. The other five are Tamil, Malayalam, Odia, Kannada, and Telugu. It consists
of literature that dates back to a period of 1500-2000 years. The Sanskrit literary tradition is also not
borrowed from another speech community.

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Background Image: SANTHALI SAREE
108
(Textile tradition of Odisha)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Santhali is a Munda language of considerable antiquity. All Munda languages like Santhali, Mundari
and Ho are believed to have emerged from a common ancestral language that may be called Proto-
Munda. This language reached India from South East Asia around 3500-4000 years ago. The Munda
languages are part of the Austroasiatic language group. Thus, Santhali is distantly related to other
Austroasiatic languages such as the Khmer language of Cambodia and the Vietnamese language.

Until the early twentieth century, Santhali was primarily an oral language. Though attempts were made
to write Santhali in Bangla, Devanagari, Latin and other scripts, all the sounds of the language could
not be accurately expressed. In 1925, a writer and educator named Pandit Raghunath Murmu began to
develop the Ol Chiki script for Santhali. Unlike other Indic scripts, Ol Chiki is alphabetical in nature,
with vowels and consonants being represented independently. The script is also partly pictographic as
each letter is associated with an image. Ol Chiki is now the official script for Santhali in India.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Santhali is a widely-spoken Munda language in the world. It is not only the mother tongue of the
Santhal tribe but is also spoken by other communities like the Mahali and Birhor tribes. Santhali is
primarily used in the states of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, and Assam in India. A few
thousand speakers also inhabit Chhattisgarh, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura. The language
is spoken in pockets of Bangladesh and Nepal as well. In 2003, Santhali was added to the Eighth
Schedule of the Indian Constitution.

DIALECTS

During the colonial period, two major dialects of Santhali were identified. Northern Santhali was
spoken in Bhagalpur, Monghyr, the Santhal Parganas, Birbhum, Bankura, Hazaribagh and Manbhum.
Favoured by the majority of Santhali speakers, this dialect was considered the standard and more
polished version of the language. The Southern dialect was spoken in Midnapur, Singhbhum,
Mayurbhanj and Balasore. Compared to the Northern variant, the Southern dialect of Santhali makes
use of fewer vowels. In recent years, Kamari-Santali, Khole, Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi and
Paharia have been recognised as dialects of Santhali.

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 Background Image: SINDHI TEXTILE
114 of Rajasthan and Gujarat)
(Textile tradition in regions
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

There are numerous debates about the origin of Sindhi language. While some linguists believe that the
language is derived from Varchada Apabhramsa, others argue that the language traces its roots to the
Indus Valley civilization. Nonetheless, all the theories agree that Sindhi is one of the oldest languages
of the Indian subcontinent.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

In 1967, Sindhi was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution as one of the 22
official languages of India. The language is spoken in almost all states but predominantly in Gujarat
and Maharashtra which have a large Sindhi population. It is also spoken in South-East Asian regions
like Hong Kong, Thailand, and Singapore. Sindhi is also the official language of the Sindh province
in Pakistan.

DIALECTS

The Sindhi language is spoken in six dialects, Siraiki, Vicholi, Lari, Lasi, Thari, and Kutchi. The
predominant dialect spoken in India is Kutchi. Historically, Sindhi was written in different scripts like
Gurmukhi, Khojiki, Shikarpuri, and Khudawadi. Today the language is written in Arabic Naskh and
the Devanagari script. The Sindhi language was developed by a harmonious combination of Sanskrit,
Arabic, and Urdu, and therefore, it has 56 letters, while Urdu has more than 30 letters and Arabic has
28.

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Background Image: KANJEEVARAM SAREE
120
(Textile tradition of Tamil Nadu)
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Tamil is one of the oldest languages of South India and it belongs to the Dravidian family of languages.
The oldest written literature in South India, the Sangam Literature is written in Tamil. Scholars believe
the oldest Tamil inscription dates back to the 3rd century BCE. The script used in this inscription is
said to be a variant of the Brahmi script known as Tamil Brahmi. Tamil Brahmi was used to write Old
Tamil which spanned from the 3rd century BCE to the 7th century CE. The Old Tamil period was
followed by Middle Tamil and Modern Tamil periods. Besides the Tamil Brahmi script, Tamil was
also written in Vattezhuthu script which was later replaced by Grantha script. Today, modern Tamil
script is used to write the language.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Tamil, spoken predominantly by the people of Tamil Nadu - a southeastern state of India – was
declared a classical language in 2004. It is the official language of Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory
of Puducherry. It is also spoken in the neighbouring states of Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.
Interestingly, Tamil has also acquired the status of an official language in Sri Lanka. There are also a
significant number of speakers of this language in Malaysia, Singapore and Fiji. Tamil is one of the
22 languages included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.

DIALECTS

Over centuries, Tamil has developed diglossia, wherein the language has distinct variations in the
colloquial and the written language. Some scholars have divided the dialects of Tamil based on the
geography of the region; Northern, Eastern, Western and Southern. The areas bordering Kerala, also
use words from the Malayalam language. As Tamil is also a widely spoken language in Sri Lanka,
several dialects of that region do not include the commonly used words in India.

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 Background Image: KALAMKARI TEXTILE
126 Pradesh and Telangana)
(Textile tradition of Andhra
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

Telugu is a Dravidian language that originated in ancient India. According to scholars, all Dravidian
languages share a common ancestor that can be called Proto-Dravidian. Telugu is believed to have
emerged from Proto-Dravidian around the first millennium BCE. The earliest inscriptions containing
Telugu words have been dated to 400 BCE. The inscriptions of Ashoka (257 BCE) and various
Satavahana rulers (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE) also contain Telugu words. Inscriptional
evidence has also been discovered in South East Asian countries like Myanmar and Indonesia.
However, the first inscription written entirely in the language is from 575 CE. The Telugu script is
closely related to the Kannada script and both seem to have branched off from the Kadamba writing
system. The Kadamba script evolved from Bhattiprolu, a variant of the ancient Brahmi script.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Native to the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in present-day India, Telugu is the most widely
spoken Dravidian language in the world. It is the fourth most commonly spoken native language in
India. Telugu is also used in the neighbouring states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, parts of Jharkhand, West Bengal, and the Union Territory of Puducherry. Additionally,
Telugu speakers have migrated to other parts of the country as well as all over the world. In 2018,
Telugu became the fastest-growing language in the United States of America. It also enjoys a protected
status in South Africa. Telugu is one of the 22 languages included in the Eighth Schedule of the
Constitution of India.

DIALECTS

In colloquial terms, there are three main dialects of Telugu which correspond to the three geographic
areas in the region, namely – Telangana, Rayalseema and Coastal Andhra. Telangana Telugu is
significantly influenced by Dakhani or Hyderabadi Urdu. The Telugu in Rayalseema shares numerous
words with Kannada and Tamil. The language in Coastal Andhra is considered more formal and
Sanskritised. These broad categories have been formally divided into six major dialects. Though the
vocabulary does not significantly change between dialects, the varying pronunciations provide a rich
geographical context to the language.

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Background Image: CHIKANKARI TEXTILE
132 of Lucknow)
(Textile tradition
 ORIGIN & HISTORY

In India, the history of the Urdu language represents a tale of cultural amalgamation. During the
13th century, Urdu is believed to have evolved through interaction between Persian and various local
languages that were spoken in the Indian subcontinent - such as Braj Bhasha, Mewati, Khari Boli,
and Haryanvi. Urdu is believed to have developed in and around Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) during
the later Mughal Era. Hindi, Hindavi, Hindustani, and Dihlavi are some other names that were given
to Urdu. By the 19th century, Urdu crystallised in Delhi with the help of poets and scholars. Today,
Urdu consists of a unique grammar, vocabulary, and script. It is linked to the Indo-European language
family. Urdu’s script is adapted from Arabic and Persian, written from right to left.

DEMOGRAPHY & CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS

Urdu is spoken in various regions of South Asia. In India, the majority of Urdu speakers exist in North
India, Hyderabad, some parts of Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal. Urdu is one of the 22 official
languages of India and was made part of the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution in 1950. Urdu
is an additional official language in the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
Telangana, and Delhi. It is also one of the five official languages of Jammu and Kashmir.

DIALECTS

In India, the Urdu language consists of several dialects that vary across different regions. Urdu’s Delhi
and Lucknow dialects are widely recognised as the standard form. The Lucknow dialect of Urdu is
also referred to as Lakhnavi Urdu or Awadhi Urdu. Another dialect, Dakhini or Decanni Urdu, is
primarily spoken in Hyderabad. In Kashmir, Urdu is influenced by the local Kashmiri Language.

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ENGLISH
(Reference language)

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