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Work and Heat

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Work and Heat

1. Mechanics - definition of work and its limitations.
1. Thermodynamic definition of work;
2. examples, sign convention.
2. Displacement work;
1. as a part of a system boundary,
2. as a whole of a system boundary,
3. expressions for displacement work in various processes through p-v diagrams.
1. Shaft work; Electrical work. Other types of work.
4. Heat.
4hrs
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Definition of work in Mechanics:

The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving

in the direction of the force.
1W2 =  F.dx
2
1

Magnitude of the mechanical work = force X distance

moved parallel to the force

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Thermodynamic work:
In thermodynamics, work transfer is considered as
occurring between system and surroundings.
“work is said to be done by a system when the ‘sole effect’
external to the system could be reduced to the raising of a
weight”.
The weight may not actually be raised, but the net effect
external to the system would be reduced to the raising of a
weight.

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 Example:
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 Example:
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Consider a battery which is connected to a motor

and motor in turn to a pulley with rope as shown
in figure, the other end of rope is having a weight
attached to it.

Considering the battery, motor and pulley as

system the ‘sole effect’ external to this system is
reduced to raising of weight when the battery is
switched on.
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Sign convention:
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In thermodynamics by convention, the work done by a system is considered as

positive and the work done on a system is considered negative.

When a system does positive work, its surroundings do an equal amount of

negative work and vice versa. Thus in any process,
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• The unit of work is ‘N-m’ or ‘Joule(J)’.

• The rate at which work is done by, or upon, the
system is known as power. The unit of power is ‘J/s’ or
‘Watt (W)’.

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Work is a Path function:
Let there are two paths 1-A-2 and 1-B-2 along which work is done,
W1-A-2 =W1-A+WA-2
= 0 + PA(V2-VA) as W1-A=0 , since constant volume process
W1-B-2 =W1-B+WB-2
= PB(VB-V1) + 0
= PB(V2-VA) + 0 as W2-B=0 , since constant volume process.
From above we see that
W1-A-2 ≠ W1-B-2
Hence work is a path function.

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 Work in various processes
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1. Displacement work or p-dV work

2. Shaft work
3. Electrical work
4. Stirrer work
5. Magnetization work
6. Work in stretching of wire
7. Surface tension work

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1. Displacement work or p-dV
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work:
Consider a gas in
thermodynamic equilibrium in
a frictionless piston and
cylinder arrangement as shown
in Fig.

A dl = dV

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Let the piston moves an infinitesimal distance dl.
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Then the force acting on the piston, F = p A.

Where p = pressure
A = area of the piston

The infinitesimal work done by the gas on the piston,

dW= F X dl = (p A) dl = p dV

where dV = A dl, represents displacement or change in volume of the

system.
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When the piston moves from position 1 to position 2 with the

volume changing from V1 to V2, the amount of work done W
by the system will be

The magnitude of the work done is given by the area under

the path 1 to 2.

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Displacement work in various processes

a) Constant pressure or Isobaric or isopiestic process
b)Constant volume or Isochoric process
c) Constant Temperature or Isothermal process
d)Isentropic or reversible adiabatic process
e) Polytropic Process

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 a) Constant pressure or Isobaric or isopiestic process
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 b) Constant volume or Isochoric process
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c) Isothermal or constant Temperature process (pV= constant)

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 d) Isentropic or reversible adiabatic process
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ɣ=Cp/Cv=1.4

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 e) Polytropic Process
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Note: Polytropic process is regarded as general process because
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If n = 0, it corresponds to constant pressure process.

If n = ∞, it corresponds to constant volume process.
If n = 1, it corresponds to isothermal process.

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OTHER TYPES OF WORK

TRANSFER

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 Shaft work
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Shaft work

Shaft work is the work required to rotate a shaft. When

a shaft is rotated by a motor, there is work transfer into
the system (shaft). This is because the shaft can rotate
a pulley which can raise a weight.

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Electrical work

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Electrical work

When a current flows through a resistor (system),

there is work transfer into the system. This is because
the current can drive a motor, the motor can drive a
pulley and the pulley can raise a weight.

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Stirring work or paddle wheel work

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Stirring work or paddle wheel work

In stirring work, as the weight is lowered, the paddle

wheel turns and the work gets transferred into the fluid
system.

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 Workdone in stretching a wire
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Consider a wire as the system.

Let L = length of the wire.
Tf= Tensile force, N
dL = change in length, m
Infinitesimal work done,
dw = - Tf dL , (N-m or Joules)
The -ve sign indicates that the work is done on the sysem.

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 Surface tension work
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The surface tension acts to make the surface area

of the liquid a minimum. Unit of surface tension is
‘force per unit length’ ie; N/m.

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 Surface tension work
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Capillary Action

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 Surface tension work
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The work done on a homogeneous liquid film in

changing its surface area by an infinitesimal
amount,
dW=

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Magnetization work
The work done per unit volume on a magnetic material
through which the magnetic and magnetization fields
are uniform is,

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Flow work

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Free expansion with zero work transfer

The expansion of a gas against vacuum is called free expansion.

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Consider a gas separated from the vacuum by a partition. Let
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the partition be removed. The gas rushes to fill the entire

volume. The expansion of a gas against vacuum is called free
expansion. If we neglect the work associated with the
removal of partition, and consider the gas and vacuum
together as our system, there is no work transfer involved
here, since no work crosses the boundary of the system, and
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If only gas is taken as the system, when the partition is
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removed there is a change in the volume of the gas,

and one is tempted to calculate the work from the
expression.

However, this is not quasi-static process, although

the initial and final end states are in equilibrium.
This type of process is shown by dotted line on p-
V diagram.
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If the vacuum space is divided into a large number of small
volumes by partitions and the partitions are removed one by one
slowly, then every state passed through by the system is in
equilibrium state and the work done can be estimated from the
relation

But in free expansion of a gas, there is no resistance to the fluid

at the system boundary as the volume of the gas increases to fill up
the vacuum space. Work is done by a system to overcome some
‘resistance’. Since vacuum does not offer any resistance, there is no
work transfer involved in free expansion.
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Net work done by a system:
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Different forms of a work transfer occur simultaneously

during a process executed by a system. When all these
work interactions have been evaluated, the total or net
work done by the system would be equal to the
algebraic sum of these as given below

Wtotal = Wdisplacement + Welectrical + Wstirring + ….

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HEAT TRANSFER

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HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is type of energy transfer due to temperature

difference. Heat always flows from a region of
higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature. Both heat and work have same unit,
ie; Joules (J).

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Types of heat transfer

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

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Conduction: The transfer of heat between two bodies

in direct contact is called conduction. Eg. Heat transfer
through a metal rod.

Convection: Heat transfer due to fluid in motion. Eg.

Heating of water in a vessel.

Radiation: Heat transfer through electromagnetic

waves. Eg. Sun radiates heat to the earth.
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Sign Conventions for Heat:
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When heat transfer takes place

from the surrounding to the
system, then it is positive.
When heat transfer takes place
from the system to the
surrounding, then it is negative.

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Adiabatic Process

A process in which no heat crosses the

boundary of the system is called an adiabatic
process.
Here only work interaction takes place
between the system and the surroundings.

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 Heat Transfer is a Path function
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Let there be two paths 1-A-2 and 1-B-2 along which heat is transferred.

Q1-A-2 =Q1-A+QA-2= 0 + TA(S2-SA)

= TA(S2-SA)
Since Q1-A=0 , Isentropic process

Q1-B-2 =Q1-B+QB-2= TB(SB-S1)+0

Since QB-2=0 , Isentropic process
Q1-B-2 = TB(S2-SA)

From above we see that

Q1-A-2 ≠ Q1-B-2
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Specific heat:
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The specific heat of a substance is defined as the

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of the substance through one degree.

For gases, if the process is at constant pressure, it is cp,

and if the process is at constant volume, it is cv.

For solids and liquids, however, the specific heat does

not depend on the process.
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Latent heat:
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The latent heat is the amount of heat transfer required

to cause a phase change in unit mass of a substance at
a constant pressure and temperature.

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1. The latent heat of fusion (Lfu) is the amount of heat
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transferred to melt unit mass of solid into liquid or freeze

unit mass of liquid into solid.
2. The latent heat of vaporization (Lvap) is the quantity of
heat required to vaporize unit mass of liquid into vapor,
or condense unit mass of vapor into liquid.
3. The latent heat of sublimation (Lsub) is the amount of
heat transferred to convert unit mass of solid into vapor
or vice versa.

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 Comparison between work and heat
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Similarities:
•Both are path functions.
•Both are boundary phenomenon.
•Both represent energy under transition.
•Systems possesses energy, but not work or heat.

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Dissimilarities:
• The work is defined as sole effect external to the
system could be reduced to rising of a weight.
• Heat is energy interaction due to temperature
difference only.
• Work is a high grade energy whereas Heat is a low
grade energy.

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NUMERICALS

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