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Computer Fundamentals &

Skills
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from
the user and processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called
program), produces a result (output), and saves it for future use. This tutorial
explains the foundational concepts of computer hardware, software, operating
systems, peripherals, etc. along with how to get the most value and impact from
computer technology.

Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for beginners as well as advanced learners who
want to deal with computers. The tutorial is also very useful for undergraduate
students of computer science, engineering, business administration,
management, science, commerce and arts, where an introductory course on
computers is a part of curriculum.

After completing this tutorial, you will find yourself at a moderate level of
expertise in the knowledge of computer basics from where you can take yourself
to the next level.

Prerequisites
Knowledge of computers is not a prerequisite to follow the contents of this
tutorial. This tutorial assumes no background in Computers or Computer
programming.
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Computer - Overview
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for
everyone to know about computers. A computer is an electronic data processing
device, which accepts and stores data input, processes the data input, and
generates the output in a required format.

The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its

fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer

If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the
following five functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed
• Computer is a very fast device.
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• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even
the picosecond.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man
who will spend many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy
• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
• The calculations are 100% error free.
• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is
correct.

Storage Capability
• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and
lack of concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
• A computer is a very versatile machine.
• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the
very next moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability
• A computer is a reliable machine.
• Modern electronic components have long lives.
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• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation
• Computer is an automatic machine.
• Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the
computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to
reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the
problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.
• A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
• Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
• A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency
• It functions as per the user’s instruction; thus, it is fully dependent on
humans.

Environment
• The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and
suitable.
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No Feeling
• Computers have no feelings or emotions.
• It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and
knowledge unlike humans.

Computer - Advantages and Disadvantages

A computer is an electronic device. It performs computation on inputted data by
processing it. It is a cutting-edge device that can store large amounts of data,
process it, and give desired results. Its results are accurate if the inputted data
is correct, which makes it more popular at this time. In today’s time, computers
are almost used in every domain, like education, research, medicine, law, retail,
companies, etc.

Due to the popularity and usage of computers, there is no shelter in saying that
today everyone has become dependent on them. There are some advantages and
disadvantages to computers.

Advantages of Computers
• Speed − Computers can execute programmes quickly. Thousands of
instructions can execute in milliseconds or seconds.
• Accuracy − Computers can perform very complex computations accurately
in a very short period of time. If a user inputs the correct input to the
computer, it gives accurate results that can be used in decision-making.
• Storage − Computers can store large amounts of data permanently. The
data is saved in files, which can be accessed at any time; these files are
saved for a long time period until a user deletes them.
• Power of Remembering − A computer stores data permanently. It forgets or
loses certain information only when asked to do so.
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• Versatility − A computer is a versatile device. It can run different

programmes simultaneously.
• Diligently − A computer can do the assigned task diligently. A computer can
work for hours without getting tired. Hence, it can do thousands of complex
computations with the same accuracy.
• Automation − A computer is an automated device. It works without human
intervention.
• No I.Q. − A computer does not have its own I.Q.; it carries out the
predetermined tasks and does not take its own decisions.
• No Feelings − A computer does not have emotions. It works as per the given
instructions by users.

Disadvantages of Computers
• Health Issues − Working long hours on computers leads to health issues.
Student's playing games and accessing related applications for long periods
of time cause serious health problems.
• Spread of Pornography − The growing trend of the internet has spread
pornography. In today's time, pornography is a big threat to society and
the youth.
• Virus and hacking attacks − Viruses are unwanted programmes that enter
computers through networks or the internet. These programmes may steal
information or damage computers. Sometimes these lock the application
programmes of the computer to affect its working.
• No IQ − Computers cannot make their own decisions. Its functioning
depends on human interventions.
• Negative effect on the environment − The increasing use of computers and
automated devices has posed a major threat to the environment.
• Crashed Networks − Hackers may destroy the network, which affects the
overall working of the existing system. In today’s time, most of the data is
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on servers, so destroying the network may be a serious threat to

communication.
• Online cybercrimes − the practice of using a computer to facilitate unlawful
activities including fraud, the trafficking of child pornography and other
items of intellectual property, identity theft, and privacy violations The
relevance of cybercrime, particularly over the Internet, has increased as
the computer is most widely used in business, entertainment, and
government.
• Data and information violation − A breach of confidentiality occurs when
information is given to a third party without the data owner's authorization.
The owner of the data has the right to file for legal action to recover the
potential losses.

Classification of Computers
A computer can be classified based on its size, capacity, and purpose. The
following diagram illustrates different types of computers as per their size,
capacity, and purpose.
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Computer's classification based on Size

As per the size, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −

• Micro Computer
• Mini Computer
• Mainframe Computer
• Super Computer

Micro Computer

Microcomputers, also known as personal computers (PCs), are a type of computer

designed for individual use. They are distinguished by their compact dimensions,
small size, processing power, compatibility, internet connectivity, portability, low
price, and versatility. In the 1970s and 1980s, microcomputers gained popularity
and became more popular in the modern computing era.

Fig: Micro Computer

• Size − Microcomputers are small in size. These are portable.

• Example − Some of the popular microcomputers are laptops and desktops,
standard PCs, mobile phones, and notebooks.
• Why microcomputer?
Microcomputers have become an important part of modern life. They have
had a big impact on society, companies, education, and related areas.
• Uses of Microcomputers − Microcomputers are most widely used in education
and learning, entertainment and media, innovation and creativity, research
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and science, healthcare and medicine, home automation, remote work, and
e-commerce and online shopping.

Minicomputer

A minicomputer is a type of computer that is smaller in size than large computers.

It possesses all the capabilities of a large computer. Hence, it is a midsize multi-
processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Fig: Mini Computer

• Size − Its size falls between mainframes and microcomputers. It is larger

than mainframe computers and smaller than microcomputers.
• Example − Some of the popular minicomputers are the PDP-11, IBM's
AS/400e, Honeywell 200, and TI-990.
• Why a Mini Computer? Mini computers are also known as mini PCs or small-
form-factor (SFF) computers. These have impressive computing
capabilities, high performance, connectivity options, portability, and
versatility features.
• Uses of Minicomputers − Minicomputers are most widely used in scientific
computations, engineering, business transaction processing, file handling,
and database management.
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Mainframe computer

The mainframe is very large and is an expensive computer capable of supporting

hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. The mainframe executes
many programmes concurrently and supports simultaneous execution of
programmes.

Fig: Mainframe Computer

• Size − Mainframe computers can vary in size; their size generally depends
on their specifications and the specific model being considered.
• Example − Some of the popular mainframe computers are IBM zSeries
mainframes (BM z14 and IBM z15), Unisys ClearPath, Fujitsu GS21 Series,
and Hitachi VOS3.
• Why a mainframe computer?
The processing capacity of mainframes is frequently measured in MIPS
(million instructions per second) or other units. This enables them to
process a large volume of transactions and perform extensive data
processing.
• Uses of the Mainframe − Mainframe computers are most widely used in
finance, government, healthcare, and more.
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Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a special type of computer that is more powerful and

capable of high-performance computing. It is specifically designed to compute
complex and intensive tasks that regular computers cannot do efficiently.

• Size − Supercomputers can vary in size, from small clusters of computers

to massive installations. A supercomputer may contain 10, 100, 1000, or
more computers that all work together.

Fig: Super Computer

• Example − Some of the popular supercomputers are Fugaku, Google

Sycamore, Baidu's quantum supercomputer, and Sierra.
• Why Supercomputer?
o A supercomputer's processing speed is exceptional and can perform
billions of calculations per second. Multiple processors work in
parallel mode to execute tasks, which makes processing powerful.
o Supercomputers are specially built using specialised hardware like
GPUs (Graphics Processing Units) or TPUs (Tensor Processing Units),
which are used in graphics rendering or machine learning tasks.
o Supercomputers represent the pinnacle of computing power, and
these are very expensive and are employed for specialised
applications.
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• Uses of the Supercomputer − Supercomputers are most widely used in

scientific research, data analysis, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and the analysis of geological data.

Computer's classification based on Capacity

As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −

• Analog Computer
• Digital computer
• Hybrid computer

Analog Computer

A computer that uses physical means like mechanical or hydraulic components to

do the computation rather than electronic circuits is called an analogue computer.
These computers work with continuous data and can manage physical quantities
efficiently. They are particularly good at solving differential equations and
simulating dynamic systems.

Fig: Analog computer

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In lieu of numbers, an analogue computer performs arithmetic operations based

on measurable quantities, such as mechanical movement or the rotation of gears.
In analogue computers, data is processed as continuous signals for its operation,
whereas in digital computers, data is transmitted as discrete signals (or
discontinuous signals).

Digital Computer

A digital computer is a type of computer that represents and processes data

using discrete, distinct values.

Fig: Digital computer

In digital computers, data is processed using binary numbers 0 and 1. These

computers are designed to perform arithmetic calculations and complex data
processing and manipulation. The main components of a digital computer are
input, processing, and output.

Hybrid Computer

A hybrid computer is a type of computer system that integrates the features and
capabilities of both analogue and digital computers. This integration allows the
hybrid computer to perform various tasks efficiently by leveraging the strengths
of both digital and analogue technologies.
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Fig: Hybrid computer

The main components of a hybrid computer are the analogue and digital
components −

• Analog Component − Analogue components in a hybrid computer can

process real-world data like voltage, current, temperature, pressure, etc.
using analogue circuits and components.
• Digital Component − Digital computers work with discrete data and are
based on binary numbers (0s and 1s). Digital components in a hybrid
computer provide the computational power to perform complex calculations
and control the overall operation of the system.

Computer's classification based on Purpose

As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −

• Special Purpose
• General Purpose
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Special Purpose Computer

A computer that is designed and optimized for a specific task or set of tasks is
called a special purpose computer (SPC). SPCs are designed to excel at a single
or limited set of functions, frequently with a high degree of efficiency, speed, and
accuracy.

Fig: Special Purpose Computer

Some of the following popular SPCs are:

• Embedded Systems − These systems are integrated with devices to control

specific functions. For example, a car's engine control unit and microwave
ovens
• Digital Signal Processors − These are commonly used in applications like
audio processing, image compression, and telecommunications.
• Automated Teller Machines − ATMs are special-purpose computers designed
specifically for banking transactions and interactions with customers.
• Medical Equipment − Machines like MRI and CT scanners are specialized
computers used for capturing and processing medical images.
• Spacecraft Computers − Computers used in spacecraft have to operate in
extreme conditions and are optimized for the demands of space missions.
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General Purpose Computer

A computer that is designed to perform a wide range of tasks and functions is

called A General-Purpose Computer (GPC). A GPC is versatile and can be used for
various purposes by running different software and applications.

Fig: General Purpose Computer

Some of the following popular GPCs are as −

• Turing Completeness − A GPC can simulate any algorithm or computation

that can be explored algorithmically.
• Programmability − GPCs can run different applications.
• General-Purpose Operating System − GPCs like Windows, macOS, or Linux
that provide an interactive user interface and manage hardware resources,
enabling the execution of various application programmes.
• Input and Output Capabilities − GPCs have input and output devices
(keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc.) that permit users to interact with the
system and receive feedback.

Computer - Applications
In this chapter, we will discuss the application of computers in various fields.

Business
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A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or

versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

• Payroll calculations
• Budgeting

• Sales analysis

• Financial forecasting

• Managing employee database

• Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −

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• Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making

deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee
records.
• ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier
for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are
widely using computers for their concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information

showing −

• Procedure to continue with policies

• Starting date of the policies

• Next due installment of a policy

• Maturity date
• Interests due

• Survival benefits
• Bonus
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Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

• The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE

(Computer Based Education).
• CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
• Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
• There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
• It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and
analysis is carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −
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• Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and

graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the
goal of selling more products.
• Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use
of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.

They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It
is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds
and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

• Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the
cause of illness.
• Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared
by computer.
• Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
• Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry
dates, harmful side effects, etc.
• Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
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Engineering Design

Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation
and modification of images. Some of the fields are −

• Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of

ships, buildings, budgets, air planes, etc.
• Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
• Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
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Military

Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where
a computer has been used are −

• Missile Control

• Military Communication

• Military Operation and Planning

• Smart Weapons

Communication

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech

that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it
is meant. Some main areas in this category are −
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• E-mail
• Chatting

• Usenet

• FTP

• Telnet

• Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in
this category are −

• Budgets

• Sales tax department

• Income tax department

• Computation of male/female ratio

• Computerization of voters’ lists

• Computerization of PAN card
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• Weather forecasting

Computer - History and Evolution

The history of computers is a fascinating journey that spans centuries of
innovation and technological advancement. Below mentioned table summarizes
the historical development of a computer −

Time Devices invented Description

3000 BCE Abacus This is the earliest computing device. This
was used to do basic arithmetic calculations.
In this computer, beads were moved along
rods to represent numbers.
17th century Mechanical Mechanical methods were introduced to
Calculators (Pascaline and perform arithmetic calculations. Mechanical
Stepped Reckoner) calculators are devices that perform
mathematical calculations using mechanical
mechanisms rather than electronic
components. These calculators were widely
used before the advent of electronic
calculators and computers. The popular
devices of this century were Pascaline and
Stepped Reckoner.
18th century Mechanical Mechanical devices and ideas that were
computer (Step Reckoner, important precursors to the development of
computers and automation were introduced. It
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Turk's Head, Difference uses mechanical components, such as gears,

Engine, Analytical Engine). levers, and switches, to perform calculations
and process information. The popular
mechanical devices developed during 18th
century were Step Reckoner, Turk's Head,
Difference Engine, Analytical Engine.
19th century Electromechanical Computers developed during 19th century
Computers Devices like the were crucial in shaping the concepts and ideas
Z3, Mark I that eventually led to the creation of the
ENIAC (1945) computers we use today. Most of the devices
Stored-Program Computers were based on the combination of mechanical
(1940s-1950s) and electrical switches to perform
Transistors and Integrated computation. The 19th century was the time
Circuits (1950s-1960s) where invention of computing devices was
Minicomputers (1960s-1970s) more and more. The size of computer was

Microprocessors and Personal reduced and the devices with large storage

Computers (1970s-1980s) and high computations were introduced.

Graphical User Interfaces Interconnectivity with multiple devices and

(1980s-1990s) data sharing, remote accessing were recorded

Internet and World Wide Web as the features of the computers which makes

(1990s) it popular in the world and make the computer

as most demandable computing device in the
world.
20th century Laptops, Smartphones, and 20th century is the time where computer
Tablets (2000s-Present) technology is the next level. Portable and light
Cloud Computing and AI weighted high computing devices are
(Most demandable in cutting introduced and in trend. Cloud Computing
edge technology) technology makes the internet as a more
useful platform to keep the data centralized in
terms of accessing and its computation on
server. Hence, cloud computing involves
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delivering various services over the internet,

such as computing power, storage, and
applications. The 20th century saw significant
developments in the field of artificial
intelligence (AI) also. AI technologies began
to be integrated into various applications, such
as speech recognition, image processing,
natural language processing, and robotics.
These developments set the stage for the
further evolution of AI in the 21st century,
where the focus shifted toward more data-
driven approaches.

The history of computers is marked by a continuous cycle of innovation, with each

generation building upon the achievements of the previous one. This overview
provides just a glimpse into the rich and complex evolution of computing
technology.

Generations of Computers

The history of computers let us know the advancements of computing devices as

per the time; as years goes the new version of computers were developed. To
understand this let’s study the generation of computers.
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Characteristics of Computer System

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time
taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.
Hence, a computer works with high speed during the execution of Mathematical
& logical computations.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to
data inconsistency or inaccuracy. High accuracy indicates that a computer is
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performing its tasks correctly and producing reliable results. 100% accuracy
depends on algorithm, data quality, hardware connectivity, and inherent
uncertainties in the tasks being performed.

Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration.
Hence, it can perform repetitive task without getting tired.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of
works with same accuracy and efficiency. Hence, a versatile computer can be
used for different purposes. A versatile computer can support Software
Compatibility, Operating System Support, Programming and Development, Multi-
Tasking, Internet Connectivity, Media Handling, Hardware Compatibility,
Customization, and can manage different types of applications and workloads.

Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we
give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result. Reliability
is important to ensure safety, data integrity, and continuous operation. Reliability
of a computer can be measured using Mean Time between Failures (MTBF), Mean
Time to Failure (MTTF), Mean Time to Repair (MTTR), Availability (proportion of
time a system is operational and accessible), and Failure Rate, Fault Tolerance
(continuity of functioning even in the presence of hardware or software faults).

Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention. The main aim of automation is to improve efficiency,
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accuracy, and consistency in different processes by reducing manual intervention

in the system. Automation can lead to increased productivity, reduced errors, and
cost savings.

Storage and Retrieval

Memory is a storage device which stores data. The beauty of a computer is to

execute the data in primary memory (RAM) whenever required. At the other side,
data can permanently store to the secondary memory (Hard Disk) to the long
time and a user can access it whenever they required; it does not delete the data
until a user delete it.

Data Management and data analytics

In digital world, data can be in various forms, such as text, numbers, images,
audio, and video. A computer may process and manipulate this data efficiently
and provides insightful results from text, numbers, images, audio, and video data.
The analytical results are used in decision making and useful to frame the
strategies for the organisations.

Connectivity

The connectivity of computers enables data communication, resource sharing,

and remote access to information and services.

Multitasking

Modern computer systems support multitasking, which means parallel execution

of tasks. During multitasking process, processor rapidly switches between tasks,
and giving the illusion of simultaneous execution. Multicore processors enable
simultaneous execution of multiple tasks.
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Security and Privacy

Modern computers are kept the data security, privacy of data to protect against
unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyberattacks. For example -Biometric
authentication, encryption, and secure boot protect the computer and user data.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

GPUs manages graphical tasks like gaming, multimedia, and computational

related things like AI and machine learning.

Origin of Computing
Origins of computing refer to the historical origins and evolution of computing and
include the development of various technologies, theories, and concepts that
have laid the foundation for modern computing systems. The journey to the
origins of computing is a complex and fascinating story that spans centuries and
includes contributions from various fields such as mathematics, engineering, and
philosophy. Below are just a few highlights from the extensive timeline of the
origins of computing −

• Ancient computing devices − the earliest forms of computing can be traced

back to ancient civilizations. The abacus, for example, was used for
arithmetic calculations in cultures such as the Sumerians and the Chinese.
• Mathematical Logic and Algorithms − The work of mathematicians such as
Euclid, Pythagoras, and Archimedes laid the foundation for the
mathematical principles underlying computational algorithms.
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• Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace − In the 19th century, Charles Babbage
(also known as father of computer) developed the idea of mechanical
computing devices known as the "Analytical Engine" Ada Lovelace; a
Mathematician has written the first computer program for Babbage's
machine.
• Alan Turing and the Turing Machine − Alan Turing, a British mathematician,
introduced the concept of the Turing machine, a theoretical model of
computation that forms the basis for modern computers.
• Electronic Computers − The development of electronic computers began in
the mid of 20th century. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer) was built during 1940s, considered as first general-purpose
electronic computers.
• Transistors and integrated circuits − The invention of the transistor in the late
1940s revolutionized computing by enabling the development of smaller,
faster, and more powerful devices.
• Personal computers and graphical user interfaces − The rise of the personal
computers has shown during 1970’s and 1980’s. During this phase; Steve
Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded Apple and introduced graphical user
interfaces with the Macintosh computer.
• Internet and networks − The ARPANET project in the late 1960s laid the
foundation for the modern Internet. The development of network protocols
and the World Wide Web (WWW) in the 1990’s changed the way
information accessing and shared it around the world.
• Open-source software development − The open-source software gained the
popularity and it’s usage during 1980- 1990s. A popular example of open
source software is Linux operating system which was developed by Linus
Torvalds.
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning − The domain artificial intelligence
(AI), machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) have their roots during
20th century. Over time, advances in algorithms and computing power have
led to significant breakthroughs in AI applications.
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Here, below mentioned table summarizes the origins of computing as per the time
line when humans first started using tools to aid in calculation and data
processing.

Table : The origins of computing

Time Computing Description

devices invented
and used
16th - 17th Mechanical The first mechanical calculating machines, such as
centuries Calculators Blaise Pascal's Pascaline and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz's step calculator were designed to perform basic
arithmetic calculations.
1837-1871 Analytical Engine Designed by Charles Babbage, the Analytical Engine is
often considered the theoretical precursor to modern
computers. It featured concepts like an arithmetic logic
unit, memory, and a control unit.
Late 19th - Tabulating Machines Herman Hollerith was the inventor of tabulating devices
Early 20th that used punched cards for data processing and storage.
centuries These devices were employed for the processing of
census data and can be seen as a predecessor to
contemporary data processing methods.
1930s - Vacuum Tube The first electronic digital computers used vacuum tubes
1940s Computers for logic and memory.
1945 ENIAC ENIAC was one of the first general-purpose digital
computers.
1940s - Stored-Program The development of stored-program computers marked a
1950s Computers significant milestone.
1950s - Transistors and Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers
1960s Integrated Circuits smaller, more reliable, and energy-efficient.
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1970s - Microprocessors and Microprocessor, like the Intel 4004, led to the
1980s Personal Computers development of affordable and compact computers.
1980s - Graphical User GUI based computing applications were Apple
1990s Interfaces and Macintosh and Microsoft Windows. These were made
Networking computers more user-friendly.
2000s - Mobile and Cloud The 21st century brought mobile computing as well as
Present Computing cloud computing services, which allow users to access
and store data remotely.

Computer - Generations
The development of computers has gone through different generations, each
generation marked by significant advancements in terms of technology and
architecture. These generations are classified as follows:

• First generation

• Second generation

• Third generation

• Fourth generation

• Fifth generation

First Generation
• The timeline for the first-generation computers was 1940 to 1956.
• The first-generation computers were developed using vacuum tube or
thermionic valve machine.
• Punched cards and paper tape were used as input/output.
• Magnetic drums and magnetic tapes were used as a memory device to save
the data.
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• These computers were consuming lot of electricity because of vacuum

tubes and other electronic devices and generate lot of heat.
• These were bigger in size and more expensive.
• These computers were worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of
0-1).
• Examples − ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.

Second Generation
• The timeline for the second-generation computers was 1956 to 1963.
• Transistors were used to develop.
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• In comparison to the first-generation, second-generation computers were

small in size.
• Punched cards and magnetic tape were used for input /output.
• Electricity consumption was low and produces less heat.
• Magnetic core memory was used.
• Fast computing and were used in business, scientific research, and
government applications.
• Examples − UNIVAC, IBM 1401, IBM 7090.

Third Generation
• The timeline for the third generation computers was 1963 to 1971.
• Integrated Circuit (IC) was used to develop.
• In comparison to the second generation, third generation computers were
small in size.
• Magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer devices were used as input and
output.

• Computation power was higher as compare to second generation

computers.
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• The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated
less heat.
• The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also
low as these were consuming less power and generated less heat.
• These were most widely used in commercial purposes.
• Examples − UNIVAC, IBM 360, IBM 370.

Fourth Generation
• The timeline for the fourth-generation computers was 1972 to 2010.
• Microprocessor technology was used to develop.
• These were surprising in terms of size and computing power.

• Portable computers.
• Very less power consuming and affordable.
• Semiconductor memory such as RAM, ROM were used which makes
computation faster.
• Keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning, monitor, printer devices were
used for input and output.
• It became available for the common people as well.
• Examples − IBM PC, STAR 1000, Apple.
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Fifth Generation
• The timeline for the fifth-generation computers is form 2010 to till date.
• These computers are based on artificial intelligence, Ultra Large-Scale
Integration (ULSI), Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel
processing technology.

• Very fast and multiple tasks could be performed simultaneously.

• These are smaller in size as compare to fourth generation computers.
• Consumes very low power.
• Keyboard, monitor, mouse, touchscreen, scanner, printer are used as an
input output devices.
• Examples − Laptops, tablets, smartphones are most popular examples of
fifth generation computers.
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Types of Computers
The types of computers are as follows −

• Analogue computer
• Digital computer
Digital computers are further categorized as follows −
o Micro computer
o Mini computer
o Mainframe computer
o Super computer
• Hybrid computer

Analogue computer

An analog or analogue computer is a computer which processes analogue data.

It processes and represents data using continuous signals such as voltage,
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current, or physical dimensions. The analogue computers were used during

1950s–1960s. Analogue data is not discrete; it is continuous. Pressure,
temperature, voltage, speed, and weight are examples of such data. Analogue
computers are most widely used in aircraft, ships, submarines, and daily
appliances like refrigerator, speedometer, etc.

Types of Analogue Computers

Different types of analogue computers are as −

• Mechanical Analogue Computers − These computers were using physical

mechanisms like gears, levers, and rotating disks to model and solve
mathematical equations. Example - analyser.
• Electrical Analogue Computers − These computers were used electrical
circuits to represent and solve mathematical equations. Example -
Spectrometer, oscilloscope.
• Optical Analogue Computers − These computers were used light and optics
for computation. Example - Norden bombsight.
• Analogue-Digital Hybrid Computers − These computers were the combination
of analogue and digital computers so that they can process both continuous
and discrete data to make them versatile for various applications like Petrol
pumps, which contain a processor that converts fuel flow measurement into
quantity and price. Example - Hycomp 250.

Now a day, analogue computers have replaced by digital computers. However,

analogue computers are still in use where continuous data processing or
simulation of physical systems is required.

Digital Computer

The digital computers are the type of computers that uses discrete data to
perform computations. The most common type of computers used today is digital
computers.
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Personal computers, smartphones, servers and supercomputers are some of the

examples of digital computers.

Digital computers are further categorized as follows −

• Microcomputer − it is a type of computer which is smaller in size and less

powerful than mainframe and minicomputer systems. Microcomputers are
used in personal computing, office tasks, and small-scale computing
applications.
• Minicomputer − minicomputer is a computer that falls between mainframe
computers and microcomputers. It is smaller than mainframe computers
but larger than microcomputers. These computers are used for personal
use for computing, and data management.
• Mainframe Computer − Mainframe computers are powerful than
minicomputer. These computers are used in E-business, banking, stock
exchange, railway and airlines ticketing, and research centers.
• Super computer − A supercomputer is a highly powerful computer. These
computers are specially designed to solve complex computational
problems. A supercomputer may use for space investigation, Atomic
weapons, Genetic engineering, Military, Weather forecasting, simulations,
data analysis.

Hybrid Computer

The hybrid computer is a type of computer that combines the functionalities of

both digital and analogue computers. The primary aim of hybrid computer’s
design is to do highly intricate computations. A hybrid computer has the capability
to address the computational needs of large-scale organisations by effectively
solving logical and technical computations, and also provides efficient processing
of differential equations.

Followings are the key features of hybrid computers −

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• Analogue and Digital Components − Hybrid computers integrate the

functionalities of both digital and analogue computers. This allows to
process continuous signals from the physical world and performs digital
computations.
• Fast Data Conversion − Hybrid computers can convert analogue data into
digital format efficiently. This process enables to process real-world data
and make fruitful decisions based on processed outcomes.
• High-Speed Processing − Hybrid computers are highly computational devices
which do numerical calculations, making them suitable for tasks requiring
complex mathematical operations and simulations.
• Real-time Analysis − The hybrid computers excel in real-time analysis of
continuous data.
• Complex Simulations − Hybrid computers are used in scientific research and
engineering simulations that necessitate the combination of mathematical
modelling with integration of real-world data.
• Accuracy and Precision − The hybrid computer gives accuracy and precision
in calculations, ensuring reliable results for different applications.
• Customization − Adjusting the proportion of analogue to digital components
in hybrid computers allows them to be specialized for use in a variety of
different applications.
• Control Systems − Control systems in industries such as manufacturing,
aerospace, and automotive, which require real-time data processing and
precise control, frequently make use of hybrid computers because to their
versatility and low power consumption.
• Scientific Research − They are useful tools in scientific study, particularly in
subjects like as physics, chemistry, and biology, where simulations using
both continuous and discrete data are required. This is especially true of
the domains of physics, chemistry, and biology.
• Medical Imaging − In medical imaging procedures, such as the processing
of data from devices like MRI and CT scanners, which involve both
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continuous and discrete data, hybrid computers play an important role. One
example of this is the processing of MRI and CT scan data.
• Weather Prediction − For the purpose of modelling the weather, hybrid
computers are used in the field of meteorology. This is due to the fact that
weather patterns require both on-going physical processes and intricate
numerical models.
• Complex Calculations − Hybrid computers can be useful in different kinds of
work, including simulations of nuclear reactors and studies of fluid
dynamics, which both combine real-time analysis and numerical
computations.
• Optimization Problems − Hybrid computers are used for solving optimization
problems that require both continuous adjustments and discrete decisions.
• Energy Efficiency − Hybrid computers may be more energy-efficient than
digital computers because they can outsource some computations to
analogue components, which may be more power-efficient for specific
duties.

Computer - Components
Computer systems consist of three components: Central Processing Unit, Input
devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data to the processor
(processing unit), which processes it and generates useful information that’s
displayed to the user through output devices. Output devices are used to show
the processed data to the user on computer screen or in print form. Below figure
depicts the major components of computer systems −
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Fig: Components of computer systems

Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is also known as "the brain of computer". It
controls operation of all components of a computer.

Fig: Central Processing Unit

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A CPU itself has three components which are as follows −

• Control Unit (CU)

• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit
As its name implies, a control unit acts as the "brain" of the CPU. It executes
instructions and manages the flow of data inside the CPU to perform the tasks
specified by a computer program. It plays a pivotal role in the fetch-decode-
execute cycle, which is a fundamental process by which a CPU runs program
instructions.

Functions of Control Unit

• Instruction Fetch − To run and execute a program; a CU fetches instructions
from RAM (Random Access Memory).
• Instruction Decoding − It decodes the fetched instructions to determine the
operation to be performed.
• Instruction Execution − A CU executes the instructions by sending control
signals to the appropriate functional units within the CPU, such as the ALU
for arithmetic and logical operations
• Control Flow Management − The Control Unit is responsible for overseeing
the control flow of the programme. It accomplishes this by updating the
programme counter, which enables the CPU to go to the subsequent
instruction in the sequence based on conditional statements or jumps.
• Exception Handling − The system effectively manages exceptions and
interruptions, including hardware failures, system calls, and external
events, by appropriately diverting the control flow of the central processing
unit (CPU) to the planned procedure for managing such exceptions.
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• Pipeline Control (in pipelined CPUs) − The modern CPU’s are available with
pipeline designs; a CU controls the steps of the pipeline and makes sure
that instructions are processed quickly and safely.
• Synchronization − In the context of multi-core processors, a CU plays a
crucial role in facilitating the coordination of instruction execution across
several cores, hence guaranteeing the appropriate synchronisation and
maintenance of data consistency.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a component that has been extensively
optimised and engineered to do multiple tasks concurrently. It is commonly built
to execute operations speedily. It works in conjunction with other CPU
components, such as registers, memory, and control units, to execute complex
instructions.

Functions of an ALU
• Arithmetic Operations − The ALU can perform basic arithmetic operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• Logic Operations − The ALU can also perform logical operations like AND,
OR, NOT, XOR, and bit-shifting operations.
• Comparison − The ALU can compare two binary values and determine
whether they are equal, greater than, or less than each other. This function
is most widely used in programming and sorting algorithms.

Memory Unit
A memory or storage unit is a hardware component which is used to store the
data and instructions and retrieve it whenever is required. Majorly computer
memory has categorized as temporary (RAM) and permanent memory (secondary
memory). RAM is used for short-term, fast data access and essential for active
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program execution. On the other hand, storage or secondary memory provides

permanent data storage. Hence, memory and storage units both are critical
components of a computer system.

Functions of memory

Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory)

• RAM is also known as primary or temporary memory; it is a type of volatile
memory used for temporarily storing data.
• The contents inside the RAM are erased when computer's power get off or
restarted.

• RAM is actively used for program or instructions execution.

• Once we start the computer; systems necessary files, programs and the
operating system files are loaded into the RAM for smoothly running of
computer.
• The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and
the faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly.

Storage (Hard Drives, SSDs, Flash Drives, etc.)

• Storage devices are used to store the data permanently, even when the
computer is powered off.
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• They are non-volatile in nature; the data remains intact even when the
power is get off or system restarts.
• The most popular and commonly used storage devices are Hard Disk (HDs),
Solid-State Drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, and optical disks (e.g., DVDs),
pen drives.

• The data storage capacity varies of these devices are in gigabytes (GB) to
terabytes (TB) and more, depending on the type and size of the storage
device.

Input devices
The devices which are used to give input to the computer system is known as
input devices.

Keyboard
Keyboard is a most common and very popular input device which helps to input
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like a traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional
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functions. There are different types of keyboards; each one has designed for
specific purposes.

• QWERTY Keyboards − QWERTY is a most usable keyboard. It's named after

the first six letters in the top row of the keyboard.

QWERTY keyboards are commonly found in personal computers and are

considered as standard on typewriters. These devices are specifically designed
for general typing tasks.

• Mechanical Keyboards − Each key on mechanical keyboards has a

mechanical switch. Different types of switches offer varying levels of tactile
feedback and actuation force.
•
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Typists and gamers who demand accurate and enjoyable typing love these
switches because they give tactile and aural feedback.

• Membrane Keyboards − Laptops and cheap desktop keyboards have

membrane keyboards. When pushed, a key contacts a rubber or silicone
membrane below the keys to register a keystroke.

• Ergonomic Keyboards − Typing for long periods of time can cause muscle
strain and discomfort; ergonomic keyboards are specifically designed to
alleviate these issues.

These include split keyboards and contoured keyboards, which are curved to fit
the natural hand posture.
• Gaming Keyboards − Gaming keyboards are optimized for gaming
performance.
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They usually have changeable illumination, programmable keys, and anti-

ghosting technology to prevent missed keypresses during fast gameplay. Some
gaming keyboards include mechanical switches for quicker responsiveness.

• Wireless Keyboards − Wireless keyboards use Bluetooth or RF to connect to

computers and other devices without cords.

Laptops, tablets, and smart TVs utilize them for convenience and mobility.
• Virtual Keyboards − Software-based virtual keyboards are utilized on
smartphones and tablets. Tap or swipe virtual keys to enter text or
directions.
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• Foldable Keyboards − Foldable keyboards are portable and convenient.

Travelers and people who require a small keyboard may fold or wrap them up for
storage and transport.

The keys on the keyboard

Below table describes different keys on the keyboard and there are as follows −

S.No. Keys & Description

1 Typing Keys − These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad − It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement.
Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used
by most adding machines and calculators.
3 Function Keys − The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which is
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning
and is used for some specific purpose.
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4 Control keys − These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keys − Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as
Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse

Mouse is a most popular input device. It is also known as a pointing device. It is

a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round
ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally,
it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor
on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

The most common types of mice are as follows −

• Optical Mouse − Movement is detected by LED lights and sensors in optical

mouse. They work on many surfaces and are the most common mouse.
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• Trackball Mouse − Trackball mice have a stationary ball on top that users
may roll with their fingers or thumbs.

Movement controls the screen cursor. Trackball mice are utilized when space or
accuracy are restricted.

• Wireless Mouse − Bluetooth or USB receivers link wireless mice to

computers and devices. They're cable-free, so they move more freely.

Wireless mouse can be recharged or utilize disposable batteries.

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• Wired Mouse − They work without batteries or a wireless connection,

making them a good solution for those who don't want to worry about signal
interference. These are connected to computers using physical cables.

• Gaming Mouse − Gaming mouse have configurable buttons, adjustable DPI,

and ergonomic ergonomics for long-term usage. Gaming is optimised for
rapid, accurate movements.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a
monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper
ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in
all four directions.
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The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and
an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button
is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends
the corresponding signal to the CPU.
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Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on
the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is
used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to
the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.
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Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital
form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are
printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer
to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and

pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works
of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
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The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques
to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are
printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of
magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantages of MICR are that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

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OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically,
character by character, converts them into a machine-readable code, and stores
the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods,
numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in
a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value,
which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made
by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected
and marked.
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It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having

multiple choice questions.

Output Devices
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
• Monitors
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are
arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
• Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller
the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter 'e' in the word help.
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A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen

can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen
where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying
80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

• Large in Size
• High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on
walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel display include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.
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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical

energy into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting
Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For
example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Graphic Plotter
Computer graphics and engineering applications employ graphic plotters to create
high-quality, accurate, and detailed drawings or plots on paper or other media. It
draws continuous lines accurately and is suited for vector drawings, unlike a
standard printer. Key features of graphic plotters are as −
• Vector Graphics − Vector graphics allow graphic plotters to create lines and
shapes precisely using continuous points instead of dots like raster printers.
• Pen or Pen-Like Tool − A pen or similar instrument draws on paper for
graphic plotters. The pen may move X and Y on a moveable arm to draw
complicated shapes.
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• Applications − Graphic plotters are employed in engineering, architecture,

cartography, and textile design. They were popular for technical drawings
and diagrams before digital.

A vector graphics plotter outputs accurate and detailed drawing. They are still
used in sectors and applications that need accuracy and high-quality output, even
if digital printing has made them less widespread.

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is
then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

• Character printers
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• Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These
printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each
character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix
of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which
is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed
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Disadvantages

• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of
Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are
generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be
sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

• More reliable than DMP

• Better quality
• Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

• Slower than DMP

• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP
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Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of
the drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of
the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A
character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the
market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum
prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines
per minute.

Advantages

• Very high speed

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Disadvantages

• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer.
A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

• Character fonts can easily be changed.

• Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

• Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers
print a complete page at a time; thus, they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers

• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
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Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

• Very high speed

• Very high-quality output
• Good graphics quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

• Expensive
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single
printing
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Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper.
Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles
of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet
printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

• High quality printing

• More reliable

Disadvantages

• Expensive as the cost per page is high

• Slow as compared to laser printer
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Computer - Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Central Processing Unit

CPU stands for Central Processing Unit; it is also known as "the brain of the
computer". A CPU is a primary component of a computer that performs most of
the processing and controls the operation of all components running inside a
computer.

The key components of a CPU are the Control Unit, ALU and Memory. The
alignment and integration of key components are included in the above figure.

Components of CPU
• Control Unit (CU)
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Memory or Storage Unit
• Registers
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Control Unit
As its name implies, a control unit acts as the "brain" of the CPU. A major role of
a control unit is to manage and execute instructions to perform the tasks specified
by a computer program. v. A CPU executes instructions by fetching them from
memory, decodes them, and then executes them. So, it plays a vital role in fetch-
decode-execute instructions.

Functions of Control Unit

• Instruction Fetch − A CU fetches instructions from RAM (Random Access
Memory).
• Instruction Decoding − It decodes the fetched instructions to operate.
• Instruction Execution − A CU sends control signals to perform operations like
ALU for arithmetic and logical operations.
• Control Flow Management − It controls flow by updating the programme
counter.
• Exception Handling − A control unit effectively manages exceptions and
interruptions like hardware failures, system calls, and external events, by
appropriately diverting the control flow of the CPU to the planned procedure
for managing such exceptions.
• Synchronization − A CU plays a crucial role in facilitating the coordination of
instruction execution across several cores.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a component that has been extensively
optimized and engineered to do multiple tasks concurrently. It is commonly built
to execute operations speedily. It works in conjunction with other CPU
components, such as registers, memory, and control units, to execute complex
instructions.
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Functions of an ALU
• Arithmetic Operations − The ALU can perform basic arithmetic operations.
• Logic Operations − The ALU can also perform logical operations like AND,
OR, NOT, XOR, and bit-shifting operations.

Memory Unit
A memory is a hardware component which is used to store and access the data
whenever required. Majorly; computer memory is categorized into two parts
Primary Memory (RAM) and Secondary Memory (Hard Disk). RAM is used for
short-term, fast data access and is essential for active program execution. On the
other hand, storage or secondary memory provides permanent data storage.

Hence, memory and storage units both are critical components of a computer
system.

Functions of memory

Primary Memory

• RAM is also known as primary or temporary memory; it is a type of volatile

memory used for temporarily storing data.
• The contents inside the RAM are erased when the computer’s power gets
off or restarted.
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• RAM is actively used for program or instruction execution.

• Once we start the computer; system necessary files, programs and
operating system files are loaded into the RAM for the smooth running of
the computer.
• The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and
the faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly.

Storage (Hard Drives, SSDs, Flash Drives, etc.)

• Storage devices are used to store the data permanently, even when the
computer is powered off.
• They are non-volatile; the data remains intact even when the power is
turned off or the system restarts.

• The most popular and commonly used storage devices are Hard disks
(HDs), Solid-State Drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, and optical disks (e.g.,
DVDs), pen drives.
• The data storage capacity of these devices in gigabytes (GB) to terabytes
(TB) and more, depending on the type and size of the storage device.

Functions of the CPU

The key functions of a CPU are as follows −

• The CPU performs arithmetic and logic operations.

• It directs the operation of the processor.
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• It directs Input and output units that how to respond to the instructions
that have been communicated to the processor.
• A CPU contains registers which are considered small storage locations
within the CPU to hold data temporarily during execution of a program.
• A CPU executes instructions by fetching them from memory, decodes them,
and then executes them.

Computer - Input Devices

The devices which are used to give input to the computer system are known as
input devices. Data is inputted into the computer system in raw format, which is
then translated into a computer-understandable form using input devices; after
that, it is processed using a central processing unit, which produces output. In
another form, an input device is a type of peripheral device that allows users to
interact with the computer system.

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer
−
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
• Optical Character Reader (OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
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Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional
typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing
additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with
104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

QWERTY Keyboards
QWERTY is the most usable keyboard. It's named after the first six letters in the
top row of the keyboard. The QWERTY keyboard's is significant due to its typing
familiarity, standardization, and widespread support. These features make it
comfortable for most of the users, assuring simplicity of use and accessibility
across different devices and platforms.
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QWERTY keyboards are commonly found in personal computers and are

considered standard on typewriters. These devices are specifically designed for
general typing tasks.

Advantages of the QWERTY keyboard

Some key advantages of the QWERTY keyboard −
• Ergonomic Designs
• Ease To Use
• Familiarity and Standardization
• Compatibility with Modern Devices
• Typing Efficiency
• Cost-Effective

Mechanical Keyboards
Mechanical keyboards employ unique mechanical switches for each key. Each key
on mechanical keyboards has a mechanical switch. Different types of switches
offer varying levels of tactile feedback and actuation force. They are renowned
for their durability, tactile feedback, and adaptability.
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Typists and gamers who demand accurate and enjoyable typing love these
switches because they give tactile and aural feedback.

Advantages of the Mechanical keyboard

The main advantages of mechanical keyboards are as follows −
• High-Quality Switches
• Typing Comfort and Performance
• Consistent Key Feel
• Customizable Switch Types
• Customization and Modularity
• Essential for fast typists and gamers who need to press several keys at
once
• RGB Lighting

Membrane Keyboards
Laptops and cheap desktop keyboards have membrane keyboards. When pushed,
a key contacts a rubber or silicone membrane below the keys to register a
keystroke.
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Membrane keyboards, which feature pressure pad technology and a flat, flexible
surface, are popular due to their distinct set of benefits.

Advantages of the Membrane keyboard

Some of the key advantages are as follows −
• Membrane keyboards are generally Cost-Effective
• A user can use it quietly; without making a noise
• Lightweight
• Portable
• Compact Design
• Sealed Surface
• Ease of Use
• Flexible Layouts
• Lower Power Consumption

Ergonomic Keyboards
Typing for long periods can cause muscle strain and discomfort; ergonomic
keyboards are specifically designed to alleviate these issues. Ergonomic
keyboards are intended to reduce strain and improve user comfort, especially
during long durations of typing.
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These include split keyboards and contoured keyboards, which are curved to fit
the natural hand posture.

Advantages of the Ergonomic keyboard

Some key advantages of ergonomic keyboards −
• Natural hand position which improves comfort and reduces strain
• Allowing each hand to operate in its natural position
• Minimizes Wrist Movements
• Enhanced Typing Postures like wrist rests and angled key layouts
• Increased Typing Efficiency
• Reduced Risk of Repetitive Strain Injuries
• Versatile Designs with Left-Handed Options
• Multi-Device Support

Gaming Keyboards
Gaming keyboards are optimized for gaming performance. Gaming keyboards
are built exclusively for gamers, with features that improve performance,
comfort, and overall gaming experience.
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They usually have changeable illumination, programmable keys, and anti-

ghosting technology to prevent missed keypresses during fast gameplay. Some
gaming keyboards include mechanical switches for quicker responsiveness.

Advantages of the Gaming keyboard

The following are the main advantages of gaming keyboards −

• Contains Mechanical Switches

• High Polling Rate
• Improved Visibility using RGB Lighting
• Anti-ghosting and N-Key Rollover
• Contains Durable Switches
• Ergonomic Design enhances comfort and reduces fatigue
Wireless Keyboards
Wireless keyboards use Bluetooth or RF to connect to computers and other
devices without cords.
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Laptops, tablets, and smart TVs utilise them for convenience and mobility.
Wireless keyboards provide different benefits over wired keyboards, making
them a popular choice among many users.

Advantages of the Wireless keyboard

The following are the main advantages of Wireless keyboards −

• Increased Mobility and Flexibility

• Convenience and Portability
• Ergonomic Benefits
• Modern aesthetic appeal of a workspace
• Improved connectivity options like Bluetooth connectivity, multi-device
pairing
• Enhances Productivity
• Gaming and Entertainment
Virtual Keyboards
Software-based virtual keyboards are utilised on smartphones and tablets. Tap
or swipe virtual keys to enter text or directions. Wireless keyboards are
significant in terms of enhanced mobility, convenience, ergonomics, and
aesthetic appeal. Their adaptability and ability to connect to different devices
make them ideal for multiple applications, including professional work
situations, gaming, and home entertainment. With developments in battery life
and connectivity, wireless keyboards remain a practical and popular choice for
many users.

Advantages of the Virtual keyboard

The following are the main advantages of the virtual keyboard −

• No physical hardware required

• Space-saving
• Layout customization
• Adjustable key size and spacing
• Ease of access
• Protection against Keyloggers
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• Secure environments
• Multifunctionality
• Predictive text and auto-correction
• Touchscreen interaction
Foldable Keyboards
Foldable keyboards are portable and convenient. Foldable keyboards, which can
be compacted or folded for convenient transport and storage, have various
advantages over standard keyboards.

Travellers and people who require a small keyboard may fold or wrap them up
for storage and transport.

Advantages of the Foldable keyboard

The following are the main advantages of the foldable keyboard −

• Compact Size
• Lightweight
• Portability and Convenience
• Easy Storage
• Multiple Device Support
• Ideal for On-the-Go Use
• Comfortable Typing
• Rugged Designs
• Water and Dust Resistance
• Cost-Effective

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

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Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.

Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the
top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.

Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control

device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses
the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when
the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is
present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of
the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

The most common types of mouse are as follows −

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Optical Mouse
An optical mouse is a type of mouse that makes use of a light-emitting diode
(LED) or laser to detect movement. It replaces the mechanical ball fixed in the
traditional mouse. The optical sensor detects reflected light on the surface and
converts it into cursor movement on your computer screen.

The key components of the Optical Mouse are as follows −

• LED − LED gives proper illumination for the optical sensor to capture
surface images.
• Optical Sensor − It’s a small camera that captures surface images quickly.
• Digital Signal Processor (DSP) − It determines the movement and analyses
images captured from optical sensors.
• Communication Channel − It sends data to the system using USB, PS/2,
wireless RF, or Bluetooth.
How Does Optical Mouse Work?

When an optical mouse is moved, it illuminates the surface below it with a light-
emitting diode (LED) or laser. A sensor in the mouse captures the light reflected
off the surface. The images are analysed by the sensor, and the movement of
the mouse is calculated based on the changes in the pattern. This information is
then transmitted to your computer, which adjusts the cursor accordingly.

Advantages of Optical mouse

Some key advantages of Optical mice are as follows −

• Optical mouse don’t require a mouse pad

• An optical mouse can easily move on any surface
• More precise and responsive
• Allows smoother cursor movement
• Optical mice are more durable as they don't have any moving parts which
can clogged with dirt
• Eliminates mechanical fatigue and failure.
• It makes the system easy to use.
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• No special surface required

Trackball Mouse
Trackball mice have a stationary ball on top that users may roll with their
fingers or thumbs. Trackballs are a technological alternative to traditional
mouse input. It comprises a ball in a socket that allows you to control the
cursor's movement. Rolling the ball with fingers moves the cursor on the
screen. Trackballs are widely employed in applications with limited area, such as
arcade games or specialized jobs.

The key components of Trackball mice are as follows −

• Ball − The primary interface for the user, which can vary in size and
material. It's typically designed to provide a smooth rolling experience.
• Sensors − Detect the motion of the ball. Modern trackballs often use optical
sensors for higher precision.
• Microcontroller − Processes the signals from the sensors and converts them
into data the computer can understand.
• Communication Interface − Connects the trackball mouse to the computer
(USB, Bluetooth, etc.).
• Buttons − Like a traditional mouse, trackball mice have buttons for clicking,
and some models include additional buttons for added functionality.
How does a Trackball Mouse work?

A computer trackball works by using sensors to detect the movement of the

ball. When you rotate the ball, the sensors detect the change in position and
send the appropriate signals to the computer. These signals are interpreted as
cursor movements on the screen. Trackballs provide good control and are
beneficial for people with poor dexterity.

Track recording also known as tracking, is a process of capturing and storing

information on the movement of an object or process. In computers, it can refer
to the capture of user events such as cursor movements, clicks, and keystrokes.
This information can be used to better understand user behaviour, optimize
system performance, or create personalized experiences.
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Advantages of Trackball mouse

Some of the key advantages of trackball mice are as follows −

• It takes less desk space

• It can be effectively utilised in limited workspaces.
• It reduces wrist movement
• It has precise control which can be utilised in graphic design or gaming
• It can be effectively moved on soft surfaces like beds or couches
Wireless Mouse
A wireless mouse is a computer mouse that doesn't require a physical cable to
connect to the computer. This mouse provides more flexibility and mobility. It
commonly uses radio frequency (RF) or Bluetooth technology to communicate
with the computer. Wireless mice can also link with the system using Bluetooth
or USB devices. As they're cable-free, so they move more freely.

The key components of a wireless mouse are as follows −

• Optical or Laser Sensor − Laser sensors often provide greater precision and
can operate on different surfaces.
• RF Transmitter − A wireless mice includes a matching receiver that plugs
into the computer.
• Power Supply − Provides power for the mouse's activities, usually by AA or
AAA batteries or a built-in rechargeable battery.
• Buttons and Scroll Wheel − The user interface allows users to perform
clicking and scrolling actions.
How a wireless mouse does Works?

A wireless mouse uses radio frequency (RF) technology for transmitting data to
your computer. RF devices consist of two main parts: a transmitter and a
receiver.

The transmitter is housed within the mouse; the transmitter emits an

electromagnetic (radio) signal that encodes information about the mouse's
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movements and button clicks. The receiver connects to the user's computer, the
receiver accepts the signal, decodes it, and then forwards it to the mouse driver
software and the computer's operating system. The receiver is a separate
device that plugs into your computer, a specialized card for an expansion slot,
or an integrated component.

The mouse is connected to the computer through a crucial component known as

the wireless receiver, which is responsible for receiving signals from the mouse
and converting them into instructions that the computer can comprehend.
Typically, this receiver is a small USB device that can be inserted into the
computer's USB port. Additionally, certain wireless mice make use of Bluetooth
technology to set a connection, thereby eliminating the necessity for a separate
receiver.

Advantages of wireless mouse

Some of the key advantages of trackball mice are as follows −

• Enabling users to get connected to a computer without physical cables

• Allows users to work on a computer from a distance
• Flexible and convenient
• Pairing and Security
• Mobility and Flexibility
• Ideal for use in home, office
Wired Mouse
They work without batteries or a wireless connection, making them a good
solution for those who don't want to worry about signal interference. These are
connected to computers using physical cables.

The key components of a wired mouse are as follows −

• Buttons and Scroll Wheel − This element is designed for clicking and scrolling
actions.
• Cable − Sends power to the mouse and transfers data from the mouse to
the computer.
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• Optical or Laser Sensor − Capturing and analysing surface images detects

the movement of the mouse.
• LED or Laser − The surface is illuminated to enable the sensor to detect
movement.
How Does Wired Mouse Work?

A wired mouse is directly linked to a user's desktop or laptop using a USB port.
As it connects to the system using physical cables it sends data using a cable. A
dedicated cable connection ensures quick response.

Advantages of Wired mouse

Some of the key advantages of trackball mice are as follows −

• Plug and Play

• It is durable
• It has a dedicated connection to a computer so very hard to drop
• It is reliable
• Low Latency
• Cost-Effective
• No Battery Required
• It has consistent performance without the need for batteries
Gaming Mouse
A Gaming mouse is a specialized form of mouse which has been specifically
designed to improve the gaming experience by offering features that support
precision, speed, comfort, and customization. These mice are designed to cater
to the specific requirements of different game genres, including first-person
shooters (FPS), real-time strategy (RTS) games, and massively multiplayer
online (MMO) games. Gaming mice have configurable buttons, adjustable DPI,
and ergonomic ergonomics for long-term usage. Gaming is optimised for rapid,
accurate movements.

The key components of a wired mouse are as follows −

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• Buttons − A gaming mouse has left and right-click buttons, a scroll wheel,
and additional programmable buttons. It might have 8 to 20 or more
buttons.
• Scroll Wheel − The scroll wheel provides servicing to scrolling or
customizable resistance.
• Sensor − Sensors used for tracking movement with high precision.
• RGB Lighting − Makes clear and attractive visibility.
• DPI Switch − Allows on-the-fly DPI adjustments to change sensitivity
settings during gameplay.
How Does Gaming Mouse Work?

Gaming mice can modify their sensitivity, which can be customized in terms of
dots per inch (DPI). As the DPI increases, the cursor on the screen moves a
longer distance for the same amount of mouse movement. Typically, a higher
DPI level (1000 DPI and above) is employed for gaming and monitors with
exceptionally high resolution. However, in a video game, the higher DPI can
either be advantageous or disadvantageous depending on the level of zoom in
the scene. A higher DPI setting enables the player to execute rapid movements,
while a lower DPI setting facilitates more accurate and delicate movements.

Advantages of Gaming mouse

Some of the key advantages of a gaming mouse are as follows −

• High DPI provides a precise and responsive cursor movement

• It has extensive customization of buttons
• Ergonomic designs reduce strain
• It has quick access to in-game functions
• It has laser sensors
• It has acceleration and angle snapping

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Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a
monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper
ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in
all four directions.
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The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed

menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and
an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and
sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers
on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
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Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is

used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to
the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a
digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before
they are printed.
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Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer
to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and

pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine
works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital

form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.
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Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of
cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque
number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

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OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form
of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods,
numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded
in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected
to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having

multiple choice questions.
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Computer - Output Devices

An output device is a hardware device that is used to show the processed
results to the user in the form of text, audio, video, visuals on a computer
screen or a printed hard copy on paper. The output devices are mainly
categorised as audio output devices, visual output devices, audio-video output
devices, and print-based output devices. Different output devices can be
connected to computer systems to retrieve the output, based on the type of
output and requirements.

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

• Monitors
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer
• Speakers
• Headphones
• Projector
• GPS
Monitors

Monitors also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU), is an output device of a

computer. It is the most popular output device which looks like a TV screen and
shows the output in the form of text, audio, video and images. Overall, it
produces output with visual effects to connect the user with the system. Images
data form tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

• Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller
the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one
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illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word
help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen

can be divided into a series of character boxes - a fixed location on the screen
where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of
displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

Components of Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The key components of a CRT Monitor are as follows −

• Electron Guns − Produces beams of electrons to display images

• Phosphorescent Screen − Once electrons hit on phosphor-coated screen, it
glows and makes visibility
• Circuit Board − Provides connectivity for external circuitry
• Deflection Yoke − It deflects the electron beam in precise patterns
Advantages
• Produces output with visual effects.
• It has good resolutions which ensure proper visibility of image-related
outputs.
• No motion blur due to instant response time.
• It can display multiple resolutions without scaling artefacts.
• It has high refresh rates which reduces flicker and eye strain.
Disadvantages
• Large in Size
• Carries high weight
• A lot of power consumption
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• Produces heat
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirements in comparison to the CRT. You can
hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel
displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers, and
graphics displays.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical

energy into light. For example, plasma panels and LED (Light-Emitting
Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For
example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).
Components of Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The key components of a Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows −

• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) − It is positioned between two layers of glass or

plastic and modulates light to create images.
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) − it emits light and improves colour and contrast.
• Plasma Display Panel (PDP) − It contains small cells with phosphor coated to
emit light.
• Quantum Dot Display − It contains quantum dots to enhance colour
accuracy.
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Advantages

Some of the key advantages of Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows −

• Smaller in size makes it easy to mount and transport.

• It consumes less power.
• It has higher resolutions which makes good picture quality.
• It makes users comfortable to get connected for a longer period and
reduces eye strain.
• Available in different sizes.
Disadvantages
• Expensive as compared to CRT monitors.
• Its resolution is not up to mark as compared to CRT.
• It is a soft covering which may damage and be difficult to clean.
Graphic Plotter

A plotter, which is a type of printer, receives instructions from a computer to

produce line drawings on paper using one or more automated pens. In contrast
to a standard printer, a plotter can create uninterrupted point-to-point lines
directly from vector graphic files or commands. Computer graphics and
engineering applications employ graphic plotters to create high-quality,
accurate, and detailed drawings or plots on paper or other media. It draws
continuous lines accurately and is suited for vector drawings, unlike a standard
printer. Key features of graphic plotters are as −

• Vector Graphics − Vector graphics allow graphic plotters to create lines and
shapes precisely using continuous points instead of dots like raster printers.
• Pen or Pen-Like Tool − A pen or similar instrument is drawn on paper for
graphic plotters. The pen may move X and Y on a moveable arm to draw
complicated shapes.
• Applications − Graphic plotters are employed in engineering, architecture,
cartography, and textile design. They were popular for technical drawings
and diagrams before digital.
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A vector graphics plotter outputs accurate and detailed drawings. They are still
used in sectors and applications that need accuracy and high-quality output,
even if digital printing has made them less widespread.

Components of Graphic Plotters

The key components of a Graphic Plotter are as follows −

• Plotter Head − A plotter head contains multiple pens of different colours to

draw images.
• Plotting Surface − It is used to hold and feed paper.
• Microcontroller − Controls the plotting process and interprets commands.
• Interfaces − It provides interfaces to connect USB, Ethernet, or wireless
connections.
• Memory − A device used to Store plotting instructions to process
temporarily.
Types of plotters
• Pen Plotters − It uses vector graphics and line drawings.
• Drum plotters − A drum plotter is a device that uses a rotating drum to draw
on paper. The drum revolves to create one direction of the plot, while the
pens move to create the other direction.
• Flatbed plotters − Flatbed plotters are used to draw on paper placed on a
flat surface.
• Electrostatic plotters − This printer draws on negatively charged paper with
positively charged toner.
• Inkjet plotters − The printer uses vector graphic technology to control the
movement of the pen plotters, which in turn drop ink beads of different
colours onto the drawing surface.
Advantages
Some of the key advantages of Graphic Plotters are as follows −

• High Resolution − It has good resolution which opens it for CAD drawings.
• Colour Representation − It automatically sets colour matching in designs.
• Large Screen Size − It provides appropriate space to view large drawings.
• Software Compatibility − It is compatible with CAD software, graphic design,
and related tools.
• Preview Functionality − A user can preview plots on the monitor to reduce
errors and enhance accuracy.
• Editing Tools − Multiple editing tools are available for graphics before
plotting.
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Printers

A printer is an output device, which is used to print processed data on paper. It

is one of the most popular output devices. The information that is printed is
commonly referred to as hard copy because it physically exists and is a more
enduring form of output than what is displayed on a VDU. Printers play a crucial
role in generating hard copies of digital documents and images and are
available in different types tailored to specific purposes and settings. They cater
to diverse user requirements, offering features such as top-notch photo
printing, speedy document output, and the ability to create three-dimensional
objects, making them suitable for home, office, or industrial use.

Types of Printer

Different types of Printers are categorised in the following image

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is
then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

• Very low consumable costs

• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
Types of Impact Printers

Generally, Impact printers are of two types −

• Character printers
• Line printers
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Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time. A printer
that holds individual characters until it is ready to print them. Instead of
printing one line at a time, a character printer prints one character at a time.
Nowadays, these printers are not commonly used due to speed limitations and
their ability to only print text.

Types of Character Printers

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These
printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price.
Each character printed is in the form of a pattern of dots and the head consists
of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
• Inexpensive
• Durable
• Widely Used
• Able to print on multi-part forms
• Low Operating Costs
• Reliable
• Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
• Slow Speed
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• Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel

A daisy wheel printer is an impact printer that utilizes a spinning disk, known as
the "daisy wheel," which contains pre-formed characters embossed on its
"petals." During printing, the printer picks the appropriate petal, impacts it
against an ink ribbon, and then onto the paper to generate high-quality text.

The head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like
petals of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These
printers are generally used for word processing in offices that require a few
letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality. In the 1970s and
1980s, daisy wheel printers were commonly utilized for word processing before
the introduction of laser and inkjet printers.

Advantages
• It produces High-Quality Text so more suitable for professional documents
• More reliable than DMP
• Better quality
• Fonts of character can be easily changed
• Durable so it has a long lifespan
• Each character is pre-formed which shows its consistent print quality
Disadvantages
• Slower than DMP
• Limited to Text
• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP
• Changes in fonts or styles need physical changes on the daisy wheel
Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. Line printers are
specialised impact printers which are specifically designed to get high-speed,
high-volume printing, primarily for text. These are still useful in certain
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applications where speed and durability are critical. Their capacity to print a
complete line of text at once distinguishes them from other impact printers,
making them excellent for applications requiring quick and consistent document
creation.

Types of Line Printer

• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer
Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called a drum printer. The surface
of the drum is divided into several tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of
the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, the drum will have 132
tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets
available in the market are 48 character sets, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast and can print 300 to
2000 lines per minute.

Advantages
• Very high speed
• Low cost
• Durable so they can run a long life
• Able to handle large print volumes
• Provides good printing quality
Disadvantages
• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer

A chain printer is a high-speed line printer with a revolving chain mechanism

that prints characters on paper. Chain printers were widely used in large data
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centres and business settings where high-volume printing was required. They
are well-known for their ability to handle huge print jobs quickly and efficiently.
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used; hence it is called a Chain
Printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages
• Character fonts can easily be changed
• Able to print hundreds to thousands of lines per minute
• Durable
• Different languages can be used with the same printer
• Cost-effective for printing large quantities of text.
Disadvantages
• Noisy
• Limited Graphics
• Limited with fixed fonts and styles

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These
printers print a complete page at a time, thus they are also called Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers
• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character sizes
Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.
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Advantages
• Very high speed
• Very high-quality output
• Good graphics quality
• Supports many fonts and different character sizes
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single
printing
Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new

technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper.
Inkjet printers produce high-quality output with presentable features.
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They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many
styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models
of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages
• High-quality printing
• More reliable
Disadvantages
• Expensive as the cost per page is high
• Slow as compared to laser printer

Speakers

Speakers are standard output devices that are used to hear sound clearly from
a measurable distance. These are connected to the computer through sound
connectors directly while others can be linked to any sound system. The primary
purpose of speakers is to deliver audio output and enable users to listen to the
resulting sound.
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Components of a Speakers
Some of the key components of speakers are as follows −

• Magnet − It is an essential component fixed to speakers to create a

magnetic field.
• Diaphragm (Cone) − It is made with paper, plastic and metal; it is used to
create sound waves.
• Voice Coil − The diaphragm is connected to a voice coil of wire, which is
placed in the magnetic field of the magnet.
• Suspension − This contains the spider and the surround. The spider keeps
the voice coil centred in the magnetic gap and the surround links the
diaphragm to the speaker frame and allows it to move freely.
How does the speaker work?
Speakers are electromagnetic waves that transform electromagnetic waves into
sound waves. The computer supplies audio input to the speakers. This input
may be analogue or digital. The voice coil generates an alternating magnetic
field when the audio signal passes through it. This magnetic field then interacts
with the stable magnetic field of the permanent magnet. Analogue speakers
merely amplify electromagnetic signals to generate sound waves. Sound waves
are analogue signals. Thus, digital speakers must convert the digital input to an
analogue signal before producing a sound wave that can be transmitted as an
output.

A speaker uses vocal commands to control a software programme. A computer

speaker is hardware that connects to a computer system and produces sound.
The computer's sound card contains the signal utilised to generate sound from a
computer speaker.

Types of speakers
Some common types of speakers are as follows −

• Electrostatic speaker − An electrostatic speaker contains an electrically

charged diaphragm which is positioned between two conductive plates. The
electrical signal causes the diaphragm to move, which generates sound.
• Piezoelectric Speakers − These speakers use materials that change their
shape when an electric field is applied and then create sound waves.
• Planar Magnetic Speakers − These speakers are similar to dynamic speakers,
except they have a small, flat diaphragm and a voice coil that moves within
a magnetic field.
• Subwoofers − Subwoofers produce very low-frequency sound, ranging from
20 to 200 Hz. The subwoofer is a speaker that can be oriented in any
direction. These are specifically designed to produce low-frequency sounds
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(bass). Usually, they are used in Home theatre systems and car audio
systems.
• Dynamic speaker − Dynamic speakers are often equipped with one or more
woofer drivers. These have one or more tweeter drivers and are known for
producing low-frequency sound.
• Bluetooth speakers − It’s a wireless speaker which is portable. A Bluetooth
speaker produces high-quality audio.

• Horn Speakers − These speakers produce horns to amplify sound; generally

used by drivers.
Headphones

Headphones are small-sized speakers which are specifically designed to fit into
the earcups of headphones or earbuds. These speakers operate on the same
principles as larger speakers but are tailored for listening at close range and for
personal audio enjoyment.

Advantages
Some of the key advantages of headphone speakers are as follows −

• Produces better sound quality for personal use

• Users hear ambient sounds
• Relatively inexpensive
• Widely available
• Excellent for reproducing high frequencies
• Compact size
• Lower power requirements
Projector

A projector is an output device powered by light is known as a projector. It

effectively displays processed results generated by a computer device and is
used to showcase images on a projection screen. Projectors can display large
amounts of visual content for professional presentations and home
entertainment.
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Types of projector
Some common types of projectors are as follows −

• Cathode Ray Tube − It is a video projector which employs CRT to produce

pictures. A lens is used to focus and enlarge the output to show on the
screen.
• Liquid Crystal Display − LCD projectors use liquid crystals to display images,
data, or videos. LCD projector is extensively used in business seminars,
presentations, and meetings. These are more popular than other projectors
as they have superb colour reproduction and lower manufacturing costs.
• Digital Light Processing − DLP projectors are used for front and back
projection. A Three-chip DLP projector can output over 35 trillion colours,
and display visuals more realistic and lifelike than one-chip models. It is
used in companies and classrooms as a front projector and in TV as a rear
projector.
Advantages
Some key advantages of projectors are as follows −

• Effective visual projection − A projector displays visuals effectively on screen

which bounds the audience.
• Portability − A user can carry it comfortably.
• Connectivity − It can easily connect in offices, seminar halls, or rooms.
• Applications − It is most widely used in businesses, education, and
meetings to showcase their presentations.
• Entertainment − Most widely used to watch movies and play games.
• Resolution and Brightness − Used for events, advertising, and digital signage
GPS

GPS, which stands for "Global Positioning System," is a radio-based satellite

navigation system and is comprised of a network of different satellites called a
constellation. The Global Positioning System (GPS) can determine a precise
position using radio waves. The user transmits a radio signal to the satellites,
which collect data such as time, location, speed, and other variables and
transfer it to the computer for processing. Users can use this information to
make decisions.

Advantages of GPS
Some key advantages of GPS are as follows −

• Accuracy − The accuracy of the location data is important, especially for

applications such as aviation and marine navigation. Higher precision is
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essential in these applications. The accuracy of the location data is of great

importance thus greater precision is essential for uses such as aviation and
marine navigation.
• Display Quality − The screen's resolution and readability are crucial,
particularly when using outdoor devices in bright sunlight.
• Map Coverage and Updates − Maps for various areas and how easy it is to
update them.
• Durability − Water, dust, and shock resistance are crucial for GPS devices
used outdoors and in marine environments.
• Additional Features − Features such as planning routes, receiving real-time
traffic updates, tracking fitness, and offering specialized marine and
aviation functions.

Computer - Memory Units

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This
storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

The following table explains the main memory storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small
as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of
computer words.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

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Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB

Computer - Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

What is ALU?

ALU stands for Arithmetic Logic Unit. An ALU is a key component of

the CPU which performs arithmetic and logical operations. It can perform
billions of operations per second. An ALU circuit has the integration of four key
components inputs, operands, outputs, and storage.

To store binary digits, computers use transistor switches that are either open or
closed. Data is also stored in a register designated to store output. ALUs tend to
be fast and accurate. These conduct logical operations such as bitwise
operations, which are operations on a string of binary numbers. The CPU
processor directly supports bitwise logical operations, which are fast, simple,
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and range from basic to higher-level. ALUs conduct bit shifting, which is the
movement of bits in response to particular instructions from bit operators.

ALUs may also do multiple-precision arithmetic, which is a software operation

required when the desired level of accuracy exceeds the hardware's capacity.
ALUs can do complex arithmetic and logical operations because they enable
modern computers to split difficult calculations into a large number of binary
processes.

What does the ALU do?

ALUs carry out arithmetic and logical operations. Also found in the CPU are
Control Units, or CUs. The CU directs the ALU in performing specific operations,
with the ALU being responsible for carrying out these operations.

The NOT Gate consists of a single transistor and one input logic gate. Its
function is to produce outputs that are the inverse of the input. For instance, an
input of 1 would result in an output of 0.

Multiple transistors and two inputs are used in the OR Gate. The output is only 1
if the first or second input is 1. Conversely, the OR gate produces an output of 0
when both inputs are 0.

The AND Gate utilizes multiple transistors and two inputs. The output is 1 only if
both the first and second inputs are 1.

Functions of ALU

The ALU is an essential component of the CPU. It majorly performs arithmetic

and logical operations on inputted data. The ALU has different electrical input
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and output connections that enable the transmission of digital signals between
the ALU and external electronic devices. Data is provided to the ALU inputs by
external circuits, and the ALU sends processed computational results. Some of
the key functionalities of the ALU are as −

• Arithmetic Operations − It includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division.

• Logical Operations − It includes AND, OR, NOT, XOR (exclusive OR), and bit-
shifting logical operations.

• Comparison Operations − The ALU also performs a comparison of numbers

to determine greater than, less than, or equal to.

• Bitwise Operations − These include operations that change individual bits

inside a data word, such as shifting them left or right and masking specific
bits.

• Data flow into the ALU − ALU has direct access to the CPU controllers,
primary memory, and input/output devices. ALU takes input data from
memory using the bus-like electrical route.

• Applying functions − The internal components of the ALU are used to

perform binary calculations for a variety of functions.

• Provides Temporary Storage − The ALU commonly includes memory blocks

to store input operands, operands to be added, accumulated results, and
shifted results.

The ALU takes input from the processor's registers and gets back the results to
the registers. It is a critical component of the CPU, allowing it to do the
computations required for various tasks and operations in a computer system.

Computer - Hardware
What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware is the computer's peripheral devices which are used to assemble the
system. Hardware devices majorly include computer input-output devices,
memory, and CPU. Generally, Hardware is the internal and external components
of a computer that allow you to accomplish major functions such as input,
output, storage, communication, and processing.

Some most common examples of computer hardware are −

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• Input / Output devices like Keyboard, mouse, & monitor

• The central processing unit (CPU)
• Motherboard
• Random access memory (RAM)
• Storage drive (HDD or SSD)
• Graphics processing unit (GPU)

Computer hardware is an umbrella term for computer peripherals. Hardware

refers to tangible devices of the system that can physically see, touch and
understand its structure. These are the essential components for a computer to
work on. Computer hardware is attached to the system internally or externally,
depending on whether the physical component is located within or outside of
the system. Generally, internal hardware is essential for the computer to
function, whereas external hardware improves its use or functionality. Internal
computer hardware can be a video card, memory, or the central processing unit
(CPU), whereas exterior computer hardware can include a keyboard or mouse.

Types of Computer Hardware

There are two types of computer hardware −

• Internal hardware
• External hardware
Internal Hardware
Internal hardware is the computer peripherals which are connected inside the
computer. These include motherboards, hard drives, and DDR (RAM). The
following images are the core examples of computer hardware.
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External Hardware
External hardware is the computer peripherals which are connected to the
computer system externally. External hardware includes monitors, keyboards,
printers, and scanners.
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Functions of Computer Hardware

Generally, functions of computer hardware depend on hardware units like input,

output, and processing and storage units. Hardware functions in a computer
system include a wide range of operations that allow the machine to complete
its tasks efficiently. These functions are often separated into different
categories, each handled by a unique set of hardware components.

Below are some of the key functions of the computer hardware's −

• Input hardware facilitates users to input the data into the system A keyboard
is used to type text, a Mouse to select an option by clicking on it, a scanner
to scan images or pages etc.
• Output hardware produces the output into human understandable forms like
a Monitor is used to display the output on the screen, a Printer to print
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output in the form of hard copy, speakers used to produce audio sound and
projectors are used to project visual output on larger surfaces.
• Processing hardware like processors executes programs or instructions and
performs calculations or does computations.
• Storage hardware like memory devices stores data to retain for future use.
RAM for temporary storage and HDD to store data permanently.
• Communication hardware devices enable users to data exchange between
multiple devices over the computer network. These include Network
Interface Card (NIC), Modem, and Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Adapters.
• Control hardware manages and directs the operations of different
components attached to the system. It includes a Motherboard, Power
Supply Unit (PSU) and BIOS/UEFI.

Computer - Motherboard
What is a Computer Motherboard?

A motherboard is a circuit board which is fixed inside the Central Processing

Unit (CPU) of a computer. It can be considered as a computing system which
integrates most of the essential components of a computer.

A motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a

computer. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video
cards, sound cards, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables.
It can be considered as the backbone of a computer. Generally, it is made up of
fibreglass and copper.
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The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small
screws through pre-drilled holes. The motherboard contains ports to connect all
of the internal components. It provides a single socket for the CPU, whereas for
memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports
to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. The
motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video
cards, sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the
motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry several ports to connect the monitor,
printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also
provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in a plug-
in/plug-out fashion—for example, pen drives, digital cameras, etc.

Components of a Motherboard

A motherboard is made up of different components; some of the primary

elements are as follows −

• CPU Socket − It’s a major component which determines the processor

connected to the system.

• Memory Slots − These slots allow connecting memory devices into it.

• Storage Connectors − These slots include Serial ATA ports to connect hard
drives like hard drives and SSDs.

• ROM Slots − These slots allow ROM BIOS to connect.

• Chipset − It connects CPU, memory, storage and peripheral devices.

• Cooling fans − Cooling fans that maintain a suitable internal operating

temperature.

• Peripheral connector − these include USB ports to connect peripheral

devices.

• Audio Connectors − These allow audio input and output devices to work with
analogue and digital audio signals.

• Network Connectors − These ports are used for wired network connections,
or Wi-Fi to access the internet.

• Power connector − power connectors are used to connect external power

sources. There are two basic types: the 24-pin ATX power connector and
the 4 or 8-pin CPU power connector.
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• BIOS/UEFI − The Basic Input / Output System (BIOS), also known as the
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI), is a type of firmware that
initializes and tests hardware during the boot process; it also provides
runtime services to operating systems and programs.

Features of Computer Motherboard

A motherboard comes with the following features −

• Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

• The motherboard supports a single type of CPU and a few types of memory.
• Video cards, hard disks, and sound cards have to be compatible with the
motherboard to function properly.
• Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work
properly together.
Types of Motherboards

Different types of Motherboards are as follows −

Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard

This motherboard was designed by IBM in 1984 with the IBM PC/AT. It was
most widely used in industry and influenced the design of many subsequent
motherboards. This motherboard has larger physical dimensions but is not
suitable for smaller desktop computers.

The original AT motherboards were available in 12 inches × 13.8 inches (305

mm x 351 mm) in size, making them relatively large by modern standards. The
configuration of AT motherboards was not standardized, resulting in major
differences between manufacturers. This frequently resulted in inadequate
airflow and complex cable management.

The Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard was a key form factor in the
history of personal computing, establishing standards that impacted subsequent
designs. However, due to its large size, convoluted layout, and restricted
integration, it was eventually replaced by the more efficient and user-friendly
ATX specification.

Standard ATX motherboard

ATX stands for advanced technology extended; it is an extended version of the
AT motherboard that was created by Intel in the 1990s. It has become one of
the most prevalent motherboard sizes used in desktop computers because of its
compatibility and interchanged component features. A standard ATX
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motherboard is a popular desktop computer form factor that offers a good

combination of size, capabilities, and expansion. Standard ATX motherboards
are typically 305 mm x 244 mm (12 in x 9.6 in) in size. This size provides
enough space for components and expansion slots.

ATX motherboard uses a common layout to enhance ventilation and component

placement. The CPU socket is normally located toward the top or middle of the
board, with expansion slots aligned for effective cooling and simplicity of
installation.

Micro ATX motherboard

Micro ATX motherboards are smaller in size and have limited ports and slots
than the Standard ATX board. This motherboard is better suited to users who
don't desire too many connections and subsequent updates.

Micro ATX (mATX) motherboards are smaller versions of the conventional ATX
motherboard form factor. It has been specifically designed concerning size and
features which make it ideal for compact desktop builds while not compromising
too much expandability or speed.

Micro ATX motherboards typically have dimensions of 244 mm x 244 mm (9.6

in x 9.6 in), which are smaller than conventional ATX but larger than Mini-ITX.

Micro ATX motherboards provide the right blend of size, capabilities, and
expandability, making them a popular choice for a variety of desktop PC
configurations. They provide ample PCIe slots and connectivity choices for most
users while fitting in smaller cases than typical ATX boards. This makes them
suited for a wide range of applications, including gaming, entertainment, and
home office sets.

Extended ATX motherboard

An Extended ATX (eATX) motherboard is a larger variant of the normal ATX
motherboard that is intended to provide additional features, improved
performance, and expanded functionality like up to eight RAM slots,
additionally, a higher number of PCIe (where e is for Express) and PCI slots.

An extended ATX (E-ATX) motherboard has a larger form factor than a

conventional ATX motherboard, allowing for more components and more
capabilities. E-ATX motherboards often have dimensions of 305 mm x 330 mm
(12 in × 13 in) or greater. They are broader than regular ATX boards, making
sufficient space for more components and expansion slots.
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E-ATX motherboards have a larger form factor than regular ATX, allowing for
more components, expansion slots, and functionality. They are ideal for high-
performance desktop builds and enthusiast systems that require flexibility,
performance, and a wide range of networking options.

E-ATX motherboards typically have several PCIe slots, including several PCIe
x16 slots for high-performance graphics cards and several PCIe x1 slots for
further expansion cards.

Flex ATX motherboard

The FlexATX standard sets a balance between size and capability, making it a
popular choice for projects that need a tiny footprint without sacrificing
features. FlexATX motherboards are often smaller than normal ATX and
microATX boards, with dimensions of 229 mm x 191 mm (9 in × 7.5 in).

Despite their compact size, FlexATX motherboards can provide a wide range of
functionality such as multiple USB ports, integrated audio, and network
connectivity. However, they may contain limited ports and connectors than
larger form factors.

Low-Profile EXtended (LPX) motherboard

These are comparatively older motherboard form factors that were popular in
the late 1980s and early 1990s. It was designed for low-profile desktop cases.
The dimensions of LPX motherboards include around 330 mm x 229 mm (13 in
x 9 in), although these can vary.

One of the distinguishing characteristics of LPX motherboards is the use of a

riser card. The riser card enables expansion cards to be placed parallel to the
motherboard, lowering the overall height of the system. This design was ideal
for low-profile desktop cases. The LPX motherboard had a significant impact on
the evolution of computer form factors, particularly in permitting the creation of
smaller desktop systems. However, it has subsequently been replaced by more
modern and adaptable standards.

BTX motherboard
BTX stands for balanced technology extended. It was designed by Intel in 2003
to overcome the limitations and thermal issues associated with the ATX
standard. BTX motherboards are available in different sizes, including
conventional, mini, and pico. Standard BTX boards typically measure 325 mm x
267 mm (12.8 in x 10.5 in). These have a different layout than ATX
motherboards. They were created to optimize airflow and thermal management
by arranging the key heat-generating components, such as the CPU and GPU, in
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a manner that allows for more efficient cooling. BTX motherboards include
similar functionality and connectivity options to ATX boards, such as multiple
USB ports, SATA connectors, integrated audio, and network interfaces.

Pico BTX motherboard

The Pico BTX (Balanced Technology eXtended) motherboard is a small version
of the BTX form factor intended for ultra-compact devices. Pico BTX
motherboards are available with 203 mm x 267 mm (8 in x 10.5 in) size. This
compact size is designed for small form factor (SFF) cases.

Pico BTX boards, like all other BTX form factors, are designed to optimize
airflow and thermal management. The CPU and other important heat-generating
components are positioned to align with the system's airflow path, which
typically runs from the front intake to the back exhaust.

Mini ITX motherboard

A Mini-ITX (Information Technology Extended) motherboard is a small form
factor introduced by VIA Technologies in 2001. It was created for small form
factor (SFF) computing, achieving a balance of size, performance, and
usefulness. Mini-ITX motherboards are 170 mm by 170 mm (6.7 in x 6.7 in) in
size.

Despite its compact size, a Mini-ITX motherboard is designed to handle a wide

range of components, making it appropriate for a wide range of computing
requirements, including basic desktop use, gaming, and home theatre PCs.

Mini STX motherboard

In 2015, Intel developed the Mini-STX (Mini Socket Technology Extended)
motherboard. It provides an ideal combination of size, performance, and
upgradeability for small form factor (SFF) PCs. Mini-STX motherboards are 147
mm by 140 mm (5.8 in x 5.5 in) in size; the Mini-STX form factor is designed to
fit in ultra-compact enclosures while yet delivering adequate performance for
different applications.

Mini-STX motherboards offer a unique alternative for ultra-compact,

upgradeable PCs. Their small size and socketed CPU make them excellent for
SFF builds, home theatre PCs, and other applications where space is constrained
but performance and upgradeability are still required.
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Popular Motherboard Manufacturers

Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.

• Intel
• ASUS
• AOpen
• ABIT
• Biostar
• Gigabyte
• MSI

Computer - Random Access Memory

(RAM)
What is RAM (Random Access Memory)?

RAM is a computer's volatile memory which stores data temporarily; once power
turned off, the data which is inside the RAM gets erased. It is also known as
primary or temporary memory. RAM stores the data that is actively being used
during the execution of a program or instructions. During the booting process of
a system, the operating system actively uses RAM and applications that are
necessary to execute a file or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by
providing fast data and instruction access.

RAM is actively used for program or instruction execution. Once we start the
computer; system necessary files, programs and operating system files are
loaded into the RAM for the smooth running of the computer. The more RAM a
computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and the faster it can run
applications since data can be accessed more quickly.

How does RAM Work?

RAM consists of a grid of cells, each with a unique address, allowing data to be
read or written in any order, the CPU requests data from RAM, which is
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delivered at high speed, making it essential for multitasking and running

complex applications.

RAM is the computer's internal memory which stores different types of data and
information as per the requirement. It is also considered as read/write memory.
The data access in RAM is random. This means that we can access any random
location in the memory without even knowing the address of the previous
location. Since RAM is a volatile memory hence, a backup is present in most of
the systems in the form of an uninterrupted power supply (UPS). Moreover, the
speed and performance of a system are directly proportional to the size of the
RAM.

Characteristics of RAM

Key Characteristics of RAM are described below −

• Multitasking − RAM does multitasking and fast execution of instructions or

programs.
• Prevents system crashes − RAM prevents system crashes and slowdowns
during intensive tasks.
• High-performance − It provides high performance for the execution of
gaming and visual applications, where large amounts of data must be
processed swiftly.
• System Support − RAM can perform write and erase operations.
• Additional RAM − To maintain the system’s speed and performance;
additional RAM can be added on.
• Faster data accessing − It facilitates CPU by accessing data quickly to support
faster execution. RAM is faster than SSD.
• Cost − RAM is not costly as compared to SSD.
Types of Random Access Memory

Different types of RAM are categorised in the below image

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SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

Static RAM is a type of RAM that uses flip-flops for primary storage and is
volatile. It is a type of semiconductor memory. Each bit is stored using bistable
latching circuitry, making it extremely fast so known as cache memory. It is
commonly used as a CPU cache and is typically located in L2 or L3. It stores
data in the latch as long as the computer is on. SRAM is more expensive and
requires more power than DRAM. It serves as cache memory in a computer
system. SRAM requires more transistors than DRAM. It is faster than DRAM
because of the latching mechanism. SRAM employs 6 transistors per data bit
while DRAM uses one transistor per bit.

Characteristics of SRAM

Some of the key characteristics of SRAM are as follows −

• SRAM has a memory cell which consists of 6 transistors.

• SRAM consist flip-flop to store data units.
• SRAM is dedicatedly designed for the CPU and works as a cache memory.
• It accesses data in less time; faster than DRAM, and takes very less time
to access data.
• Storing a large amount of data on a single chip is not possible, so more
chips are needed.
• SRAM is expensive.
• It requires a regular power supply to store data.
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• SRAM generates more heat.

• Contents remain as it is until power is ON.
Types of SRAM

SRAM can be further classified into the following types −

• Synchronous − Synchronous SRAM works jointly with a clock signal. It reads

and writes in sync with the clock, making it faster and suitable for high-
speed applications.
• Asynchronous − Its working is not dependent on the clock signal; it carries
out read-and-write operations once the addresses and control signals are
stable.
• Pseudo SRAM − PSRAM is a type of memory that has features of both DRAM
and SRAM. The device uses a DRAM cell but includes an internal refresh
circuit, so presenting itself as SRAM to the external system.
• Non-Volatile SRAM − nvSRAM integrates a small non-volatile memory with
SRAM cells to keep data even when power is off.
Advantages of SRAM

The advantages of SRAM are as follows −

• SRAM is preferred because it is much faster.

• It does not require being refreshed.
• It delivers faster read and write operations.
• It works as a cache memory in CPUs.
• It is less prone to errors and data corruption caused by the refresh process.
• It is very reliable and therefore is used for cache memory.
Disadvantages of SRAM

Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows −

• It is expensive.
• It has a complex cell structure; so the design and layout of SRAM are more
complex.
• Due to its volatile nature, overall data is lost when power goes off.
• It has a low storage capacity as compared to DRAM.
• The design is complex and not easy to build or understand.
• It is not Suitable for Large Memory Applications

Overall, speed and reliability make SRAM highly-priced, particularly for

applications such as CPU caches. However, its higher cost and lower density
compared to DRAM restrict its use to smaller, high-performance memory
applications.
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DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

It is another type of RAM used as main memory; it stores data in capacitors for
a short period (a few milliseconds) even when the computer is powered on.
Each memory cell is a DRAM chip that contains one bit of data and is composed
of transistors and capacitors. In this memory controller, the data can be read
and then rewritten, constantly updating it. The data is refreshed regularly to
ensure its integrity. The DRAM is less expensive, but it can store significantly
more data. In addition, it is slower and requires less power than SRAM.

However, DRAM is less expensive than SRAM, making it suitable for use as the
CPU's main memory. It is slower than SRAM and can link directly to the CPU
bus. A DRAM typically ranges from 4GB to 16GB for laptops and 1GB to 2GB for
smaller devices.

Characteristics of DRAM

Some of the key characteristics of DRAM are as follows −

• It works as a main memory for the system.

• It is made up of capacitors that store the data, thus we need to refresh it
multiple times.
• It is inexpensive so DRAM is mostly available in Laptops or PCs today.
• It requires less space and less power.
• It refreshes every millisecond to maintain data consistency.
• It is more power-efficient than SRAM.
• DRAM can store multiple bits on a single chip.
Types of DRAM

DRAM can be further classified into the following types −

• SDRAM − Synchronous with bus clock; general computing.

• DDR SDRAM − it has higher data transfer rates compared to SDRAM.
• DDR2 SDRAM − It has higher speeds, lower power consumption, and
enhanced latency.
• GDDR − It is optimized for graphics processing units (GPUs).
• LPDDR − It is dedicatedly designed for mobile and embedded applications.
• RDRAM − Specifically designed for innovative design for specific high-
performance applications.
• EDO DRAM − It allows for faster read cycles by overlapping operations.
Advantages of DRAM
The advantages of DRAM are as follows −
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• DRAM has a slower accessing time than SRAM

• Its design is simple, not complex because it consists of only a single
transistor.
• It is smaller in size.
• Its cost is low compared to SRAM
• It has high congestion rates.
• It has a large memory space.
• It has a high density that makes it suitable for large memory applications.
Disadvantages of DRAM

Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows −

• It is volatile so continuous refreshing requires keeping data consistent.

• Its manufacturing process is complex.
• It is slower than SRAM.
• It has higher latency compared to SRAM.

Computer - Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read
but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such
instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to
as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
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Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs,
which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user
buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to

40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage
path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge.
During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and

reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible
but slow.

Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows −

• Non-volatile in nature

• Cannot be accidentally changed

• Cheaper than RAMs
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• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs

• Static and do not require refreshing

• Contents are always known and can be verified

Computer - Graphics Processing Unit

(GPU)
What is Graphics Processing Unit (GPU?)

Graphics processing is an advanced technology that has evolved specifically for

computing. The graphics processing unit (GPU) is an advanced and specialised
processor which makes computing possibilities for machine learning, deep
learning, gaming, content creation, and many more related technologies.

A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialised electrical circuit that

accelerates computer graphics and image processing. GPUs are useful for non-
graphic computations such as neural networks and cryptocurrency.

GPUs were originally developed to speed up the rendering of 3D visuals. They

gradually became more adaptable and programmable and expanded their
capabilities. This enabled graphics programmers to generate more fascinating
visual effects and realistic scenes using advanced lighting and shadowing
methods. In other applications, GPUs are most widely used to significantly work
with high-performance computing (HPC), deep learning, and other domains.

Significances of GPUs

GPUs are mostly used to speed up real-time 3D graphics applications like

gaming. However, as the twenty-first century began, computer experts
recognised that GPUs could address some of the world's most complex
computing problems.

This realisation ushered in the era of general-purpose GPUs. Graphics

technology is now being used to solve a broader range of challenges. Today's
GPUs are more programmable than ever before, allowing them to power a wide
range of applications beyond standard graphics rendering.

GPUs are significant for the following reasons −

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GPUs for Gaming

Video games have become more computationally intensive, with hyperrealistic
graphics and vast, complicated in-game worlds. With advanced display
technologies, such as 4K screens and high refresh rates, along with the rise of
virtual reality gaming, demands on graphics processing are growing fast. GPUs
are capable of rendering graphics in both 2D and 3D. With better graphics
performance, games can be played at higher resolution, at faster frame rates,
or both.

GPUs for Video Editing and Content Creation

GPUs provide a computational solution for parallel processing, with built-in AI
features and sophisticated acceleration for faster execution and easier rendering
of video and graphics in higher-defined formats.

GPU for Machine Learning

Artificial intelligence and machine learning are among the most interesting
applications for GPU technology. Because GPUs have an enormous amount of
computational power, they can provide remarkable acceleration in workloads
that make use of GPUs' highly parallel nature, such as image recognition. Many
of today's deep learning solutions rely on GPUs to work alongside CPUs.

How do GPUs work?

A GPU is ideally suited for tasks or programs that require large volumes of data
and repetitive computation. GPUs have a similar fetch-decode-execute cycle, it
has designed in such a way that they can handle thousands of threads at once,
making them well-suited for parallel processing tasks −

• Fetching − The GPU fetches instructions for the execution from its internal
memory. (VRAM).

• Decoding − The control units of streaming multiprocessors (SMs) decode

instructions. Each SM can process multiple instructions at once and assign
them to available cores.

• Executing − The decoded instructions are executed by multiple small cores

in the SM. These cores perform operations like matrix multiplication and
vector operations for graphics rendering and machine learning.
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• Writing back − The findings are either returned to GPU memory or

transmitted to the display output.

Overall, GPU working includes −

• Parallel Processing − GPUs, unlike CPUs, have thousands of small cores

which are integrated with the system to do parallel processing. This makes
it extremely efficient for larger and more complex tasks that can be divided
into smaller ones and apply parallel processing to them.

• CUDA cores (NVIDIA) or stream processors (AMD) − These are the basic
processing units of a GPU, which can execute the processes on their own.
Modern GPUs exist with thousands of these cores.

• Memory − A GPU has its memory which is known as Graphics Memory or

VRAM (Video RAM). A VRAM is capable enough to do multiple tasks at once.
This allows them to rapidly process and render images.

• Shader − Shaders are specialised processing units within a GPU. They are
specifically designed to perform vertex shading, geometry shading, pixel
shading, and computation. These units support rendering graphics and
computations.

• APIs − To optimise GPUs, software applications use programming interfaces

such as CUDA or OpenCL to manage and perform parallel activities. These
APIs give support to developers with tools, frameworks and libraries to help
them design programmes that make the best use of GPU capabilities.

• Data and task parallelism − GPUs are capable enough to perform data
parallelism and task parallelism on different sets of data simultaneously.

• SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) − This paradigm enables GPUs to

perform the same action on multiple data points at once making them
useful for image processing and scientific computations.

• Task distribution − Workloads for graphics rendering or scientific

simulations are divided into different smaller jobs; each of them is assigned
to a separate thread that the GPU then runs concurrently. This strategy
considerably reduces total processing time.

• Thread execution − Threads are smaller units of work that allow concurrent
processing; this process shows how GPUs function. A GPU can support
thousands of threads at a time.

Characteristics of GPU

Some of the key characteristics of GPU are as follows −

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• Parallel processing − GPUs contain thousands of specialized to perform

multiple tasks simultaneously. GPUs include SIMD, this feature allows the
GPU to apply the same operation on multiple data points in parallel.

• Memory − GPUs have their memory. GPUs Video RAM enables rapid access
to data and faster data transfer.

• High Throughput − The parallel processing feature of GPUs provides high

throughput.

• Shaders − Shaders allow for transformations and lighting, texturing,

shading and computational tasks beyond graphics rendering

• Scalability − GPUs can scale up that system from a few cores to thousands.

• Software Ecosystem − The GPU ecosystem supports APIs like as OpenGL,

DirectX, and Vulkan, as well as frameworks like CUDA (NVIDIA) and
OpenCL, allowing developers to use GPU capability for both graphics and
general-purpose computing.

Applications of GPU

Some of the common application areas where GPUs are most widely used are as
follows −

• Gaming − Gaming is most widely used for real-time rendering of high-

resolution and complex graphics.

• Visual effects − It is used in films and television shows to produce realistic

simulations, 3D animations, and intricate special effects,

• 3D Modelling − CAD and 3D rendering applications fully rely on GPUs for 3D

models.

• AI and Machine Learning − GPUs can process complex computations due to

this; GPUs are used in AI and machine learning for training and inference
of neural networks.

• Scientific Computing − GPUs are extremely useful in the domain of physics,

chemistry, biology, simulations and data analysis.

• Cryptocurrency Mining − GPUs are used to validate transactions on

blockchain networks, solving cryptographic puzzles.

• Scientific Computing − Scientific computing includes simulations and data

analysis.
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Advantages of GPUs

Some of the key advantages of GPUs are as follows −

• Quicker execution − GPU computing does fast execution and gives quicker
results.

• High processing power − GPUs are made with thousands of small processing
cores which perform tasks in parallel mode. This parallel processing enables
a GPU to do multiple complex processing at a time.

• Scalability − GPUs are highly scalable.

• Cost-effective solutions − Graphics processing units are a cost-effective

solution for a wide range of computing tasks, as they eliminate the need
for specialised processors or hardware.

• Graphics rendering − High-quality 3D visuals and visual effects in animation,

video games and simulations are rendered using GPU computing.

Disadvantages of GPUs

Some of the main disadvantages of GPUs are as follows −

• Complexity − Developing applications that properly utilise GPU capabilities

is difficult and requires skills in specialised programming languages and
frameworks.

• Limited single-thread performance − A small core of GPUs is less powerful

than CPU cores for single-threaded tasks.

• Memory constraints − GPU memory is limited which can hamper tasks that
require extensive memory access.

• Compatibility and driver issues − Updating GPU drivers is essential to

optimise GPU performance.

Computer - Power Supply Unit (PSU)

What is a Power Supply Unit (PSU)?

A Power Supply Unit also known as PSU is an essential computer hardware

component that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) and
then supplies voltage to every component connected to the system. The power
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supply transforms a 110-115 or 220-230 volt AC to a stable low-voltage DC that

the computer can use and is rated by the number of watts it generates.

Most of the power supplies are switched-mode (SMPS), which improves

efficiency and simplifies design for different voltage inputs. PSUs have the
abilities where the power input varies.

Why Power Supply Unit is Important?

A power supply is needed and works as an essential component in the computer

system for the following reasons −

• Conversion of AC to DC Power − A primary function of a PSU is to convert AC

from the wall outlet into DC and make computers' important components
functional like the motherboard, CPU, GPU, and storage drives because
they operate on DC power.

• Voltage Regulation − A PSU supplies the required voltage to different

components to ensure that they receive the required voltage to perform
+12V, +5V, and +3.3V.

• Power Distribution − A PSU works as a power supply distributor for the

different components connected to the system.

• Protect system − A PSU also protects systems from overvoltage short-

circuit, and thermal protection.

• Energy Efficiency − Efficient power supplies can cut electricity costs and the
environmental effects of running a computer.

How Does a Power Supply Unit (PSU) Work?

A Power Supply Unit works by converting AC to DC and supplying required

voltages to the different components connected to the system. Following are the
steps to demonstrate how a PSU works −

• AC voltage as input − The PSU takes AC voltage as input.

• Rectification − A rectifier converts inputted AC voltage into DC.

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• Filtering − The rectified DC power is subsequently filtered by capacitors to

smooth out fluctuations and remove ripple, producing a more stable DC
voltage.

• Switching − Switching is a process of sending filtered DC power to a high-

frequency transformer; the switch-mode power supply (SMPS) converts DC
voltage to high-frequency AC. This high-frequency AC enables the use of a
smaller and more efficient transformer.

• Transformation and Isolation − The high-frequency AC is then transferred

using a transformer, which steps down the voltage to the desired levels.
This transformer keeps isolation between input and output to improve
safety.

• Rectification and Filtering Again − The transformed AC voltage is rectified

back into DC with diodes. This DC is then filtered once again with capacitors
to remove any residual ripple, resulting in get stable DC voltage.

• Voltage Regulation − Voltage regulators are used to keep output voltages

within limits, despite the changes in input voltage. This is critical to the
computer's stable operation.

• Output − The regulated DC voltages are supplied to every component

connected to the system using specified connectors and cables. It includes
common voltages like +12V, +5V, and +3.3V.

• Protection Mechanisms − Modern PSUs protect the system from overvoltage,

short circuits, and thermal protection.

• Cooling − PSUs are equipped with cooling fans which keep systems cool
from system heat generated during operations.

Types of Power Supply Units

Types of Power Supply are as follows −

• ATX Standard − These are the most common PSUs usually used in desktop
systems. These power supplies are tailored to be compatible with the ATX
motherboard and deliver three distinct positive voltage rails: +3.3 V, +5 V,
and +12 V, in addition to a standby voltage rail of +5 V SB, which ensures
that computers receive power when in standby mode.

• Entry-Level Power Supply Specification (EPS) − Based on the ATX standard,

this PSU was specifically designed for servers. It sets a more stable
environment for critical applications than ATX standards, which makes it
perfect for critical servers.
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• Small Form Factor (SFX) − These PSUs are used in smaller form-factor
computers using MicroATX motherboards. These are the power supply units
used in smaller set-top boxes like DVD players and cable boxes.

• Thin Form Factor (TFX) − TFX power supplies are longer and thinner than
traditional ATX power supplies which are used in ultra-slim and low-profile
desktops.

• Modular and Semi-Modular Power Supply − Modular PSUs allow users to

connect using cables; this process minimises cable clutter and improves
airflow while Semi-Modular PSUs use fixed and detachable cables.

• Non-Modular Power Supply − All cables are permanent and not removable.
These are frequently less expensive, however, they result in more cable
clutter.

• Laptop Power Supply / AC Adapter − External power supplies that convert AC

to DCto power laptop computers. These are referred to as power bricks or
AC adapters.

• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) − An external device that provides

backup power during power outages, rather than a computer's power
supply unit. It contains batteries and can keep a system working for a short
period if the main power fails.

Functions of a Power Supply Unit

The Power Supply Unit (PSU) in a computer performs different essential

functions. Some of them are as follows −

• Power Conversion − The main function of a PSU is to convert AC from the

wall outlet into DC. Generally, it provides multiple DC voltage outputs like
+12V, +5V, +3.3V.

• Voltage Regulation − A PSU supplies the required voltage to different

components to ensure that they receive the required voltage to perform
+12V, +5V, and +3.3V. This is crucial for reliable operation and stable
voltage.

• Power Distribution − A PSU works as a power supply distributor to the

different components connected to the system like motherboard, CPU,
graphics card, storage devices, and peripherals.

• Protection Mechanisms − It protects the system from overvoltage short-

circuit, thermal protection, and over-temperature.

• Efficiency − PSUs reduce power wastage and reduce electricity costs.

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• Cooling − It supports system cooling by heat dissipation and temperature

management.

• Standby Power − The PSU can provide standby power (often +5VSB) to
support features such as Wake-on-LAN and allow the system to execute
specific tasks during low power mode or when the system is turned off.

How to Choose a Power Supply Unit (PSU)?

When choosing the right Power Supply Unit (PSU) for your computer; the
following considerations are required −

• Determine required power watt − You should estimate the total wattage
needed for the system like CPU, GPU, motherboard, RAM, storage drives,
and any peripherals. A user should also keep in mind about future upgrades
for the system.

• Efficiency − Efficient PSUs can lower electricity costs.

• Connectors and Cables − It determines that the PSU has the required
connectors and pins.

Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.

There are two types of software −

• System Software

• Application Software

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control,

and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software
is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products
comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface
between the hardware and the end users.
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Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,

Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

• Close to the system

• Fast in speed

• Difficult to design

• Difficult to understand

• Less interactive

• Smaller in size

• Difficult to manipulate

• Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a

particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab
can come under the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's

notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection
of programs, often called a software package, which work together to
accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

• Payroll Software

• Student Record Software

• Inventory Management Software
• Income Tax Software
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• Railways Reservation Software

• Microsoft Office Suite Software

• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

• Close to the user

• Easy to design

• More interactive

• Slow in speed

• Generally written in high-level language

• Easy to understand

• Easy to manipulate and use

• Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Computer - Software Types

Software is a collection of programs, data, and instructions that enable a
computer system and its hardware’s to do the tasks. A program is a set of
instructions or programming statements.

Hence, software built using multiple statements. It is an important part of

modern computing and is classified into different categories based on its
capability and purpose. For example, word-processing software enables the user
to create, edit and save documents. A web browser enables the user to view
and share web pages and multimedia files.
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Software Types

Some common types of software are as −

• System Software
• Application Software
• Utility Software
• Open Source Software

Fig: Software and its types

System Software
Software that enables a computer to run and activates required hardware or
other parts of a computer to run is called system software. System software acts
as interface between hardware and user applications. An interface is needed
because hardware devices or machines and humans speak in different
languages.

Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal) and
1 (presence of electric signal) while humans speak in English, French, German,
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Tamil, Hindi and many other languages. English is the pre-dominant language of
interacting with computers.

Software is required to convert all human instructions into machine

understandable instructions. And this is exactly what system software does.

Based on its function, system software is of four types −

• Operating System
• Language Processor
• Device Drivers
Operating System

Generally, system software is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts

and their interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating
system (OS).OS is the first software to be loaded into computer memory when
the computer is switched on and this is called booting.

OS manages a computer's basic functions like storing data in memory,

retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.

Language Processor

As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all

user instructions into machine understandable language. When we talk of
human machine interactions, languages are of three types −

• Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s

that the machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
• Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of abstraction by
defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to
denote a long string of 0s and 1s. For example, the word "READ" can be
defined to mean that computer has to retrieve data from the memory. The
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complete instruction will also tell the memory address. Assembly level
language is machine dependent.
• High level language − This language uses English like statements and is
completely independent of machines. Programs written using high level
languages are easy to create, read and understand.

Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is
called source code. Set of instructions in machine readable form is called object
code or machine code. System software that converts source code to object
code is called language processor. There are three types of language
interpreters −

• Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.

• Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level program line
by line.
• Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level programs at
one go rather than line by line.
Device Drivers

System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on

computer is called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone,
speaker, etc. that needs to be attached externally to the system has a specific
driver associated with it. When you attach a new device, you need to install its
driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be managed.

Application Software
Application software, sometimes known as "apps" or "applications," is a type of
software that is created for certain tasks or functions such as productivity,
entertainment, communication, or other reasons. Hence, software that performs
a single task and nothing else is called application software. Application software
is very specialized in their function and approach to solving a problem. So
spread sheet software can only do operations with numbers and nothing else.
Application software, as opposed to system software (such as operating
systems and device drivers), is designed to fulfil the needs and preferences of
end users. The following are some examples of common types of application
software −

Productivity Software
• Word Processing − This application software allows users to create, edit, and
format documents. Some popular word processing applications are
Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and Apple Pages.
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• Spreadsheet Application − This application software is used to create and

analyzing spreadsheets. Some popular Spreadsheet applications are
Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, and LibreOffice Calc.

• Presentation Software − This application software is used to make

slideshows and presentations. Some popular presentation applications are
Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides, and Apple Keynote.

• Project Management Software − This application software is used to make

teams plan, organize, and track projects. Examples - Trello, Asana, and
Jira.
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• Calendar and Scheduling Apps − This application software is used for time
management and scheduling appointments, like Google Calendar, Microsoft
Outlook, and Apple Calendar.

Graphics and Multimedia Software

• Image Editing − This application is used to edit and manipulate images.
Examples are Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, and Canva.
• Video Editing − This application is used to create and editing of video.
Examples are Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro, and DaVinci Resolve.
• Audio Editing − This application is used for recording and editing audio.
Examples are Audacity and Adobe Audition.
• 3D Modelling and Animation − This application is used for creating 3D
graphics and animations. Examples are Blender and Autodesk Maya.
Communication Software
• Email Clients − This application is used to send, receive, and manage email.
Examples are Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird, and Apple Mail.
• Instant Messaging Apps − This application enables users for real-time text
and multimedia communication. Examples are WhatsApp, Slack, and
Telegram.
• Video Conferencing Software − This application is used to conduct virtual
meetings and conferences. Examples are Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and
Cisco Webex.
• Social Media Apps − These applications provide platforms for social
networking. Examples are Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
Web Browsers

These application programs are used to access and navigate websites on the
internet. Popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft
Edge, and Safari.

Gaming Software

These applications are designed for entertainment and gaming. Examples are
Steam, PlayStation, Xbox, and mobile app stores.
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Utility Software

Provides various utilities to perform specific tasks, such as −

• File Compression and Extraction − Examples are WinZip, 7-Zip, and WinRAR.
• Backup and Recovery − Examples are Acronis True Image and Time Machine.
• Disk Cleanup and Optimization − Examples are CCleaner and Disk Cleanup
(Windows).
Education and E-Learning Software

These applications are designed to learning management systems (LMS);

automate educational system, online education, and digital libraries.

Health and Fitness Apps

These applications are designed to keep track of health metrics, Yogas and
Asans, dietary guidance etc.

Financial Software

These applications are specifically designed to manage personal finances,

accounting, and taxation. Examples are QuickBooks, TurboTax, and Mint.

Travel and Navigation Apps

These applications are designed to assist travellers with trip planning, maps,
and GPS navigation etc. Examples are Google Maps, TripAdvisor, and Waze.

In continuation of changing demands and preferences of users in different

fields, application software continues to improve and diversify. Users can install
and utilise these applications to do certain tasks and enhance their digital
experiences on their computers, smartphones, tablets, and other digital devices.

Utility Software
Application software also known as utility programs or system utilities that
assists system software in doing their work is called utility software. Utility
software is intended to help users to manage and maintain their computer
systems, as well as optimise performance and execute different system-related
activities. These programmes are often used to assure the efficient operation of
hardware and software components, and improve a computer system's overall
functionality and stability. Thus utility software is actually a cross between
system software and application software.
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Some common types of utility are as −

• Antivirus and Antimalware Software − These utilities keep safe the computer
against malicious software, spyware, and viruses, as well as other types of
security threats. Examples are Norton Antivirus, McAfee, and
Malwarebytes.
• Disk Cleanup and Optimization − These utilities help to remove temporary or
unwanted files. For example - CCleaner (Crap Cleaner) removes temporary
files, cache data, and unused files to free up disk space. Defragmentation
applications reorganise fragmented files on a hard drive in order to increase
read/write access.
• Disk Partitioning and Management − Disc Management (Windows) and
GParted (Linux) are utilities that enable users to create, resize, and manage
partitions on their hard drives.
• Backup and Recovery − Backup utilities automatically create copies of vital
data to prevent loss. Example: Windows Backup and Time Machine (Mac).
Data recovery software recovers erased files and folders. Popular options
include Recuva and TestDisk.
• System Monitoring and Diagnostic Tools − Task Manager (Windows) and
Activity Monitor (Mac) offer real-time system resource monitoring to find
and fix performance issues. Windows Memory Diagnostic and Apple
Diagnostics (Mac) diagnose hardware issues.
• Driver Updaters − For hardware compatibility and performance, these
programmes update out-dated or incompatible device drivers. Examples
are Driver Booster and Driver Easy.
• Password Managers − Users generate, store, and manage complex, secure
passwords with password management software. Examples are LastPass,
Dashlane, and 1Password.
• Firewall Utilities − A firewall protects a computer or network by managing
incoming and outgoing network traffic. Examples are Windows Firewall and
third-party firewall solutions like ZoneAlarm.
• Data Encryption Software − These utilities encrypt sensitive data to protect
it from unauthorized access. Examples are BitLocker (Windows) and
FileVault (Mac).
• Uninstaller Programs − These utilities assist users in thoroughly removing
undesirable apps as well as the files and registry entries linked with those
applications. Examples are Revo Uninstaller and IObit Uninstaller.
Open Source Software
Software whose source code is freely distributed with a license to study, change
and further distributed to anyone for any purpose is called open source software.
Open source software is generally a team effort where dedicated programmers
improve upon the source code and share the changes within the community.
Open source software provides these advantages to the users due to its thriving
communities −
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• Security
• Affordability
• Transparent
• Interoperable on multiple platforms
• Flexible due to customizations
• Localization is possible
Freeware

A software that is available free of cost for use and distribution but cannot be
modified as its source code is not available is called freeware. Examples of
freeware are Google Chrome, Adobe Acrobat PDF Reader, Skype, etc.

Shareware

Software that is initially free and can be distributed to others as well, but needs
to be paid for after a stipulated period of time is called shareware. Its source
code is also not available and hence cannot be modified.

Proprietary Software

Software that can be used only by obtaining license from its developer after
paying for it is called proprietary software. An individual or a company can own
such proprietary software.

Its source code is often closely guarded secret and it can have major
restrictions like −

• No further distribution
• Number of users that can use it
• Type of computer it can be installed on, example multitasking or single
user, etc.

For example, Microsoft Windows is a proprietary operating software that comes

in many editions for different types of clients like single-user, multi-user,
professional, etc.

Computer - NAND Flash Memory

What is NAND Flash Memory?

NAND flash memory is a non-volatile memory which doesn’t require a regular

power supply to work and retain data. Its main goal is to read and write data
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from and to the memory very fast and maximise its storage capacity to store
data large-size data and reduce cost.

NAND flash memory stores data into memory blocks, when the power supply
gets off the metal-oxide semiconductor activates charges to keep memory cells
functional. NAND memory cells are made up of two types of gates: control and
floating gates. Both gates are used to regulate the flow of data. To program one
cell, a voltage charge is applied to the control gate. Generally, NAND flash
memory has digital cameras, MP3 players, USB flash drives, smartphones,
tablets and laptops.

Where NAND Flash Memory is Used?

NAND is commonly found in memory cards, USB flash drives, and solid-state
drives. NAND Flash is most widely used in cell phones, laptops and tablets in
our homes and offices. It is also used in traffic lights, digital advertising panels,
passenger announcement systems, display devices or any other artificial
intelligence (AI) application where data transfer and retain data is likely to
include NAND Flash.

NAND flash memory is evolving to meet the demands of modern data storage.
Its robustness, speed, and cost-effectiveness make it a key player in the ever-
changing world of memory storage technology.

Why NAND Flash Memory is Important?

When compared to traditional hard disk drives, NAND Flash-based devices

provide shock resistance, great endurance, and the ability to handle extreme
pressure and temperature. They have no moving parts, unlike HDDs, and are
therefore suitable for systems that make vibrations and shake. NAND also
provides rapid read access times, which are critical when processing large
amounts of data. Overall, NAND is best suited for applications that require large
amounts of data storage. It provides higher densities, larger capacity, and
reduced costs. It does speedier erases, sequential writes, and sequential reads.

• Most widely used in Consumer Electronics − It is an essential component in a

wide range of electronic gadgets, including smartphones, tablets, digital
cameras, and portable media players to store data.
• Critical for Solid-State Drives (SSDs) − SSDs, which use NAND Flash Memory,
provide considerable performance over traditional hard drives.
• Portability − Its high storage density enables the development of
lightweight storage devices such as USB flash drives and memory cards,
which are required for portable data storage and transfer.
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• Power Efficiency − NAND Flash Memory requires less power than mechanical
hard drives, which is critical for battery-powered devices like laptops,
smartphones, and tablets. This efficiency increases battery life and
improves the user experience.
• Reliability and Durability − NAND Flash Memory, unlike traditional hard
drives, is more resistant to physical shock and damage since it contains no
moving parts. This makes it perfect for transportable and hard applications
that require high reliability.
• Scalability and Cost-Effectiveness − The technology continues to advance,
providing larger storage capacities at lower costs per gigabyte. This allows
for the cost-effective storage of large amounts of data, which provides
benefits for both consumers and enterprise applications.
Features of NAND Flash Memory

Some of the key characteristics of NAND Flash Memory are as follows −

• Non-Volatile Memory − NAND flash memory is non-volatile, which means

that it retains recorded data without the use of a battery or other power
source which makes it suitable for long-term data storage. Such memories
can preserve data for a long period without being damaged.
• High Density − NAND flash memory is available with high storage capacity
in a small physical space. Its high-density feature makes it usable in SSDs,
USB drives, and memory cards.
• Durability − It can write and erase data n number of times which makes it
durable.
• Performance − NAND flash memory allows fast read and write operations.
• Cost-Effectiveness − NAND flash memory is cheaper per gigabyte as
compared to other types of memory.
• Reprogrammable − NAND flash memories are that they can be programmed
to meet the user's needs. The programmable IC chips may store any type
of data, from documents to films and allow users to use them whenever
required.
• Faster Write and Erase Time − NAND flash memory is fast read and writes
data; due to this feature, it is most widely used in the application areas
where data writing operations are required. It is also a distinguishing
property of NAND flash memory that takes less time to erase its contents.
• More Storage − NAND flash memory can store up to 2TB storage devices.
Modern NAND flash memories are launching to store large-size data.
• Low Manufacturing Cost − Its manufacturing cost is comparatively low.
• Data Integrity and Reliability − Advanced error-correcting codes (ECC) and
wear levelling algorithms are used to improve data integrity and extend
memory life.
• Scalability − NAND Flash can be scaled to extremely high capacity, which is
a driving factor for large-scale data storage solutions.
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How does NAND Flash Memory Work?

NAND Flash Memory operates through a series of processes that involve the
storage and retrieval of data using floating-gate transistors. Its overall working
depends on its structure, data storage functionalities, and reading and erasing
data. A brief description of the different phases is as follows −

Structure
NAND Flash is made up of memory cells that store bits of data. Each cell is
made up of a floating-gate transistor with an additional gate (the floating gate)
between the control gate and substrate. These cells in memory are divided into
pages, the smallest writing units. Pages are divided into blocks, the smallest
erasable components.

Storing Data
The floating gate can store an electrical charge that represents data; the
presence or absence of this charge marks whether the cell stores the binary '0'
or '1'. To write data, apply a high voltage to the control gate, which causes
electrons to tunnel through the thin oxide layer and become trapped on the
floating gate. The threshold voltage of the transistor varies according to the
charge stored on the floating gate, allowing the cell to represent different
states.

Reading Data
To read data, a voltage is delivered to the control gate. The amount of current
flowing through the transistor is determined by the charge stored in the floating
gate. The sensor circuit detects current flow and identifies the stored data ('0'
or '1') based on the transistor's threshold voltage.

Erasing Data
NAND Flash memory cannot delete individual bits or pages; instead, it erases
entire blocks. To erase a block, a high voltage is supplied in the opposite
direction, removing electrons from the floating gate and restoring the cells to
their default state (typically '1').

Types of NAND Flash Memory

Common types of NAND flash storage include SLC, MLC, TLC, QLC and 3D
NAND. A brief description of these is as follows −
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SLCs
SLC is an abbreviation for single-level cells. It is one of the older NAND Flash,
with each cell representing only one binary digit (bit). SLCs, or single-level cells,
hold one bit per cell. SLC offers the best endurance, but it is also the most
expensive type of NAND flash storage.

Multi-Level Cell
MLC, or multi-level cells, store two bits per cell; hence each Multi-Level Cell
may hold two bits. These cells have less endurance than SLCs since Write
Cycles and ensure occur twice as frequently as SLCs.

Triple-Level Cell
TLC stands for Triple-Level Cell. As the name implies, each cell contains three
bits of memory, allowing for greater data storage in the same footprint. TLC
drives are primarily used by enterprise and consumer companies.

Quad-Level cell
Each Quad-Level cell can represent up to four bits because the name "Quad"
signifies "four". QLC memory is the technology that offers the lowest per-
terabyte cost when compared to hard drives.

3D NAND Flash Memory

3D NAND flash saves space by building memory cells vertically in a three-
dimensional matrix. This method of producing a NAND Memory storage chip
saves a lot of physical space, making the chip smaller.

Computer - NVMe Memory

What is Non-volatile Memory Express (NVMe)?

NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express) is a protocol that uses the PCI Express
(PCIe) interface to link solid-state drive (SSD) storage to servers or CPUs. It is
the fastest and most popular protocol for connecting to a computer's
motherboard's non-volatile memory express (NVMe). NVMe was developed in
2011 by a group of IT professionals; this device is an alternative to SATA and
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Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) protocols which provides higher throughput for
faster and more reliable performance. In addition to storage and technology
advancements, NVMe helped to accelerate the development of critical
technologies like as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and
machine learning (ML).

The NVMe protocol is dedicated to data transfer with low system overheads per
input/output operation per second. It is used in SSDs with flash memory. NVMe
addresses the bottlenecks in the SATA interface and communication protocols.
NVMe technology uses the PCIe bus instead of the SATA bus to unleash massive
bandwidth potential for storage devices. NVMe technology unlocks different
possibilities for storage devices by increasing economy, performance, and
compatibility across different platforms.

Recent technical developments in data storage have pushed organizations and

individuals to move from traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) to fast data
transmission, and lower-latency solid-state drives (SSDs). SSD and NVMe are
two different types of drives that can be used to complement each other. SSDs
are semiconductor-based storage that includes flash storage, and NVMe is a
data transfer protocol that uses reduced system overheads per input/output
operation per second in SSDs with flash memory. It is expected that the NVMe
technology will become the new industry standard in the upcoming time.

Why NVMe is Important?

NVMe has a Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) bus which can
achieve transfer speeds of up to 20 gigabytes per second (Gbps). Power is not
required for the NVMe device to retain its memory. Unlike other technologies,
NVMe storage can connect directly to a computer’s CPU using a PCIe socket and
enable the drive’s flash memory to function through PCIe.

NVMe technology has fast data transfer speeds and allows for parallelism and
polling; NVMe SSDs can optimize response times, and write speeds, and reduce
latency to avoid CPU bottlenecks. Additionally, NVMe technology uses less
power than the popular Small Computer System Interface (SCSI).

Characteristics of NVMe

Some of the key characteristics of NVMe are as follows −

• High Throughput and Low Latency − NVMe leverages the high-speed PCIe bus
for latency which makes faster data transfer rates.

• Performance Enhancement − Its low latency and high-speed data transfer

features significantly improve the performance of storage systems.
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• Scalability − The structural design of NVMe makes it scalable to improve

performance by providing compatibility with future storage advancements.

• Cost Efficiency − Its higher performance and durability typically result in

long-term cost advantages due to increased productivity and decreased
downtime.

• Future-proofing − NVMe is highly extensible and compatible with all

emerging persistent memory technologies.

How does NVMe Work?

NVMe is a storage transfer technology that allows you to quickly access data
from flash memory storage devices like SSDs. It allows flash memory to
communicate directly with a computer using a high-speed peripheral component
interconnect express (PCIe) bus, resulting in quick, high-throughput, and
parallel data transfer. NVMe communicates between a storage interface and a
system CPU via a high-speed Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
(PCIe) bus. The NVMe protocol was developed to work with fast media.

NVMe’s work starts with the host; they write I/O commands. The NVMe
controller retrieves and executes I/O command queues, then returns I/O
completion queues, followed by an interrupt to the host. The host logs I/O
completion queues and clears the door register. It reduces overhead as
compared to standard transfer protocols such as serial attached SCSI (SAS) and
serial ATA (SATA), NVMe is optimized for non-uniform memory access (NUMA),
which means it can handle queues across multiple CPU cores.

Advantages of NVMe

Some of the key advantages of NVMe are as follows −

• NVMe technology gives storage, speed and compatibility features.

• It uses PCIe sockets which makes faster data transmission.

• NVMe communicates directly with the system.

• NVMe drives work with all major operating systems regardless of form
factor.

• It is most suitable to utilise SSDs and communicate between the storage

interface and the system's CPU using PCIe.
• Its performance is significantly higher.

• NVMe is specifically intended for SSDs and will eventually become the next
industry standard.
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Computer - CompactFlash Card

What is a CompactFlash Card?

A CompactFlash card is a memory card used to store data. It is also known as

CF card which was developed by SanDisk in the year 1994. A CompactFlash
card is a type of flash memory that stores the data on a tiny chip. This card
does not have moving mechanical parts; so, it does not require a battery to
retain data.

A CompactFlash card is one of the most widely used portable storage devices
which is smaller in size and a more reliable storage device. It is most widely
used in computing devices to provide faster and reliable data storage. It is a
type of flash memory used as a removable storage for digital images and video
cameras, but it can also be found on personal devices such as PDAs and
portable music players.

A CompactFlash card was initially offered with storage capacities ranging from
megabytes to several gigabytes. Modern CF cards can offer storage capacities of
up to 512GB or more. The earliest CompactFlash cards were designed using
NOR flash memory that can read and write data in random order. This feature
made it ideal and popular to store images or text-type data.

NOR flash memory was slower and more expensive; later on, flash memory
used NAND flash memory and became more popular and less expensive. NAND
flash memory is speedier and can be written in serial order, making it ideal for
storing large files like video or music.

Significances of CompactFlash Card

CompactFlash cards are available with different storage capacities which enable
it for substantial storing of high-resolution photos, films, and other significant
files. This is especially useful for photographers and videographers who need to
save a lot of data. These cards are available with different storage capacities
ranging from 8GB to 512 GB. A CompactFlash card's capacity is defined by the
number of NAND flash chips used for data storage. CompactFlash cards are
more reliable in harsh environments. Nowadays, CompactFlash cards are used
in industrial applications and professional use in the field.

CompactFlash cards are widely used and still compatible with many high-end
cameras, camcorders, and other professional equipment. Their extensive history
in the industry provides continuing maintenance and compatibility with legacy
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equipment. CompactFlash cards offer consistent and stable performance, which

is crucial for applications requiring uninterrupted data storage and retrieval.
CompactFlash cards are intended to protect data integrity, lowering the chance
of loss or corruption. This is vital for professionals who need to protect their
work, as well as for industrial applications that require data integrity.

Despite the development of newer memory cards like SD cards and microSD
cards, CompactFlash cards remain useful in situations where their longevity,
high capacity, and consistent performance, are necessary.

How does CompactFlash Card work?

CompactFlash cards work by plugging them into pinholes for the card to
function correctly. CF cards are easy to use. They use FAT32 or exFAT
formatting and are compatible.

CompactFlash cards employ NAND flash memory. Data is stored in memory cells
that are grouped into blocks. Each cell contains a set number of bits, usually
one bit for single-level cells (SLC) and more for multi-level cells (MLC).
Traditional CF cards use the Parallel ATA (PATA) interface for transferring data
between the card and the host device while advanced CompactFlash cards may
employ the CFexpress standard, which uses the PCIe interface for higher data
transfer rates.

Each CF card comprises a controller for data storage and retrieval. The
controller is in charge of functions such as wear levelling and error correction.
When data is written to the card, the controller assigns it to the proper memory
cells. During a read operation, the controller receives data from the cells and
transfers it to the host device. CF cards require a power supply to function.
When plugged into a device, the device supplies the electricity required for the
card to work.

Types of CompactFlash Cards

CompactFlash (CF) cards are come in different types; these are as follows −

CompactFlash (CF) cards

Description
Type

It’s a standard CompactFlash card measuring 3.3mm in thickness. It is most widely used
CF Type I
cameras, camcorders, and other related devices.
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CF Type II These are thicker at 5mm; their storage capacity is comparatively more.

These cards use a Serial ATA (SATA) interface to work on faster data transfer principles.
Cfast
3.3mm thickness. It is used in cameras, camcorders, and other professional equipment.

These cards use the PCIe and NVMe interfaces which have higher data transfer rates. It
Cfexpress thickness may vary in size. These cards are more likely used in video recording and burs
photography.

These CompactFlash cards use UDMA protocol and have higher data transfer rates. It h
UDMA (Ultra Direct Memory
3.3mm thickness. These are most widely used in professional photography and video
Access) CF Cards
applications.

These CF cards are designed to survive high temperatures, vibrations, and shocks. Its th
Industrial CF Cards
may vary in size. These are most widely used in industrial PCs and automation systems.

Features of CompactFlash Card

Some of the key characteristics of CompactFlash Card are as follows −

• Higher Performance − CompactFlash cards are much faster than other

memory cards, such as SD cards.

• Capacity − CompactFlash cards are available with different storage

capacities ranging from 8GB to 512GB. This makes them perfect for storing
huge files like high-resolution photos or films.

• Durability − CompactFlash cards are robust and durable. They include no

moving parts and are housed in a solid plastic housing.

• Reliability − CompactFlash cards are extremely reliable and have a low

failure rate. They include features like Non-Volatile Memory, Error
Correction and Wear Leveling. They do not have any moving parts that can
fail or wear out; this feature makes them more reliable.

• Compatibility − CompactFlash cards are very reliable and have a low failure
rate. They have no moving parts that could break or wear out.

• Power Consumption − CompactFlash cards are designed to be power-

efficient, reducing the strain on the device’s battery.

• Security Features − CompactFlash cards have built-in security features like

password protection and encryption to keep them safe from unauthorised
users or unauthorised access.
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Applications of CompactFlash Card

CompactFlash cards are most widely used in different domains of the industry.
Some of the most commonly used application areas are as −

• CompactFlash cards are most widely used in digital cameras and

camcorders.

• CompactFlash cards are used for video recording.

• CompactFlash cards are used in portable music players and personal digital
assistants (PDAs).

• CompactFlash cards are used in data logging and machine automation.

• CompactFlash cards are used in healthcare to store patient data and

images.

• CompactFlash cards are also used to back up important data as a Data

Backup device.

• Because of their endurance and capacity to tolerate severe temperatures,

CF cards are employed in aerospace and military applications for data
storage and transfer.

• CompactFlash cards are used in entertainment systems also to store media

files.

• CompactFlash cards are used in scientific research to store research data.

• CompactFlash cards are also used as environmental monitoring devices to

store data collected from various sensors.

Computer - Data Storage & Memory

Data storage and memory are both important parts of computers, but they do
different things when it comes to storing and retrieving information. Computer
memory stores data and instructions for the CPU to process tasks. Memory is
vital for computer efficiency and comes in many forms.

Data Storage − The permanent, long-term storing of digital information is

referred to as data storage. Data is stored on different physical and virtual
storage systems and media. There are several types of data storage −
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Primary Storage (Main Memory or RAM)

Computers keep active data in primary storage. Data is lost when the machine
is turned off since it is volatile memory.

Data and programmes in use are stored quickly and temporarily. RAM is
volatile, losing data when the computer is turned off. A computer with greater
RAM can multitask and run apps smoothly.

Secondary Storage (Non-volatile Storage)

Secondary storage holds long-term data. It stores data even when the machine
is off, unlike primary storage. HDDs, SSDs, CDs, DVDs, and USB drives are
examples.

2.1 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

The hard disc drive is a main hardware in a computer that stores data. Most
files, including the operating system and programme titles, are kept on the hard
disc drive.

HDD and its components

A hard drive has few fundamental elements. One or more shiny silver platters
store magnetically stored information, an arm mechanism moves a tiny magnet
called a read-write head over the platters to record or store information, and an
electronic circuit controls everything and connects the hard drive to your
computer.
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• Actuator − The actuator arm is a mechanical element responsible for

providing support to the read/write heads. The mechanism facilitates the
movement of the read/write heads to the intended track on the platter for
the purpose of data reading or writing. Contemporary hard disc drives
(HDDs) employ voice coil actuators to achieve precise positioning.
• Read-write Heads − Every platter is equipped with a corresponding
read/write head that hovers slightly above its surface. These components
are tasked with the responsibility of retrieving data from and storing data
onto the platters. The actuator arm is utilised to swiftly traverse the surface
of the platter, facilitating access to various sections of the disc.
• Central Spindle − Platters rotate at a consistent pace with the spindle. Most
HDDs spin at 5,400 or 7,200 RPM, while some high-performance devices
spin at 10,000 or 15,000 RPM.
• Magnetic Platter − it stores information in binary form. The flat, round discs
inside an HDD are called platters. Most of the time, these plates are made
of aluminium or glass and have a magnetic coating. Magnetic patterns keep
the information on the platters.
• Power Connectors − It links hard drive to circuit board in personal computer.
A power connector is needed to power internal HDDs from the computer's
power source. Modern discs use SATA power connectors.
• Read-Write Head − is a tiny magnet on the end of the read-write arm.
• Circuit Board − The controller board, also called a "Printed Circuit Board"
(PCB), is the HDD's brain. It holds the drive's software, which controls how
data is accessed and fixes errors. The drive is also connected to the
computer's interface (such as SATA or IDE) by the driver board.
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• Data Connector − The computer's power supply device powers internal HDDs
through a power connector. SATA power connectors are common for newer
drives.
• Small Spindle − This allows read-write arm to swing across platter.

Platters are the most critical hard drive elements. Their name implies that they
are hard discs made of glass, ceramic, or aluminium coated with a thin metal
coating that may be magnetised or demagnetized. Although compact hard
drives have one platter, each side is magnetically coated. Larger drives feature
platters stacked on a spindle with a tiny gap. The read-write heads can reach
any region of the platters, which rotate at up to 10,000 rpm.

A five-platter hard drive would need ten read-write heads because each platter
contains two, one for the top and one for the bottom. An electrically operated
arm moves the read-write heads from the drive centre to the edge and back.

Features of HDDs
• Data Storage − HDDs consist of one or more rigid, rapidly rotating disks
(platters) coated with a magnetic material. Data is stored on these platters
in the form of magnetic patterns. To read or write data, a read/write head
moves over the spinning platters.
• Capacity − HDDs are available in various storage capacities, ranging from a
few gigabytes (GB) to multiple terabytes (TB). The capacity of an HDD is
determined by the number of platters it contains and their data density.
• Speed − HDDs are generally slower than SSDs in terms of data access times
and read/write speeds. This is because the read/write heads need to
physically move to the correct location on the disk, causing latency.
• Durability − HDDs are mechanical devices with moving parts, which makes
them susceptible to mechanical failure if subjected to physical shocks,
drops, or excessive vibration. SSDs, being solid-state, are more durable in
this regard.
• Price − HDDs are typically less expensive per gigabyte compared to SSDs.
This makes them a cost-effective choice for large storage needs.
• Noise and Heat − HDDs can generate noise due to the spinning platters and
moving heads. They also generate heat, so proper ventilation is necessary
to prevent overheating.
• Power Consumption − HDDs generally consume more power than SSDs
because of the mechanical components. This can lead to slightly higher
electricity usage in laptops and desktops.
• Longevity − The lifespan of an HDD can vary but is often shorter than that
of an SSD. Over time, the mechanical parts can wear out, leading to data
loss.
• Applications − HDDs are commonly used for various purposes, such as
storing large files (photos, videos, and documents), running operating
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systems and software, and in network-attached storage (NAS) devices for

backup and data sharing.
• Backup − Due to their mechanical nature, it's important to regularly back
up data on HDDs to prevent loss in case of failure. Redundant storage
systems or RAID configurations can be used for added data protection.
How hard drives work ?

The working of an HDD depends on its components which are described above.
The main elements; a spinning platter and an actuator arm which are as:

• Magnetic Platters − Platters refer to circular plates. The number of platters

in a hard drive is directly proportional to its storage capacity, as each platter
can accommodate a specific quantity of information. Consequently, a hard
drive with greater storage capacity would include a larger number of
platters compared to one with lesser storage capacity. The process of
storing and retrieving information from the platters involves the utilisation
of concentric circles known as tracks, which are further divided into sectors.
• Arm − The arm refers to the component protruding above the platters. The
arms equipped with read and write heads that are utilised for the purpose
of reading and storing magnetic data onto the platters. Each platter will
possess an own arm that is utilised for the purpose of reading and writing
data from and onto it.
The motor is employed to rotate the discs at speeds ranging from 4,500 to
15,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). A higher rotational speed of a drive
corresponds to improved performance outcomes. When a computer
requires data retrieval from the hard drive, the motor initiates the rotation
of the platters, while the arm repositions itself to the designated location
above the platter where the data is stored. The magnetic heads located on
the arm are responsible for detecting the magnetic bits present on the
platters. These heads then convert the detected bits into the corresponding
data, which can be utilised by the computer. In contrast, during the process
of data transmission to the drive, the magnetic heads will emit magnetic
pulses towards the platters, so altering the magnetic characteristics of the
platter surface and subsequently storing the information.

HDDs are cheaper and have a higher capacity than SSDs, but they are slower
and less durable. The use case and cost-performance-storage capacity balance
determine whether to utilise HDDs or SSDs. Computers and electronics store
and retrieve data on HDDs. Based on their speed and dependability, Solid State
Drives (SSDs) have become popular after decades of use.

2.2 Solid State Drives (SSD)

A Solid State Drive (SSD) is a data storage device commonly employed in
computers and various electronic gadgets. In contrast to conventional Hard Disc
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Drives (HDDs), which employ rotating discs for data retrieval and storage, Solid
State Drives (SSDs) utilise NAND-based flash memory technology. Solid-state
drives (SSDs) have experienced a surge in popularity owing to their different
advantages which encompass enhanced speed, reduced energy usage, and
heightened resilience.

Solid-state drives (SSDs) are capable of permanently storing data within an

integrated circuit, commonly utilising flash memory technology. The utilisation
of flash memory within a SSD facilitates the electrical and noiseless processes of
data writing, transferring, and erasing. Unlike mechanical hard-disk drives
(HDDs), SSDs do not have any moving components. Solid-state drives offer
great performance and low noise levels due to their lack of moving components.
However, it is important to note that SSDs are generally more expensive than
HDD.

In the past, SSDs possessed a more restricted storage capacity in comparison

to conventional hard disc drives. However, presently, both SSDs and HDDs are
available in a wide range of sizes to cater to diverse storage requirements.
SSDs are frequently employed in premium computing systems or as
supplementary storage components within personal computers intended for
consumer use.

How an SSD works

• NAND Flash Memory − The primary component of an SSD is NAND flash
memory. This is a type of non-volatile storage that retains data even when
the power is turned off. NAND flash memory is made up of memory cells
organized into pages and blocks.
• Cells and Bits − Each memory cell in NAND flash can store multiple bits of
data, typically one, two, or three bits per cell. The more bits a cell can
store, the more cost-effective the SSD is, but it can also affect performance
and longevity.
• Pages and Blocks − Data is written and read from NAND flash memory in
fixed-size pages, which are grouped into larger blocks. When data is written
to an SSD, it is first programmed into an empty page. To update or delete
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data, SSDs use a process called wear-leveling, which ensures that data is
evenly distributed across the NAND cells to prevent excessive wear on any
one cell.
• Controller − The SSD controller is a critical component that manages the
reading and writing of data to and from the NAND flash memory. It handles
tasks such as error correction, wear leveling, and garbage collection to
optimize performance and longevity.
• TRIM − The TRIM command is an important feature of SSDs. It allows the
operating system to inform the SSD which data blocks are no longer in use,
allowing the SSD to perform efficient garbage collection and wear leveling,
which helps maintain performance over time.
• Wear Leveling − NAND flash memory cells have a limited number of write-
erase cycles before they degrade. Wear leveling ensures that data is written
evenly across the memory cells, extending the lifespan of the SSD.
• Read and Write Operations − SSDs can read data very quickly since there are
no moving parts involved. Write operations, however, can be more complex
because data must be written to empty pages and previously used pages
must be erased before they can be rewritten. This process is managed by
the SSD controller to optimize speed and minimize write amplification.

SSDs work by storing data in NAND flash memory cells, using a controller to
manage read and write operations, and implementing various techniques like
wear leveling and garbage collection to ensure longevity and maintain
performance. Their speed, reliability, and efficiency have made them a
preferred choice for storage in modern computers and electronic devices.

2.3 Tertiary Storage

Tertiary storage medium is used for long-term backups and archiving. It's
slower and less used than main and secondary storage but offers high-capacity
storage for long-term data.

Magnetic tape, optical discs, and specialised hard drives are tertiary storage
media.

How tertiary storage work?

Magnetic Tape
• Recording Mechanism − Magnetic tape is a long, thin plastic strip covered
with magnets. Magnetising regions representing binary 0s and 1s stores
data on tape.
• Reading Mechanism − As tape runs through a tape drive, magnetised
portions are read to recover data. This sequential procedure requires the
drive to fast forward or rewind to access specific data, which is slower than
random access storage like hard drives or SSDs.
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Magnetic tape has a small layer that records magnetic signals and a thicker film
backing. The top coat, or magnetic coating, is a polymer-bound magnetic
pigment.

Magnetic particles and tape backing are held together by the binder. Magnetic
impulses are stored in the top coat, or magnetic layer.

Optical Discs

Optical discs read and write data using optical technology. They are flat, circular
polycarbonate discs with a reflective data layer and a protective outer layer.

Different types of digital data are stored on optical discs −

• CD (Compact Disc) − CDs were one of the earliest types of optical discs and
were released in the early 1980s. They can store up to 700 MB of data and
are widely used for music, software, and data storage.
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• DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) − After CDs, DVDs have substantially higher
storage capacity, 4.7 GB single-layer and 8.5 GB dual-layers. In movies,
software distribution, and data backup.
• Blu-ray Disc − Newer optical discs like Blu-rays can store more data than
DVDs. They can hold 25 GB (single-layer) and 50 GB (dual-layer) for
standard discs and more for specialised versions. Blu-ray discs are utilised
for HD video and data storage.
• Archival Disc − Archival optical discs preserve data for long periods.
Archival-grade data volume and durability make them ideal.
• Recordable and Rewritable Discs − Rewritable and write-once optical discs
are available. Rewritable discs can be erased and rewritten, however
recordable discs can only be written once.
How Optical discs work?

Optical discs work by using a laser to read and write data.

• Recording Mechanism − Lasers create tiny pits and lands on CDs, DVDs, and
Blu-rays. Pits and lands are binary data.
• Reading Mechanism − The disc drive's laser detects pits and lands'
reflections to read data. Drive converts reflections into digital data.

A less powerful laser is used to read the digital information from the designs on
the reflective layer. To write data, a more powerful laser heats up a small part of
the reflective layer, making pits and bumps that indicate binary data.

A popular way to store data and distribute video, optical discs now have to
compete with other storage technologies like USB drives, external hard drives,
and cloud storage. But they are still used in some situations where their durability,
ability to store data even when the computer is not on, and resistance to data
corruption are important.
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2.4 USB Flash Drives

A USB flash drive, also known as a thumb drive, jump drive, pen drive, or USB
memory stick, is a storage device that can be used to record information on a
very small flash memory chip. Data can be read from it and saved by users. These
storage devices are meant to be considerably more compact than a normal
storage disc; in fact, some of them are about the size of a thumb. USB’s can
connect to any computer; because of the compatibility of their universal serial
bus, often known as a USB, port.

Data can be stored on USB drives, which are portable storage devices. Because
of their portability and the ease with which they can transfer and store data, they
are very compact and have a low weight. As a result of these characteristics, they
have become an extremely common storage device.

Features of USB flash drives

• Storage Capacity − USB flash drives are available in a wide range of storage
capacities, spanning from a few gigabytes (GB) to several terabytes (TB).
• Physical Size − These devices are generally characterised by their small and
compact size, resembling a plastic or metal stick with a USB connector
located at one end. These devices are specifically engineered for convenient
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portability, allowing them to be effortlessly carried in a pocket or securely

attached to a keychain.
• Data Transfer Speed − USB flash drives exhibit varying data transfer speeds,
typically classified according to USB generations, including USB 2.0, USB
3.0, USB 3.1, and USB 3.2. Every successive generation presents enhanced
data transfer rates. USB 3.0 and subsequent iterations exhibit notable
enhancements in speed compared to USB 2.0.
• File Storage − A USB flash drive is capable of storing a wide range of data
types, including documents, photos, videos, music, software, and other
files. These devices are frequently utilised for the purpose of transferring
files between various devices or serving as a reliable backup storage
solution.
• Plug-and-Play − USB flash drives are commonly recognised as plug-and-
play devices, which implies that they can be effortlessly connected to a USB
port on a computer and are immediately operational, without necessitating
the installation of supplementary drivers or software.
• Security − Certain USB flash drives are equipped with integrated security
features, including hardware encryption and password protection, which
serve to enhance the protection of your data in the event of loss or theft of
the drive.
• Price − The pricing of USB flash drives is subject to variation depending on
factors such as storage capacity, speed, and brand. In general, drives with
smaller capacities are typically more cost-effective, whereas drives with
larger capacities and faster speeds tend to be priced at a higher range.
2.5 Memory Cards
Memory cards are a type of storage device that can hold data files. It gives you
a place to store data and files from the connected device. Hence, a memory card
is a form of storage media utilised for the purpose of storing various types of
data, such as photos, videos, or other electronic information, within electronic
devices. Commonly utilised devices that make use of a memory card encompass
digital cameras, digital camcorders, handheld computers, MP3 players, PDAs, cell
phones, game consoles, and printers.

Some common types of memory cards are as −

• Secure Digital (SD) Card − SD cards are popular memory cards. MicroSD,
miniSD, and normal SD are available. Digital cameras, smartphones, and
other portable devices require SD cards.
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• CompactFlash (CF) Card − SD cards are smaller and weaker than

CompactFlash cards. Professional cameras and industrial applications use
them.

• Memory Stick − Memory Stick cards were popular in Sony cameras,

camcorders, and laptops.

• XQD and CFexpress − These high-speed memory card formats are utilised in
professional cameras and video recorders. They can capture high-
resolution photos and videos due to their quick read and write rates.

• MultiMediaCard (MMC) − MMC cards are smaller than SD cards and used in
older devices. Today they're uncommon.
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• SmartMedia Card − Most digital cameras and other portable devices no

longer use SmartMedia cards.

Data transfer speeds and storage capacity vary by memory card. Memory cards
should be compatible, have enough storage, and be fast enough for their intended
usage. Choose a memory card that fits your needs, such as high-speed video
recording or data transfer.

Since memory cards are vulnerable to harsh handling and extreme

circumstances, they should be handled carefully to avoid physical damage and
data corruption. Data loss can be avoided by regularly backing up memory card
data to external storage media.

2.6 Specialized Hard Drive Systems

Specialised hard drive systems are storage solutions that are made for specific
applications. They are often made to fit the needs of a specific industry or job.
These systems are different from consumer or business hard drives you can buy
off the shelf.

They are usually customised to improve speed, reliability, and features.

Here are some examples of specialized hard drive systems −

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• Network Attached Storage (NAS) − NAS hard drives are designed for
household and small business file sharing and storage. Multiple storage
bays, RAID functionality, and built-in network connectivity make file access
and sharing easy.
• Storage Area Network (SAN) − Multiple servers receive block-level storage
from high-performance. SAN’s using specialised hard drive systems. Data
centres and enterprises utilise them to centralise and manage storage
resources.
• Video Surveillance Storage − Video surveillance systems need hard drives for
continuous HD video recording and playback. These drives are optimised
for write-intensive workloads and surveillance.
• Gaming Storage − Some consoles and high-end PCs include specialised hard
drives for fast loading and smooth gaming. SSDs minimise load times on
these discs.
• Ruggedized Hard Drives − Durable hard drives can survive extreme
temperatures, stress, and vibration. Industries like military, aerospace, and
industrial automation employ them.
• Data Recovery Systems − To recover data from damaged or corrupted drives,
data recovery businesses utilise specialised hard drive systems with
modern tools and software.
• Medical Imaging Storage − Medical imaging technologies like MRI and CT
scans create massive amounts of data that hospitals need to store.
Specialised storage solutions protect data and comply with privacy laws.
• Digital Content Creation (DCC) Storage − DCC professionals like video editors
and 3D animators need high-capacity, high-speed storage for huge
multimedia files. These needs are met by specialised storage systems.
• Scientific Research Storage − Scientific research, notably genomics and
particle physics, requires huge data storage and analysis. Effective big data
jobs require specialised storage solutions.

Application-specific hard drive systems often provide features and optimisations

not present in consumer-grade hard drives. To fulfil industry or use case needs,
these solutions may feature redundancy, fault tolerance, data integrity measures,
and specialised interfaces.

Features of Tertiary Storage

• Media Types − Magnetic tapes, optical discs, and archival media are used in
tertiary storage systems. These inexpensive media can hold lots of data.
• Low Access Speed − Tertiary storage accesses data slower than primary and
secondary storage. To read tape data, you must physically move it.
• High Capacity − Terabytes or petabytes are typical storage capabilities for
tertiary storage systems. Long-term data retention is possible with them.
• Archival and Backup − Archival data is held in tertiary storage for lengthy
periods and accessed rarely. Additionally, it is utilised for disaster recovery
data backup.
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• Reliability − Tertiary storage media can preserve data for long periods
without degradation due to its durability and longevity.
• Offline Storage − Offline or near-line tertiary storage keeps media from
rotating or being instantly accessible. They are loaded or mounted as
needed.
• Cost-Effective − Tertiary storage is cost-effective for massive, infrequently
accessed data. Media are cheaper than high-speed, high-capacity disc
drives.

Tertiary storage is beneficial in healthcare (for patient records), banking (for past
transaction data), and government (for archive papers) since data retention
regulations are strict. It provides an efficient and cost-effective way to store and
protect large amounts of data. However, its slower access times make it
unsuitable for real-time transaction processing and database searching. These
applications are unsuitable.

Cloud Storage

Cloud storage is a method of storing data on remote servers that are administered
and operated by a service provider that is not directly involved with the user.
Typically, the retrieval and administration of this data occur via internet
connectivity, as opposed to being stored on local storage devices such as hard
drives or on-site servers. Cloud storage services have numerous benefits, such
as scalability, accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and data redundancy.

Features of cloud storage

• Scalability − Users are able to adjust the amount of data they store in the
cloud to meet their requirements because to the cloud's high degree of
scalability. This elasticity is advantageous for firms that have storage
requirements that are subject to change.
• Accessibility − If you have access to the internet, you can retrieve data
saved on the cloud from anywhere. Because of this, it is much simpler for
individuals and organisations to access their data using a variety of devices,
such as personal computers, smartphones, and tablets.
• Cost-effectiveness − Cloud storage generally charges users for the storage
capacity and resources they use. This may be cheaper than updating on-
premises storage.
• Security − The security of user data is a top priority for cloud storage
providers. This consists of access controls, frequent security audits, and
the encrypting and decrypting of data at all times. Users must take
responsibility for the security and configuration of their data in the cloud.
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• Backup and Disaster Recovery − Cloud storage services have backup and
restore tools built in. Users can set up regular backups and recover data in
case they lose data or the system breaks down.

When choosing a cloud storage provider, organizations and individuals should

consider factors such as their specific storage needs, budget, security
requirements, and the provider's reliability and reputation. Different cloud storage
services may offer various features and pricing structures, so it's important to
select one that aligns with your unique requirements.

Data storage holds data for long-term storage, while RAM holds data and
instructions for immediate CPU execution. Computers need storage for capacity
and memory for speed and response.

Computer - Memory
What is computer memory?

A physical device that stores data or information temporarily or permanently in it

is called memory. It’s a device where data is stored and processed. In common,
a computer has primary and secondary memories. Auxiliary (secondary) memory
stores data and programs for long-term storage or until the time a user wants to
keep them in memory, while main memory stores instructions and data during
programme execution; hence, any programme or file that is currently running or
executing on a computer is stored in primary memory.

Memory Classification

Computer memory comes in various types and serves different purposes −

• Primary Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory) − Volatile memory loses its
contents when the machine is turned off. RAM stores the data that is
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actively being used. During the booting process of a system, the operating
system actively uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a
file or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by providing fast data and
instruction access.
• Secondary Memory (Storage) − Secondary Memory is also known as
permanent memory or non-volatile memory of a computer. Secondary
memory retains data when the machine shuts down. Files, programmes,
and the OS are stored there permanently. HDDs, SSDs, USB flash drives,
and optical discs are non-volatile memory devices.
• Cache Memory − Memory that is smaller and faster than RAM is called cache
memory. It is placed closer to the CPU than the RAM.

It saves data and instructions that are used a lot so that processing goes faster.

Different types of cache memory, like L1, L2, and L3 cache, have different
speeds and amounts of space.

The Levels of Cache Memory: L1, L2, and L3

CPU Cache memory is divided into three "levels": L1, L2, and L3. The memory
hierarchy is again according to the speed and, thus, the cache size.

L1 Cache
Level 1 cache is a computer's fastest memory. The CPU's most frequently
accessed data resides in the L1 cache. CPU determines L1 cache size. Some high-
end consumer CPUs, such as the Intel i9-9980XE, have a 1MB L1 cache, but they
are expensive and rare. Server chipsets like Intel's Xeon have 1-2MB L1 memory
cache. Before buying, examine the CPU specs to ascertain the L1 cache size.
There is no "standard" amount.
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Source: [1]

The L1 cache normally has two sections: the instruction cache, which stores
CPU operation information, and the data cache, which stores operation data.

L2 Cache
Level 2 cache is larger but slower than L1. Modern L2 memory caches are
gigabytes, not kilobytes. AMD's top-rated Ryzen 5 5600X has 384KB L1 and 3MB
L2 caches and 32MB L3 cache. The L2 cache size depends on the CPU but is
usually 256KB to 32MB. Nowadays, most CPUs have more than 256KB L2 cache,
which is small. Some of the most powerful current CPUs have L2 memory caches
exceeding 8MB. In terms of speed, the L2 cache is slower than the L1 cache but
still faster than the system RAM. L2 caches are 25 times faster than RAM, while
L1 caches are 100 times faster.

L3 Cache
Level 3 cache. The L3 memory cache was originally on the motherboard. This was
long ago when most CPUs were single-core. The L3 cache on top-end consumer
CPUs can reach 32MB, while AMD's groundbreaking Ryzen 7 5800X3D CPUs have
96MB. CPU L3 caches in some servers can reach 128MB.

The largest and slowest cache memory unit is L3. Modern CPUs have an on-chip
L3 cache. The chip's L1 and L2 caches serve each core, while the L3 cache is more
like a memory pool for the whole chip. The following images illustrate the CPU
memory cache levels for a 2012 Intel Core i5-3570K CPU and a 2020 AMD Ryzen
5800X CPU. The second image's bottom right corner contains CPU cache data.
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Source: [1]

Note how both CPUs have a split L1 cache and larger L2 and L3 caches. On the
AMD Ryzen 5800X, the L3 cache is over five times greater than the Intel i5-
3570K.

How cache memory works:

• Hierarchy − Computers normally have L1, L2, and L3 caches are the several
layers of cache memory. The L1 cache is the smallest and fastest cache,
located closest to the CPU; L2 and L3 caches are larger and slower.
• Cache Organization − Each block or line of cache memory contains a small
bit of data copied from the main memory. The CPU accesses cache memory
in fixed-size blocks, not bytes.
• Cache Coherency − Cache coherency ensures cached data matches the main
memory data. Cache coherence techniques update other cores' caches
when one core writes to a memory location in a multi-core processor.
• Cache Replacement Policies − A cache replacement policy decides which
block to evict when the cache is full and a new block is needed. LRU, FIFO,
and Random Replacement are common policies.
• Cache Access − The CPU checks the cache before reading or writing data.
When data is cached, the CPU can quickly retrieve it. If data is not in the
cache (cache miss), the CPU must fetch it from the main memory, which
may delay it.
• Cache Hierarchy − Modern processors contain L1, L2, and L3 caches that
grow in capacity and latency farther from the CPU cores. Parallel access is
achieved by splitting the L1 cache into instruction and data caches.
• Cache Management − Optimization of cache utilization maximizes hit rates
and minimizes miss penalties. Prefetching, where the processor predicts
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memory accesses and loads data into the cache, improves cache
performance.
Cache memory buffers frequently access data between the CPU and main
memory to speed up processing and increase system performance. Modern
computer systems require effective management and structure for optimal
performance.
Register Memory
Register memory, which is also called processor registers or "registers," is the
smallest and fastest type of computer memory that is directly integrated into the
CPU. Registers are small, fast storage units inside the CPU that are used to quickly
store data that is being processed or instructions that are being run.

Registers serve several important functions in a

computer system
• Instruction Execution − Registers hold the instructions that the CPU is
currently running. This includes the operation code (opcode) and associated
operands with it.
• Data Storage − Registers store CPU-processed data. This can provide
memory addresses, intermediate values during arithmetic or logical
operations, and other data needed by the instructions being executed.
• Addressing − Memory addresses are used to store or retrieve data from
memory locations in RAM or other parts of the computer's memory
hierarchy.
Types of registers
• Program Counter (PC) − Stores the memory address of the next instruction
to be fetched and executed.
• Instruction Register (IR) − Holds the current instruction being executed by
the CPU.
• Memory Address Register (MAR) − Stores the memory address of data being
read from or written to memory.
• Memory Data Register (MDR) − Contains the actual data being read from or
written to memory.
• General-Purpose Registers (GPRs) − Used for general data storage and
manipulation during program execution.
Video Random-Access Memory (VRAM)
Video Random-Access Memory (VRAM) is a type of memory that is intended to
work with video cards and graphics processing units (GPUs). It's a special place
in memory where graphics data like images, frame buffers, and other graphics-
related data can be stored.
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VRAM is designed to handle the fast, parallel processing demands of rendering

graphics and images on computer displays. It enables GPUs to quickly access
large amounts of graphic data, which lets them render complex scenes, textures,
and animations.

How does VRAM work?

Key features of VRAM include −

• High Bandwidth − VRAM typically offers high-speed data transfer rates,

enabling fast access to graphical data by the GPU.
• Parallel Access − VRAM is designed to support parallel access, allowing
multiple rendering tasks to access different portions of the memory
simultaneously.
• Specialized Architecture − VRAM often has a specialized architecture
optimized for graphics processing tasks, including features such as multi-
port access and wide memory buses.
• Dedicated Graphics Memory − Unlike system RAM, which is shared among
various system components, VRAM is dedicated solely to graphics
processing, ensuring that the GPU has sufficient memory bandwidth and
capacity for rendering graphics-intensive applications.
Types of VRAM
• GDDR (Graphics Double Data Rate) VRAM − This is the most commonly used
type of VRAM, it is majorly found in modern GPUs. GDDR5, GDDR5X, and
GDDR6 are some of the variants that provide improvements in power
efficiency and bandwidth over earlier generations.
• HBM (High Bandwidth Memory) − HBM VRAM is a more recent technology
that provides even greater bandwidth at lower power consumption than
conventional GDDR VRAM. It accomplishes this by minimising the distance
data must travel between memory cells by stacking memory chips vertically
on a silicon interposer.

Computer - Internet and Intranet

In this chapter, we will see what is Internet and Intranet, as well as discuss the
similarities and differences between the two.

Internet

It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses the

standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is identified by a
unique IP address. IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114)
which identifies a computer’s location.
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A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the
IP Address so that the user can locate a computer by a name. For example, a
DNS server will resolve a name https://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP
address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.

Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Intranet

Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs in
intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each
organization has its own Intranet network and members/employees of that
organization can access the computers in their intranet.
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Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique

among the computers in that Intranet.

Similarities between Internet and Intranet

• Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.
• Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as
websites in the internet. However, only members of Intranet network can
access intranet hosted sites.
• In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo
messenger/gtalk over the internet.
Differences between Internet and Intranet
• Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to
few PCs.
• Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large
population, whereas Intranet is restricted.
• Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per
the need.

Computer Fundamentals - Internet

Definition − "The Internet is a network of computers that links many different
types of computers all over the world. It is a Network of networks sharing a
common mechanism for addressing (identifying) computers, and a common set
of communication protocols [1]."

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a network of networks; it is a global network of computers or

computer devices to transmit data or information over the network. It uses
standard Internet protocols like TCP/IP to link billions of computer devices
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worldwide. The main goal of the Internet is to make it easier for people to share
information. This can be done with a lot of different tools on the Internet. You can
use email, list servers, newsgroups, telnet, gopher, FTP, and the World Wide Web,
among other tools.

The data or information is transmitted over the computer network using a

transmission medium; it can be a wired or wireless medium. In wired data
transmission, the data is transmitted using some set of cables like coaxial cable,
twisted-pair cable, and fiber optic cable while in wireless communication data
transmission; data is transmitted via cellular networks, Wi-Fi, and satellite
communication.

Architecture of the Internet

The internet's architecture allows devices worldwide to communicate and

exchange data.

Layers and components make up this intricate structure.

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Fig: Architecture of the Internet

A simplified view of Internet architecture is as −

• End Devices − End devices include PCs, cellphones, tablets, servers, IoT
devices, etc. at the network edge. These devices produce and use data.
• Network Infrastructure − Routers, switches, cables, fibre-optic lines,
satellites, and wireless access points are all part of the network. Data
travels between end devices via network infrastructure.
• Protocols − Protocols regulate network data and how it is received. The
modern Internet is based on the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP), which
includes −
o Internet Protocol (IP) − This protocol is responsible for addressing and
routing packets of data so they can travel across the network.
o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) − TCP establishes connections,
acknowledges data, and retransmits missing packets to make sure
that data packets are transferred securely and in sequence.
o User Datagram Protocol (UDP) − UDP, unlike TCP, is a connectionless
protocol that does not ensure reliable delivery. It is frequently
employed in real-time applications where a tiny delay is preferable
to data loss.
• Internet Service Providers (ISPs) − ISPs are firms that provide internet
connection to customers, companies, and other organisations. They
maintain the physical infrastructure and connections that allow people to
access the internet.

The architecture of the Internet is a dynamic and ever-evolving system; it is

continually adapting to technological advancements and changing demands.

Why is the Internet Called a Network?

The term "internet" means "interconnected network." A network is a set of

interconnected computer networks that utilise standardised protocols to
communicate. The following points demonstrate why the Internet is referred to
as a network −

• Interconnectedness − The internet is made up of many networks. Small local

area networks (LANs) in homes and businesses to worldwide networks
controlled by ISPs, corporations, and governments are examples of these
networks. These networks are linked by routers, switches, and other
networking devices.
• Communication Infrastructure − The basic objective of a network is to make
it easier for devices to communicate with one another and share
information.
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Fig: A Computer Network

These devices can include laptops, servers, cellphones, Internet of Things

devices etc.

• Hierarchical Structure − Many networks, including the Internet, are

hierarchical. At the lowest level, devices are connected locally. The global
internet is formed by connecting small networks to larger networks in a
hierarchical framework.
Hierarchical organisation streamlines data routing and management.
• Distributed Control − Distributed control models are used on networks like
the Internet. Instead, ISPs, network managers, and users share control.
This distributed control keeps the internet stable, resilient, and secure.

The term "network" appropriately depicts the internet's interconnectedness and

importance in global communication and data sharing.

How does the internet work?

The Internet is operational because it is comprised of a sophisticated network of

interconnected networks that enable devices to communicate with one another
on a global scale. Two main concepts are fundamental to the way the Internet
functions − packets and protocols.

• Packets
When data is transmitted over the Internet, it is first divided into smaller
packets, which are then converted into bits. Different networking
equipment, such as routers and switches, route packets to their intended
destinations; when the packets arrive at their destination, the receiving
device reassembles them in the proper order before using or displaying the
data.
Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across networks.
Packets of data allow faster, more efficient data transfer. User-sent files
are often sent in smaller data packets over networks. A 3MB file will be
broken into packets with packet headers that specify the origin IP address,
destination IP address, number of packets, and sequence number.
• Protocols
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The Internet is based on a collection of standardised communication

protocols known as the Internet Protocol Suite, or TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). This protocol stack ensures that data
packets are consistently and efficiently sent over the network. In addition
to the basic protocol, there are some other protocols for routing, testing,
and encryption.
All Internet-connected devices and computers can comprehend these
protocols, the Internet works no matter who or what connects to it.
• Routers
A router is a device that sends data packets across different computer
networks based on the destination of the packets. Routers are like traffic
cops of the Internet; they make sure that data goes to the right networks.
• Switches
Switches link networked devices. Packet switching routes packets to the
right devices.
These devices send outgoing packets to them, which they route.
• DNS
Web servers are specialised computers that are equipped with a high level
of processing power. They are responsible for storing and delivering content
(webpages, photos, and videos) to users. In addition, servers are
responsible for responding to DNS inquiries and carrying out a variety of
other essential activities to ensure that the Internet remains operational.
The vast majority of servers are stored in massive data centres, which can
be found in many parts of the world.
History of Internet

A brief history of the Internet is as −

• Early Concepts (1960s) −

o A decentralized network of computers was first envisioned in the
early 1960s by scholars like J.C.R. Licklider and Leonard Kleinrock
o The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), which
was supported by the United States Department of Defense, became
the first operational packet-switched network in 1969.
• Development of Protocols (1970s) −
o The 1970s saw important networking protocol advancements. Vinton
Cerf and Robert Kahn created TCP/IP to standardise network data
transport.
o Ray Tomlinson's design of the first email client and SMTP protocols
enhanced network communication capabilities.
• Expansion and Commercialization (1980s) −
o The 1980s saw the expansion of the internet.
o In 1986, the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was
founded to connect educational and scientific institutions and
organisations located all over the United States.
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o In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee introduced the World Wide Web (WWW),

a system of hyperlinked documents accessible online, revolutionizing
the internet.
• Growth (1990s) −
o The 1990s saw the internet commercialise and grow rapidly, driven
by commercial ISPs and graphical browsers.
o The introduction of web browsers like Mosaic, Netscape Navigator,
and Internet Explorer increased internet accessibility for the public.
o E-commerce, online banking, and social networking sites emerged,
transforming the Internet for business and social interaction.
• Mobile Internet and Social Media (2000s - 2010s) −
o Smartphones and wireless networks led to an increase in mobile
internet access in the 2000s and 2010s.
o Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube became popular online platforms,
enabling global communication and content sharing.
• Internet of Things (IoT) and Future Trends (2010s - present) −
o The Internet of things (IoT) connects everyday objects and devices
to the Internet, allowing new applications and services.
o Emerging technologies like AI, blockchain, and 5G networks are
driving internet innovation and transformation.
Uses of the Internet

In today's time internet is used everywhere; the followings are some of the
most common uses of the internet.

• Communication − The internet allows instant contact using email,

messaging apps, social media, and voice/video calls. It keeps people in
touch with friends, family, co-workers, and communities worldwide.
• 24/7 Information Access − The internet provides access to a vast repository
of information on virtually any topic imaginable. Users can search for news,
research papers, tutorials, and educational resources, which allows them
to gain information and valuable insights.
• Entertainment − The internet offers a plethora of entertainment options,
including Movie, TV, music, and podcast streaming services available
online. Social media, online gaming, and digital art platforms also enrich
internet entertainment.
• E-commerce − Online shopping has revolutionized retail, letting people shop
from home. E-commerce platforms offer a vast selection, reasonable
pricing, and easy payment and delivery.
• Education − Online courses, virtual classrooms, and instructional materials
have changed education. Students can learn new skills, get degrees, and
participate in learning regardless of location.
• Business and Entrepreneurship − The advent of the internet has provided
businesses, effectively engage with customers, promote and sell their
products or services, and facilitate online transactions. Furthermore, it has
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enabled entrepreneurs to initiate new businesses, market and sell products

on online commerce platforms, and reach international markets.
• Social Networking − Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, and LinkedIn enable users to interact with others, exchange
material, and participate in debates. Social networking has become an
essential part of Internet communication and community formation.
• Healthcare − The internet allows for telemedicine, remote consultations,
and access to health information and resources. Patients can make
appointments, renew medicines, and seek medical advice online, making
healthcare more accessible and convenient.
• Government Services − Many government services are now available online,
such as tax filing, permit applications, voter registration, and access to
public data. E-government initiatives improve administrative operations
and citizen engagement.
Advantages and disadvantages of the Internet
Advantages of the Internet
The use of the internet is increasing day by day. It facilitates uses in different
ways. Some of the notable advantages of the internet are as −
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• Medium of Communication and Information Sharing − The Internet enables

different communication methods, including email, instant messaging,
social networking platforms, and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
services like Skype and Zoom. These solutions allow individuals and groups
to communicate in real-time or asynchronously from distant locations.
• Accessibility − The Internet allows its users to access it 24/7; it refers to
the ability of individuals to connect to and utilize the Internet at any time.
• E-Commerce − Online purchasing and transactions have transformed
commerce.
Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba enable worldwide e-commerce, the use of
digital payment systems such as PayPal and Stripe makes it possible to
conduct secure transactions online.

• Government Services − The Internet improves government operations and

makes it easier for inhabitants to communicate with them online, enhancing
quality, lowering expenses, and increasing transparency.
• Entertainment and Media − There is a wealth of entertainment available
online, including streaming services that allow users to view movies, TV
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episodes, music, and other multimedia content whenever they want it (e.g.,
Spotify, Netflix, and YouTube).
• Social Networking − Society has changed a lot because of the internet. It
has changed how people work, learn, and connect with the world. It has
made it easier for people all over the world to meet and work together, but
it has also raised concerns about privacy, security, fake news, and the
digital divide.
• Education / Learning − Users can access well-researched subject-related
content, video lectures, and online education on the Internet. Online
videos, lectures, and notes make learning unique.
• Online Banking − The Internet allows its users to do online banking; it also
offers mobile apps, allowing customers to perform banking-related tasks or
operations conveniently from their smartphones or tablets, further
enhancing accessibility and flexibility.
• Health Care − Remote clinical services over the Internet improve patient
access to quality, cost-effective health care. Innovative home health
devices let doctors monitor patients without expensive house calls and
provide real-time feedback.
• Economic Development / Source of Earning − The Internet is a good source of
income in today's time. It offers your skills and services on freelancing
platforms like Upwork, Freelancer, or Fiverr. People can do online jobs or
work from home like online writing, graphic design, programming, digital
marketing, and many more to earn money.
• Bill Payments − It allows users to pay electricity bills, Tax Pay, Municipal
council bills like water bills etc., online and generate receipts for future
reference. This process saves a lot of time and makes a user convenient.
• Tour and Travels − The Internet has made life easy; it has transformed the
tourism and travel industry, benefiting travelers and businesses. Travelers
may find destinations, attractions, lodgings, and transportation online.
Travel websites, blogs, forums, and review platforms allow customers to
research, read reviews, and plan vacations based on their interests and
budget.

Overall, the internet continues to evolve rapidly, driving innovation and reshaping
different aspects of human life in cutting-edge technology.

Disadvantages of the Internet

The internet has different benefits; it also has disadvantages. It's essential to
recognize and address its disadvantages to ensure that its benefits can be
maximized while mitigating potential harms. Some of the most notable ones are
listed below −
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• Internet Addiction / Waste of Time − Addiction to the internet is not only a

waste of time but also harms the mental health, productivity, and
relationships of people.
Social media, online gaming, and other internet activities can cause
addiction.
• Cybersecurity Threats / Cyber Crime − Cybersecurity concerns include
hacking, malware, phishing, and identity theft. Insufficient security can
endanger personal and financial data.
• Privacy Concerns − During internet access, users' data privacy is often at
risk because businesses collect large amounts of user’s information for
targeted ads and other uses. Malicious people may also be able to access
personal information without permission.
• Misinformation and Fake News − Misinformation and fake news can spread
quickly on the internet, which has led to a lot of false information that can
misguide people.
This could be a serious consequence for society.
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• Isolation and Social Disconnect − The internet connects individuals worldwide,

but it can also isolate them and reduce face-to-face interactions; it's a big
concern for society that families are losing health relations.
• Cyberbullying and Harassment − The anonymity of the internet can
encourage cyberbullying, harassment, and trolling. Online abuse victims
may suffer long-term psychological anguish.
• Exposure to Inappropriate Content − Children may accidentally or purposely
encounter age-inappropriate content including violence, pornography, hate
speech, and violent imagery online. This content marks negative effects not
only on children's mental and emotional well-being but also on other people
who belong to different age groups.
• Online Predators − Internet anonymity can help predators target and exploit
youngsters on social media, messaging applications, forums, and gaming
platforms.
Predators may recruit youngsters for sexual exploitation, coercion, or other
forms of abuse.
• Distraction and Productivity Loss − People often get distracted from
important jobs by notifications, emails, social media updates, and other
online temptations that are always there. This reduces personal and
professional productivity and efficiency.
• Dependency on Technology − People are more likely to be affected by
problems like cyberattacks, technical breakdowns, and infrastructure
outages because they depend more on the internet and digital
technologies. People who depend too much on technology may also lose
traditional skills and information.

Computer Fundamentals - Extranet

Introduction

An extranet is a private computer network that allows controlled access to

external users or organizations over the Internet. An extranet is a collaborative,
internet-based network that makes it easier for companies to work together by
connecting a company with its customers, suppliers, and other outside business
partners.
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The concept of the extranet emerged when organisations wanted to engage in

collaboration with external partners, including suppliers, customers, and
contractors. Extranets refer to non-public networks that transcend the confines
of an organisation, encompassing certain external entities.

It serves as an extension of an organization's intranet. Extranets are safe

computer networks for organisations or businesses to share business data and
processes internally and with partners outside the company. They use internet-
based apps and technology to do it and provide secure access to specific
resources and information to authorized users outside of the organization, such
as clients, partners, suppliers, or customers. An extranet is a safe and cooperative
way for an organisation to connect its network to people outside the organisation.

It makes it easy for people outside the organisation to communicate, work

together, and share data.

How extranet works?

An extranet works as a secure extension of an organization's internal network;

it provides controlled access to external users such as clients, partners,
suppliers, or other stakeholders.

Here's a breakdown of how an extranet typically functions −

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• Authentication and Access Control − External users access the extranet using
usernames, passwords, or two-factor authentication. Access controls
restrict users to information and features related to their role or relationship
with the company. This is usually done through user roles, permissions,
and access.
• Secure Communication − Internal and external users can securely
communicate and collaborate on the extranet. Messaging, chat, forums,
and email integration are some common examples of this. Communication
channels are encrypted to prevent eavesdropping.
• Document Management and File Sharing − Users can upload, share, and
collaborate on documents and files within the extranet environment.
Document management features typically include version control, file
organization, access permissions, and audit trails to track changes and
maintain data integrity.
• Project Management − Project management technologies on extranets help
internal and external teams collaborate. Users can assign duties, set
deadlines, measure progress, and share project documents and
information.
• Data Sharing and Exchange − Users can securely share sensitive files and
information with others. Integration with cloud storage services may enable
cross-platform data interchange and collaboration.
• Collaboration and Workflow Automation − Extranets consolidate information,
tools, and resources, simplifying collaboration and workflows. Alerts,
reminders, and task automation help users stay organized and productive.
• Reporting and Analytics − Reports and statistics reveal extranet usage,
collaboration, and project performance. To increase efficiency and
effectiveness, organizations can track KPIs, spot trends, and make data-
driven choices.
• Security and Compliance − To keep sensitive information safe and in line with
regulations, stringent security measures are put in place, including
firewalls, encryption, and access controls. Extranets may adhere to industry
standards and best practices for data security and privacy, such as GDPR,
HIPAA, or ISO certifications.

Features of Extranet
• Secure Access − To prevent unauthorized individuals from accessing the
platform, the extranet uses strong security measures. This includes multi-
factor authentication and encryption protocols to safeguard sensitive
information.
• Document Management − Easy document upload, sharing, and collaboration
with authorized users. With our intuitive folder structure and version control
system, everyone can access the latest data while retaining organization
and security.
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• Communication Tools − Built-in chat, texting, and forums keep you

connected. The communication tools simplify collaboration and boost
productivity for project tasks and updates.
• Project Management − Task lists, timetables, and milestone tracking help
you manage projects more efficiently. Assign tasks, create deadlines, and
track progress to ensure that projects stay on track and goals are fulfilled
efficiently.
• Data Sharing and Exchange − Securely share data with clients and partners.
A secure file-sharing technology interacts with various cloud storage
services for easy data exchange.
• Calendar and Events − Keep everyone informed about upcoming events,
meetings, and deadlines with shared calendars and event scheduling
features. Receive reminders and notifications to stay on top of important
dates.
• Reporting and Analytics − The reporting and analytics tools reveal platform
usage, project progress, and collaboration indicators. Track KPIs and make
smart decisions to succeed in business.
Types of Extranets

Extranets come in various types, each tailored to meet specific business needs
and requirements. Here are some common types of extranets −

• Supplier Extranet − An extranet for suppliers facilitates collaboration

between organisations and their suppliers, vendors, and distributors. The
system enhances the exchange of information about orders, inventory
control, delivery timetables, and product requirements. Supplier extranets
optimise procurement procedures, enhance supply chain transparency, and
fortify supplier relationships.
• Customer Extranet − A customer extranet provides a platform for
organizations to interact with their customers and clients. It may
encompass different functionalities, such as placing orders online,
managing accounts, providing customer service, and accessing product
information or technical documentation. Customer extranets have been
found to have a positive impact on customer satisfaction, as they
incorporate self-service features and promote consumer involvement and
loyalty.
• Partner Extranet − A partner extranet facilitates the ability of business
partners, including joint venture partners, resellers, and co-marketing
partners, to engage in collaborative efforts and exchange of information. It
enhances the ability to engage in collaborative efforts, exchange sales and
marketing materials, and synchronise cooperative endeavours. The use of
partner extranets serves to enhance collaborations, facilitate effective
communication, and foster collaborative decision-making processes.
• Collaboration Extranet − The collaboration extranet functions as a platform
that facilitates the sharing of ideas and resources between internal and
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external stakeholders, enabling them to engage in collaborative efforts. The

system may encompass several functionalities such as document sharing,
project management tools, a forum for deliberation, and real-time
communication capabilities. Collaborative extranets promote synergy,
enhance efficiency, and enable the exchange of knowledge beyond
organisational borders.
• Secure Access Extranet − A secure access extranet facilitates the provision of
secure access to designated resources or services housed on an
organization's network for authorised external users. Access to internal
systems, apps, or databases may be necessary for distant employees,
contractors, or partners. To guarantee the security and confidentiality of
data, secure access extranets employ strong authentication, authorization,
and encryption procedures.
• Financial Extranet − Financial institutions, including banks, investment
firms, and insurance companies, utilise a financial extranet to engage with
clients, partners, and regulatory bodies. Online banking, trading,
investment management, and regulatory reporting are facilitated by this
technology. Financial extranets have a high emphasis on security,
compliance, and data integrity to adhere to regulatory mandates and
safeguard confidential financial data.

The aforementioned types of extranets represent limited types of extranets

implemented by organisations to enhance collaboration, communication, and
information dissemination with external entities. The specific features and
functionalities of an extranet depend on the needs and objectives of the
organization and its external stakeholders.

Benefits or Advantages of Extranet

• Improved Collaboration − Remove obstacles to communication and work
together effectively with stakeholders and partners.
• Enhanced Productivity − To increase productivity and efficiency, simplify
workflows, automate operations, and reduce manual processes.
• Enhanced Security − Use cutting-edge encryption techniques and security
measures to safeguard confidential information and intellectual property.
• Enhanced Client Satisfaction − By offering a centralised platform for
collaboration and information exchange, you can provide clients with
superior service and support.
• Flexibility and Scalability − To ensure long-term success and sustainability,
our extranet is built to grow with your business's demands and change as
necessary.
Intranet, Extranet and Internet: What’s the Difference?

Intranet, Extranet, and Internet are all types of networks, but they serve different
purposes and have distinct characteristics. Some key differences between them
are described graphically in below images −
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Figure: Difference between Intranet, Extranet and Internet

Internet
• Global network of interconnected computers
• Allows users worldwide to access
• Publicly accessible
Extranet
• Extension of an intranet
• Allows limited access to external users like clients, suppliers, or business
partners
• Secure way for authorized external users
• Ensures that only authorized external users can access the designated
resources
Intranet
• A private network
• Restricted to an organization or group of users
• Used for internal communication, collaboration, and information sharing
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• Include features such as company news, employee directories, document

repositories, and internal applications
• Accessed from within the organization's premises or remotely via virtual
private networks (VPNs) for off-site employees

Computer Fundamentals - Websites

A website is a collection of web pages and related content identified by a domain
name and hosted on at least one web server. Websites can serve different
functions, including information, entertainment, communication, e-commerce,
and many more. They are often created with web technologies such as HTML,
CSS, and JavaScript, and may include multimedia components like videos,
images, and interactive features. Websites can range from simple one-pagers to
large web apps with several pages and dynamic content.

Components of a Website

The components of a website can vary depending on its purpose, complexity, and
design.

Some common components of a website are as follows −

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Fig: Components of Website

These components work together to create a cohesive and functional website

that serves its intended purpose effectively.

Types of Websites

Websites are typically classified into two categories based on their content and
functionality: static websites and dynamic websites.

Static Websites
Static websites consist of set content that is the same for every visitor.
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The content is coded directly into HTML files and doesn't change unless
manually updated by the website owner.

• Basic Static Website − It consists of simple web pages with static content
and no interaction. These are commonly used for small enterprises,
personal portfolios, and informational websites.
• Brochure Websites − Like static webpages but designed to resemble digital
brochures or flyers. They provide corporate, product, and service
information.
• Portfolio Websites − Introduce the work, projects, or accomplishments of a
company or an individual (for example, an artist or a photographer), and
highlight their achievements as well.
Dynamic Websites
Dynamic websites are websites that dynamically generate content based on the
activities of users, the data inputs they provide, or other circumstances.
Content can be pulled from databases, files, or other sources and assembled in
real time.

• Content Management Systems (CMS) − These websites provide users with a

user-friendly interface that facilitates the management and updating of
content. It includes WordPress, Joomla, and Drupal.
• E-commerce Websites − Enables online purchasing and selling of goods and
services. They often include dynamic product lists, shopping carts, and
secure payment processing. Examples include Amazon, eBay, and Shopify.
• Social Networking Websites − Encourage user-to-user social interactions,
such as content sharing, friend links, and group or community. Examples
include Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn.
• Blogs − Websites where articles, updates, or commentary on specific topics
are consistently published by individuals or organisations. They often
include features such as commenting, categorization, and RSS feeds.
Medium, Blogger, and WordPress are some of the key examples.
• Forums and Discussion Boards − Enable users with the ability to submit
messages, ask questions, and participate in discussions on different topics.
Reddit, Quora, and Stack Overflow are a few examples of such websites.
• Web Applications − Interactive functionality and user-specific experiences
should be provided. Some examples are online banking, booking systems,
and productivity applications. Examples of such applications include Gmail,
Trello, and Google Docs.

These categories are not mutually exclusive, and many websites incorporate
elements of both static and dynamic content to meet their specific requirements.
Additionally, advances in web technologies have blurred the lines between static
and dynamic websites, with modern static site generators allowing for more
dynamic features while retaining the simplicity of static sites.
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Difference between static and dynamic website

The primary difference between static and dynamic websites lies in how their
content is generated and delivered to users −

Static Websites
• Content − The content of a static website is fixed and pre-defined. It is
typically created by hand-coding HTML, CSS, and possibly JavaScript.
• Generation − Each web page is a separate HTML file stored on the web
server. Content remains unchanged until manually updated by the website
owner.
• Interactivity − Limited interactivity. Static websites are generally
informational and do not respond to user inputs or interactions.
• Examples − Brochure websites, basic business websites, and personal
portfolios.
Dynamic Websites
• Content − Content on dynamic websites is generated dynamically, often
using server-side scripting languages like PHP, Python, or Ruby. Content
can be pulled from databases, files, or other sources.
• Generation − Web pages are generated on the fly in response to user
requests. Content can be personalized based on user preferences, session
data, or other variables.
• Interactivity − Dynamic websites can include interactive features such as
user logins, forms, shopping carts, and content management systems.
They can respond to user input in real time.
• Examples − E-commerce websites, social networking platforms, content
management systems, web applications.
Key Differences
• Content Flexibility − Static websites have fixed content, while dynamic
websites can generate content based on various factors, including user
input and database queries.
• Interactivity − Dynamic websites can provide a more interactive experience,
allowing users to submit forms, login, make purchases, and access
personalized content.
• Maintenance − Static websites require manual updates to change content,
while dynamic websites can be updated more easily through content
management systems or database modifications.
• Scalability − Dynamic websites are often more scalable and adaptable to
changing requirements due to their ability to generate content dynamically.
• Development Complexity − Dynamic websites typically involve more complex
development processes, including server-side scripting, database
integration, and potentially more advanced programming languages.
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Static and dynamic websites have advantages and are tailored to certain
objectives based on the requirements of the website owner. Static websites are
often simpler and more cost-effective for basic informational sites, while dynamic
websites offer greater flexibility and interactivity for more complex projects.

Different categories of a website

Websites can vary widely in their purpose, content, and functionality. Here are
some common types of websites −

• Business Website − These websites allow businesses to promote their

products and services, provide company information, and communicate
with customers. Their features may include e-commerce, contact forms,
and customer support.
• E-commerce Website − These websites specialise in online sales and
purchases. They often have product listings, shopping carts, payment
methods, and customer accounts.
• Blog − A blog is a website with regularly updated, usually arranged in
reverse chronological order. Blogs can be personal blogs, news
commentary, how-to guides, and more.
• Educational Website − Educational websites provide educational resources,
including courses, tutorials, and other learning materials, and can be found
on websites that are dedicated to education. To acquire knowledge and
skills, they can be utilised by students, teachers, and individuals who are
self-learners.
• News Website − Local, national, and worldwide news websites provide
articles, videos, and current events. They may cover a wide range of topics,
including politics, sports, entertainment, and more.
• Social Networking Website − Social networking sites allow users to share,
connect, and communicate online. These include Facebook, Twitter,
LinkedIn, and Instagram.
• Community Forum − These websites provide platforms for users to engage
in conversations with other members of the community, debate a variety
of topics, ask questions, share information, and share information.
• Personal Website − People make personal websites to share details about
themselves, their passions, experiences, and interests. They could be used
as personal blogs, digital portfolios, or online resumes.

You can find a wide variety of websites that cater to specific needs and interests;
these are just a few examples. To better meet the needs of its visitors, many
websites may also incorporate features of different kinds.
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How to access a website?

Web browsers on desktops, cellphones, and tablets make website access easy.
The following images show the steps to how to access a website.

The following points summarise how to access a website −

• Open a Web Browser − Start a web browser on your computer. Google

Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Safari, and Opera are all common
computer browsers.
• Enter the Website's URL − In the address bar of the web browser, type the
URL of the website you want to access. For example,
"www.tutorialspoint.com".
• Wait for the Page to Load − When you type a website's URL, the system sends
a request to the web server that hosts the website. The server will then
send the web page data you asked for back to your computer, which will
display it on your screen.
• Navigate the Website − After loading the website, users can move around its
many pages by interacting with links, buttons, or menu items present
within the site.
• Use Bookmarks (Optional) − If an individual frequently visits a specific
website, they have the option to store the URL as a bookmark within their
web browser, facilitating convenient access for future reference.
• Search Engines (Optional) − If you don't know the website's URL, try Google,
Bing, or DuckDuckGo to find it. Enter keywords relating to the website's
content into the search field to see relevant results, including links to
similar websites.

Following these procedures, you can simply view any website on your device's
web browser.

Websites are hosted on remote servers and require an internet connection.

Difference between a Webpage and a Website

The terms "webpage" and "website" are closely related but refer to different
entities in the realm of the Internet −
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Webpage Website

A webpage is a single document A website is a collection of related web pages

It is written using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript All the web pages of a website are written using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript

Web pages are accessible via a web browser A Website is accessible via a web browser

It represents a single page of content It represents multiple webpages of content

It may include text, images, videos, links, forms, A website also includes text, images, videos, links, forms, and other
and other multimedia elements. multimedia elements.

Webpages are the building blocks of a website It encompasses a broader scope than a single webpage

Webpages are typically interconnected through Websites often include multiple webpages, along with other components
hyperlinks. such as a homepage, navigation menus, headers, footers

To summarise, a webpage is a single document that is shown in a web browser.

On the other hand, a website is comprised of several interconnected web pages
and sites that form a coherent online presence for a particular entity,
organization, or purpose.

Computer Fundamentals - Word

Processors
What is word processor?

Word processors are software tools that allow you to create, edit, format, and
print documents. They provide features to users to manipulating text and
inserting pictures, tables, and other objects into their documents. Word
processors frequently have certain capabilities like spell checking, grammar
checking, and thesaurus services to help users to enhance the quality of their
work.

Generally, Word processors are software applications used to create, edit, format,
and print text-based documents. They are commonly used for composing essays,
reports, letters, and resumes. Microsoft Word, Google Docs, Apple Pages, and
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LibreOffice Writer are some of the most popular word processing applications.
These programmes are commonly used in a different way, including offices,
schools, and individuals’ task to write reports, letters, essays, and other
documents.

The majority of basic operations remain same and don't require advanced
computer or typing abilities to operate. But a full-featured word processor is one
that enables us to work with text in addition to additional components, including
images, tables, and creative writings, to create interesting and informative pages.

Fig: Sample image of word processor; includes text and an image

Parts of a Microsoft word window

• Title bar − It includes title of the document.

• Menu Bar − It contains different menus used as command to do the task.

• Status bar − It is an interactive strip at the bottom of the screen that shows
the running tasks.

Editing − It allows users to make certain changes required in a document.

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We may create our own bulletin board posters, type letters and attach them to
emails as documents, and so on. We have chosen Microsoft Word as an
example word processing tool since it is an essential application of Microsoft
Office. It is most widely used application amongst users because of its
simplicity, easiness and document features. Word processors have progressed
significantly over the years, offering increasingly advanced features and
integration with other software and services.

Popular Word Processor

There are different word processors available; some of the most popular include
−
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Microsoft Word is a word processing application developed by Microsoft

1.
Corporation; it is most frequently used in all over the world. It allows its
Microsoft
users to create documents, modification, formatting, collaboration, and
Word
publishing of those documents.

Google Docs is a cloud-based word processor offered by Google as part of

the Google Drive package. It enables users to create, modify, and
2. Google
collaborate on documents online in real time. Google Docs is well-known
Docs
for its user-friendly collaboration features, which allow multiple people
to work together on the same document at once.

Pages is a word processor designed by Apple Inc. It is part of the iWork

3. Apple productivity suite and is compatible with macOS, iOS, and iPadOS
Pages devices. Pages provides a range of templates, formatting options, and
collaborative tools to create documents.

LibreOffice Writer is a free and open-source word processing software

4.
that is included in LibreOffice suite. It has similar features to other
LibreOffice
popular word processors and supports a variety of file formats, including
Writer
Microsoft Word's.docx format.
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The WPS Office suite, developed by Kingsoft Office, includes WPS Office
5. WPS
Writer as one of its components. In addition to being compatible with the
Office
formats developed by Microsoft Word, it provides different tools for the
Writer
creation, editing, and formatting of documents.

Word processors often provide different functions, including spell checking,

grammar checking, formatting tools (such as fonts, styles, and headings), tables,
graphics, and the ability to check for spelling errors. Documents may be exported
to different file formats, including PDF, and many of them also feature
connectivity with cloud storage services, which makes it simple to view and share
documents.

Features of word processor

Applications that can be used to create, edit, format, and print documents are
known as word processors. To make working with documents easier, they provide
different key functions. Common features of word processors are as −
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Fig: Common features of word processors

• Text Editing − Word processors enable users to input, modify, and remove
text within documents. Typically, they provide features such as cut, copy,
paste, undo, and redo.

• Formatting Tools − Users have the ability to modify the appearance of text
by using different fonts, font sizes, styles (such as bold, italic, and
underline), colors, alignment options (such as left, right, center, and
justified), indentation, and spacing.

• Spell Check and Grammar Check − Word processing software often has
integrated spell checkers and grammar checkers that can promptly detect
and rectify spelling and grammar mistakes.

• Autocorrect − Autocorrect functions automatically rectify common spelling

errors as users do these mistakes during typing text, hence, it enhances
accuracy and effectiveness of document creation.
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• Find and Replace − Users have the ability to search for particular words or
phrases within a document and substitute them with different text. This
functionality is advantageous for making global changes or corrections.

• Templates − Word processors offer pre-designed document templates for

different purposes such as resumes, letters, reports, and flyers. These
templates allow users to begin with a structured layout.

• Headers and Footers − Users have the ability to include headers and footers
in documents. These sections usually include details like page numbers,
document titles, dates, and author names.

• Tables − Word processors allow users to include, modify, and arrange

tables within documents; also enable users to systematically arrange data
into rows and columns.

• Graphics and Multimedia Integration − this feature allow users to insert

images, shapes, charts, and other multimedia components into documents
in order to enhance visual appeal and convey information efficiently.

• Collaboration Tools − Certain word processing software provides

collaboration features that enable multiple users to concurrently edit a
document, track changes, put comments, etc.

• Document Encryption and Security − Word processors can encrypt critical files
with passwords or restrict access.

• Export and Sharing Options − Users may save documents to different file
formats (docx, .pdf, .txt) and share them via email, cloud storage services,
or direct printing.

• Version History − Many word processors keep a record of the revisions that
have been made to a document. This enables users to revert to previous
versions of the document or monitor the changes that have been made
over time.

• Mail Merge − Most modern word processors have mail merge features that
allow users to send personalized letters or emails to different people by
merging a document with a list of recipients' information.

• Accessibility Features − Word processors may have screen readers,

alternative text for images, and keyboard shortcuts for disabled users.

Word processors are extremely powerful tools that may be used for different
purposes, including personal, academic, and professional writings, as well as for
creating, editing, and formatting texts.
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Advantages of word processor

Word processors have different advantages over traditional typewriters and

handwritten documents. Some key advantages are described below −

• Ease of Editing − One of the most significant benefits of word processors is

the ability to easily alter and update documents. Unlike typewriters or
handwritten documents, you can modify text quickly and easily. Text can
be edited, deleted, copied, and pasted, as well as formatted modifications
like font style, size, and color.

• Spell Check and Grammar Check − Most word processors have built-in spell
and grammar checkers to help users correct their texts. This assures error-
free, high-quality documents.

• Formatting Options − Word processors allow users to adjust document

appearance with many formatting options. This covers font styles, sizes,
colors, paragraph alignment, indentation, bullet points, numbering, and
more. Users may easily produce professional documents.

• Document Organization − Word processors organize documents well.

Headers, footers, page numbers, TOC, and document sections are included.
Users can rapidly find information in long documents.

• Collaboration − Collaboration features in many word processors allow many

people to edit a document. Team projects and multi-author projects benefit
from this. Users may track changes, comment, and collaborate in the
document.

• Integration with Other Software − Word processors work well with

spreadsheets, presentations, and email clients. Users may import and
export data across applications quickly, improving productivity and
efficiency.

• Automatic Saving − Word processors often include automatic saving

functions to save documents at regular intervals, preventing data loss in
the event of a computer breakdown or power outage. Users can rest
assured that their work is safe and secure.

• Templates and Wizards − Many word processors have pre-designed

templates and wizards like resumes, letters, reports, and newsletters.
These templates serve as a starting point for users and can save time when
making new documents.

Word processors are essential for composing, revising, and formatting

documents in personal and professional contexts due to their many benefits.
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Computer Fundamentals - Spread Sheet

What is Spread Sheet?

A spreadsheet is application software developed by Microsoft Corporation, this

application is specifically used to organize, analyse, and store data in tabular
form. It is typically part of a Microsoft office. It's composed of rows and columns
with each intersection forming a cell where the data can be entered. Some of the
most common tasks used to do using spreadsheets are finance analyses,
budgeting; data manipulation, statistics analysis and more.

Some of the popular spreadsheet software includes Microsoft Excel, Google

Sheets, and Apple Numbers. These applications have different computation
features such as mathematical functions, charting tools, sorting and filtering
capabilities, and support for macros and scripting to automate the task, making
them versatile tools for a wide range of tasks.

How to start Microsoft Spread Sheet?

Step 1 − Click on start button

Step 2 − Go to Microsoft Office

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Step 3 − Select and click on Microsoft Excel (in the below picture Microsoft Excel
2010 version is installed; version may vary users to users system)

Step 4 − Finally, you will get Microsoft Excel or Spread sheet like
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Parts of a Microsoft Spread Sheet

A Microsoft spreadsheet typically refers to a file created using Microsoft Excel, a

popular spreadsheet program. The main parts of a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet
include −

• Workbook − This is the entire file containing one or more worksheets. When
you first open Excel, you're typically working within a workbook.
• Worksheet − Also known as a spreadsheet or a sheet, it's a single tab within
a workbook where you can enter and manipulate data. By default, a new
workbook comes with one worksheet, but you can add more as needed.
• Rows − Horizontal lines numbered from 1, 2, 3, and so on, which run across
the worksheet from left to right. Each row is identified by a number.
• Columns − Vertical lines labeled with letters from A to Z, then AA, AB, and
so forth. Columns run from top to bottom, and each column is identified by
a letter.
• Cells − The intersection of a row and a column. Each cell has a unique
address, which is a combination of the column letter and row number (e.g.,
A1, B2, C3, etc.).
• Cell Content − This is the actual data or information contained within a cell.
It can be text, numbers, formulas, dates, or other types of data.
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• Formula Bar − Located above the worksheet grid, it displays the contents
of the active cell. You can also use it to enter or edit data or formulas in
the active cell.
• Name Box − It displays the address or name of the active cell. You can also
use it to navigate to specific cells or ranges.
• Ribbon − The Ribbon is the strip across the top of the Excel window that
contains tabs of various commands and functions organized into groups.
• Column Headers and Row Headers − The numbered row headers on the left
side of the worksheet and the lettered column headers at the top indicate
row and column positions, respectively.
• Worksheet Tabs − Located at the bottom of the Excel window, these tabs
allow you to switch between different worksheets within the same
workbook.

These are the fundamental parts of a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, providing the
structure and functionality for organizing and analyzing data.

Popular Spread Sheet

One of the most popular spreadsheet software is Microsoft Excel. Excel is widely
used for various purposes such as data analysis, financial modeling, budgeting,
forecasting, and more. It offers a wide range of features including formulas,
functions, charts, pivot tables, and macros, making it a versatile tool for both
personal and professional use.
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Additionally, Google Sheets is another popular option, especially for collaboration

and cloud-based storage. It offers many similar features to Excel and allows
multiple users to work on a spreadsheet simultaneously.

Other notable spreadsheet software includes Apple Numbers, LibreOffice Calc,

and Apache OpenOffice Calc, although they may not be as widely used as Excel
and Google Sheets.

Features of Spread Sheet

Spreadsheets are powerful tools used for organizing, analyzing, and presenting
data in tabular form. Followings are the key features −
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Advantages of Spread Sheet

Spreadsheets, like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets, offer numerous advantages

across various fields due to their versatility and ease of use. Some of the key
advantages include −

• Organized Data Management − Spreadsheets provide a structured way to

organize and store data, making it easy to input, manipulate, and analyze
information. Users can create tables, sort data, apply filters, and perform
calculations effortlessly.
• Calculation and Analysis − Spreadsheets are powerful tools for performing
various calculations and analyses. They offer a wide range of built-in
functions and formulas, allowing users to perform mathematical
operations, statistical analysis, financial calculations, and more.
• Data Visualization − Spreadsheets allow users to create visual
representations of data through charts, graphs, and diagrams. These
visualizations help users understand complex data sets more easily and
communicate insights effectively.
• Customization − Spreadsheets can be customized to suit specific needs and
preferences. Users can adjust formatting, create custom formulas, and
design layouts to tailor the spreadsheet to their requirements.
• Collaboration − Most modern spreadsheet software offers collaboration
features that allow multiple users to work on the same spreadsheet
simultaneously. This facilitates teamwork and enables real-time
collaboration, with features such as commenting, revision history tracking,
and shared access controls.
• Accessibility − Spreadsheets can be accessed from various devices and
platforms, including desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and
smartphones. Additionally, cloud-based spreadsheet solutions enable users
to access their data from anywhere with an internet connection, promoting
flexibility and mobility.
• Integration − Spreadsheets can integrate with other software and tools,
allowing for seamless data transfer and workflow automation. They can
import and export data from databases, text files, and other applications,
streamlining data management processes.
• Versatility − Spreadsheets are versatile tools that can be used for a wide
range of purposes across different industries and disciplines. Whether it's
budgeting, project management, inventory tracking, or data analysis,
spreadsheets can adapt to various tasks and scenarios.
• Cost-effectiveness − Compared to specialized software or database systems,
spreadsheets are often more affordable and accessible. Many spreadsheet
applications are available for free or at a low cost, making them an
economical choice for individuals and organizations.
• Ease of Use − Spreadsheets are user-friendly tools that require minimal
training to use effectively. With intuitive interfaces and straightforward
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functionalities, users can quickly learn how to create and manipulate

spreadsheets to accomplish their goals.

Computer Fundamentals - Power

Presentations
What is Microsoft PowerPoint?

Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation application in the Microsoft Office suite that

was designed by Microsoft. PowerPoint enables users to create slideshows that
include text, graphics, multimedia content and animation. It is most often applied
for the creation of presentations to business meetings, lectures seminars and so
on. PowerPoint makes it easy for users to create visually appealing slides and
make effective presentations.

How to start Microsoft Spread Sheet?

Step 1 − Click on the start button

Step 2 − Go to Microsoft Office

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Step 3 − Select and click on Microsoft PowerPoint (in the below picture Microsoft
PowerPoint 2010 version is installed; version may vary from user to users
system)

Step 4 − Finally, you will get the Microsoft PowerPoint application mentioned in
the below image
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Parts of a Microsoft PowerPoint

Microsoft PowerPoint is presentation software developed by Microsoft as part of

the Microsoft Office suite. It allows users to create slideshows comprising text,
images, videos, and other multimedia elements. Here are some key parts of
Microsoft PowerPoint −

• Title Slide − This is the first slide of a presentation which includes the title
of the presentation, the presenter's name, and the date.
• Slides − These are the pages in a presentation where content such as text,
images, charts and multimedia elements have been inserted.
• Text Box − You can add and format text to a slide by clicking on the Text
box. In the text box, you can change the font, size, colour, alignment and
other formatting options for your text.
• Images − You can improve the look of the presentation by adding images
from your computer or the web to the slides.
• Shapes − You can add different shapes to your slides from PowerPoint.
These shapes can be modified using their size, colour and style.
• Charts − To represent data visually, PowerPoint allows its users to build
different types of charts such as bar graphs, pie graphs and lines.
• Tables − To display data in rows and columns, tables can be inserted into
the slide. To match your requirements, you can adjust the table's
appearance and formatting.
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• Transitions − To enhance the visual appeal of a presentation, transitions

are effects that apply to changes in slides. Examples include fades, wipes,
and zooms.
• Animations and Notes − Animations are visual enhancements that can be
added to certain elements inside a slide, such as text or images, to regulate
their appearance or disappear throughout the presentation.
PowerPoint allows presenters to include presenter comments on each slide.
These notes are not visible to the audience during the presentation, but
they can help the presenter remember important points or supplementary
information.
• Slide Master − The Slide Master is a functionality that enables users to
generate and personalize the structure and appearance of all slides in a
presentation. Modifications made to the Slide Master are automatically
applied to all slides that are derived from that master.
• Presenter View − Presenter View is a feature that enables presenters to
access speaker notes, preview the next slides, and control the presentation,
while the audience is only able to see the current slide.
• Slide Show − This is the mode in which the presentation is shown in full
screen for the audience to view. Slide navigation can be performed either
using keyboard keys or by clicking on it.

All the above-mentioned points are the most common parts of a Microsoft
PowerPoint; generally, a user commonly uses all these to create a presentation.

Why Microsoft PowerPoint is important?

Microsoft PowerPoint is one of the most popular presentation software tools used
globally to make attractive and interactive presentations. It is part of the
Microsoft Office suite and is widely utilized for creating and delivering
presentations in various settings, including business meetings, academic lectures,
conferences, and more. Following pointer highlights the reasons which make
PowerPoint important.
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Fig: Importance / Popularity of Mycroft Power Point

• User-Friendly Interface − PowerPoint provides a user-friendly interface with

intuitive tools and features that make it easy for users of different skill
levels to use.
• Attractive Design − It enables users to create interesting presentations that
meet the presenter's needs by providing a wide variety of design tools,
such as themes, templates, shapes, images and fonts.
• Integration Microsoft Office Application − PowerPoint can interact with other
Microsoft Office products like Word, Excel, and Outlook in a smooth
manner, which enables users to import data and related stuff from these
applications into their presentations.
• Multimedia Support − To improve audience engagement and effectively
communicate information, presenters have related PowerPoint features to
add a wide range of multimedia components to their presentations. These
components can include images, audio, video, and animations.
• Compatibility and Accessibility − To ensure compatibility and accessibility to
different types of audiences, presentations made in PowerPoint can be
easily accessible and viewed by multiple users on different platforms
simultaneously.
• Integration with Cloud Services − Users can store, access, and share their
PowerPoint presentations online using cloud services such as OneDrive and
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SharePoint. This enables users to collaborate and access their

presentations anywhere without any interruptions.
• Continuous Updates and Improvements − Microsoft continually updates and
improves PowerPoint, adding new features, additions, and security patches
to maintain its performance and customer/user satisfaction.
• Training and Support Resources − PowerPoint users can maximize their
productivity and expertise with the software; Microsoft provides
comprehensive training resources, tutorials, and support material for
PowerPoint to its users.
• Market Dominance − PowerPoint's popularity and widespread adoption
among organizations, educators, students, and professionals all over the
world may be attributed to its longstanding presence in the market, as well
as its extensive features and popularity in the market that Microsoft has
earned as a brand.

In general, Microsoft PowerPoint is the most popular presentation software

because of its user-friendly interface, flexible features, compatibility,
collaboration capabilities, impact and continuous updates making it a preferred
choice for creating and delivering presentations in various contexts.

What are the different Versions / Popular Microsoft PowerPoint applications

that exist?

Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular presentation software that offers various

features to create engaging and visually appealing presentations. Some of the
popular Microsoft PowerPoint versions are listed below −
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Fig: List of different Microsoft Power Point Versions

• PowerPoint 97 − Released in 1997. It introduced features like animation

effects and slide transitions.
• PowerPoint 2000 − Released in 2000, includes attractive features in design
templates, multimedia support, and collaboration features.
• PowerPoint 2003 − This version, released in 2003, connects a rich user
interface and adds more advanced formatting options.
• PowerPoint 2007 − This version has introduced several important changes
that make it more easily accessible for different people. New slide designs
and SmartArt graphics have also been included.
• PowerPoint 2010 − This version, released in 2010, introduced features such
as video editing within PowerPoint, improved transitions and enhanced
multimedia support.
• PowerPoint 2013 − The interface of PowerPoint 2007 has been further
refined in this version, and new features such as a better view of the
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presenters, a more realistic layout of slide decks, and greater collaboration

tools were added.
• PowerPoint 2016 − Part of the Office 2016 suite, this version introduced
features like Morph transition, which allows for smooth object animations,
and improved collaboration through real-time co-authoring.
• PowerPoint 2019 − Released as part of Office 2019, this version focused on
enhancing features for inking, 3D models, and improved zoom capabilities.
• PowerPoint for Office 365 − These are the upgrades and enhancements that
are made to the PowerPoint version that is available through a subscription
service. PowerPoint Designer, which automatically generates design ideas
for presentations, is one of the features that are included in this software.
Designer is another function that offers design suggestions for slides.
Features of Microsoft PowerPoint

Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular presentation software that enables users to

make interactive and visually attractive slideshows, for example, business
presentations, training courses or creative projects.

The key features of Microsoft PowerPoint are mentioned in below figure −

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• Slide Creation − PowerPoint allows users to create slides containing text,

images, shapes, charts, graphs, videos, and other multimedia elements.
• Templates − It provides users with a wide range of professional templates
that can be used for quick and efficient presentation.
• Slide Transitions − To make your presentation visually attractive and clear,
users may apply a variety of switching effects among the slides.
• Animations − PowerPoint provides animation tools to add movement and
visual effects to elements of a slide, such as text and images.
• Slide Master − Slide Master allows users to create a consistent look and feel
throughout the presentation by defining layouts, fonts, colours, and
placeholders for text and multimedia elements.
• Collaboration − Users can collaborate on presentations in real-time using
PowerPoint's co-authoring feature, enabling multiple users to work on the
same presentation simultaneously.
• Integration with Other Microsoft Office Applications − PowerPoint seamlessly
integrates with other Microsoft Office applications such as Word, Excel, and
Outlook, allowing users to insert content directly from these applications
into their presentations.
• Presenter View − Presenter View provides presenters with tools to control
the presentation while displaying additional information such as speaker
notes, upcoming slides, and a timer on their screen, while the audience
sees only the slideshow.
• Embedding and Linking − Users can embed or link external content, such as
videos, audio files, and web pages, directly into their presentations to
enhance their multimedia capabilities.
• Export Options − PowerPoint offers various export options, including saving
presentations as PDFs, images, and videos, or exporting slides to other
Microsoft Office formats or web formats.
• Accessibility − PowerPoint includes accessibility features such as screen
reader support, alt text for images, and built-in accessibility checkers to
ensure presentations are accessible to individuals with disabilities.
• Integration with Cloud Services − With integration to cloud services like
OneDrive or SharePoint, users can easily store, share, and access their
presentations from any device with an internet connection.

These features collectively make Microsoft PowerPoint a powerful tool for

creating and delivering impactful presentations across various domains.

Advantages of Microsoft PowerPoint

Microsoft PowerPoint, a part of the Microsoft Office Suite, is a widely used

presentation software that offers several advantages −
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• User-Friendly Interface − PowerPoint's user interface is easy to use for users

who don't have the technical know-how, allowing them to make
presentations easily. Users can quickly and easily navigate and design
slides with its familiar layout and tools.
• Versatile Design Options − By providing an extensive selection of design
templates, themes, fonts and colours to choose from, PowerPoint gives
users the ability to create visually attractive presentations. Furthermore, it
provides users with several options to change their presentation such as
shapes, pictures, charts and animations that allow them to configure the
presentation according to what they want.
• Multimedia Integration − To enhance the presentation's interactivity and
dynamism, PowerPoint allows you to integrate multimedia elements like
pictures, videos, audio clips or animations. To improve the overall
presentation quality, users can simply add these elements to their
presentations.
• Collaboration Features − There are collaboration features in PowerPoint
which allow multiple users to work on a presentation at the same time. To
facilitate instant collaboration and feedback from the team members, users
can share their presentations with cloud storage services such as OneDrive
or SharePoint.
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• Compatibility and Accessibility − PowerPoint presentations are easy to share

and view on a variety of devices and platforms, such as computers, tablets
or mobile phones. In addition, PowerPoint supports accessibility features
like screen readers and other texts that allow disabled people to use the
presentation.
• Integration − Other Microsoft Office applications such as Word, Excel and
Outlook are seamlessly integrated into PowerPoint. Users can send content
from these applications to their presentation or export PowerPoint slides in
another format of the Office.
• Presenter Tools − PowerPoint contains a variety of presentation tools such
as Presenter View, which allows the presenter to view notes, upcoming
slides and audience responses while he is presenting. To facilitate the
presentation of engaging and professional presentations, it also offers
features such as slide transitions and animations.
• Cross-Platform Compatibility − To ensure compatibility with other operating
systems, PowerPoint is available on both Windows and Mac platforms. In
addition, PowerPoint Online allows users to create and edit their
presentations using a web browser to further enhance its accessibility.
• Integration with Cloud Services − With PowerPoint, users can easily access
and edit their presentations from anywhere on the Internet, thanks to
seamless integration with cloud storage services such as OneDrive,
Dropbox, and Google Drive.
• Regular Updates and Support − To ensure that users have access to the latest
tools and functions, Microsoft is regularly updating PowerPoint with new
features, improvements or security fixes. In addition, users can access
PowerPoint support resources such as online training, help documentation
and community forums to provide effective assistance in using PowerPoint.

Computer Fundamentals - E-mail Tools

What is email (electronic mail)?

E-mail (Electronic mail), is a way of communication between two or more two

users over the Internet. An Email facilitates individuals, business professionals
and organisations to send messages, invitations, files, and documents to one or
more recipients at the same time; it means a copy of a message or attached
document in a mail can be sent to multiple users at the same time. To work on
email the sender and receiver must have a valid email ID like
vishnus@tutorialspoint.com

A sender (a person who sends an email) user composes a new email when they
plan to send it to one or more recipients (a person who receives an email) by
adding them, adding a subject line, and attaching files or documents if required.
Once the message is sent, it reaches different servers over the Internet until it
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reaches a recipient's email address from where they can access this information
via their mail ID.

The following image shows the email inbox −

In the digital age, email is one of the most commonly used forms of
communication and serves a range of purposes from personal correspondence
to business communications and marketing.

Components of an Email

The key components of an Email are as follows −

• Sender − A person who sends an email to the receiver for example

vishnus@tutorialspoint.com is a sender who is sending an email to
kapil.sharma@gmail.com
• Receiver − A receiver is a person who receives an email sent by the sender
via email for example kapil.sharma@gmail.com is a receiver who is
receiving an email sent by vishnus@tutorialspoint.com
• Email address − An email address is a unique address to identify the person
uniquely on the internet. For example, kapil.sharma@gmail.com is an email
address. Once an email address is assigned to a person or group cannot be
assigned to another person; it's like an enrolment number of a student.
• Mailer − It’s a program which allows users to read, write, and delete emails.
Some popular mailer is Gmail, rediffmail, Outlook, etc.
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• Mail Server − The mail server is a central system or controller of the entire
email system; it holds the entire log history of sending, receiving, and
deleting emails and manages mail programs for their respective users.
• SMTP − SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. SMTP is a protocol
specially designed for email system; this protocol can be considered as a
controller program to manage the entire email system; for example, how
email will be sent to the receiver, the computer network to send mail, the
internet network connection, and receivers email inbox to receive email
messages over the Internet.

How does email work?

Email is a method of communication between more than one user over the
internet. The following points simplifies the overview of how it works −

• Creating an Email − You compose a new email using an email client, such as
Gmail, Outlook, or Yahoo Mail. Below mentioned image describes it.

• Sending the Email − Mention the recipient's name write the message in the
body section and then click on the send button. When you hit the "send"
button, your email client communicates with an outgoing mail server (SMTP
server).
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• Retrieving or accessing the Email − The recipient login using their valid email
ID (such as Gmail or Outlook) and checks their inbox. When they do this,
the email is retrieved by their email client connecting to their incoming mail
server (POP3 or IMAP server).
• Viewing the Email − The recipient can then view the email in their inbox read
it and take necessary actions such as replying or forwarding.
• Replying and Forwarding − The process is repeated if the receiver decides to
reply or forward the email. They use their email ID to log in, enter the
recipient's email address, and draft their message in reply and send the
mail. After that, this email follows the previously outlined process.
• Storage and Deletion − Emails can be kept on the email servers of the sender
and the recipient. Emails can be deleted by users from their inbox, perhaps
moving them to a "deleted items" or "trash" folder. These deleted emails
might eventually be deleted forever from the email server's database.
Anatomy of an Email / Structure of an Email

Emails are complicated and powerful tools. People use emails for different
reasons, from sending personal messages, marketing messages, and official
correspondence to sharing large files and documents. Email has changed a lot in
how it works over the years, but the basic format of an email remains the same.
There are usually four main parts to an email −

• Headers − When you open an email, it's the first thing that we see. A header
includes the sender's name and address, the recipient's email address, the
subject line as well as the date and time when the message was sent.
• Subject Line − One of the most important parts of an email is the subject
line, which tells the recipient what the email is all about. The subject line
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should be clear and to the point, giving the recipient an idea of what they're
going to find in that email.
• Salutation − Salutation shows how senders address their recipients formally
or casually. The best email salutation may include Hi (first name), Hello
(name), Dear (name), Greetings, and Good morning/afternoon/evening.
• Body − The primary content of the mail is included in the body section of
an email. This is the section where the senders include the actual text of
the message, as well as any attachments or links.
• Signature − The signature is the last section of the email. It usually contains
the sender's name, designation, organisation name, and contact
information. It's a great way to ensure that your recipients can easily get
in touch with you if they have to.
Importance of Email Communication

Email remains a cornerstone of communication in both personal and

professional realms for several reasons −

• Accessibility − It can be accessed 24 by 7; with the proliferation of

smartphones and internet access, email can be accessed from anywhere
and anytime.
• Record-keeping − Emails provide a written record of communications, which
facilitates fast access to previous conversations, agreements, or
documents. This is very helpful for personal, business, and legal
documentation.
• Formality and professionalism − Email is a formal and appropriate mode of
communication. It organizes communication with salutations, signatures,
and formatting.
• File sharing and collaboration − Email is used to share data, images, and
more. It encourages teamwork by sharing information and getting
feedback.
• Marketing and outreach − Email marketing still helps firms reach their
intended audience. It provides target audience, personalized
communication, and campaign performance tracking.
• Cost-effective system − Email is much cheaper than other forms of
communication. It reduces paper usage, postage costs, and the need for
physical infrastructure.
• Privacy and security − Modern email system secures confidential information
with encryption and other security features. Email also allows senders to
manage who can access data/information using privacy settings.

Overall, email continues to play a vital role in communication, offering

convenience, reliability, and versatility across various contexts.
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Email Etiquette

Email etiquette encompasses the social norms that govern interpersonal

communication via email. These suggestions may exhibit slight changes
depending on the industry, company, and even generation. The fundamental
principle of email etiquette is to communicate clearly and respectfully. Some
common Email etiquette includes −

• Professional Tone − To build and maintain professional relationships,

professionalism or professional tone in email communications is of
paramount importance. You can ensure professionalism and respect in your
email messages by complying with Clear and Concise Subject Lines, Formal
Greetings, Polite Language, Clear and Organized Structure, Clarity and
Precision, Proofreading, proper Closing, Attachments and Formatting and
Follow-Up.
• Grammar and Spelling − A sender should pay attention to grammar and
spelling during the drafting of emails, it ensures that your messages are
professional, clear, and effective. To ensure professional and clear
communication; Grammar and Spelling include proofread before sending,
using spell check, being mindful of punctuation, avoiding text speaking,
using complete sentences, watching your tone and seeking feedback if
necessary.
• Response Time − Prompt email response is typically regarded as a mark of
professionalism and good manners in professional manners. Unless the
email demands immediate attention or the sender has given an alternative
deadline, try to respond to emails within 24 to 48 hours. It's polite to send
a quick acknowledgement to the sender and let them know you've received
their email and will be responding in more detail shortly if you need more
time to respond completely. Keeping communication lines open and
exhibiting consistency in how you respond timely helps to maintain positive
relationships.

Types of Computer Ports

What are Computer Ports?

The computer ports are physical docking points of a computer that facilitate
users to connect required external devices to the computer or computer
network. A connection point that acts as an interface between the computer and
external devices like a mouse, printer, modem, etc. is called a port. Ports are of
two types −

• Internal port − It connects the motherboard to internal devices like hard

disk drives, CD drives, internal modems, etc.
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• External port − It connects the motherboard to external devices like

modem, mouse, printer, flash drives, etc.

Expansion of a computer network or interconnection between multiple

peripheral devices was possible through computer ports where network
connections start and end. Generally, Ports are computer hardware which are
software-based means they are operated by a software program like an
operating system.

The below image gives an idea about what ports are look like −

Fig: Some most commonly used computer/ networking ports

Generally, ports are docking points through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.
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Working Principles of Computer Ports

Computer ports are tangible or virtual connectors on a computer or device that

provide connectivity to external devices, peripherals, or networks. They enable
the exchange of information between the computer and external devices.

The functions or working principles of some common computer ports are as

follows −

Fig: Functions of computer ports

Thunderbolt − These allow peripherals such as external storage, monitors and

docking stations to be connected at high speed. Thunderbolt ports, which were
created by Intel and Apple, allow for fast data transfer as well as the carrying of
power and video. USB-C connectors are frequently used with Thunderbolt 3
ports.

Thunderbolt

Physical Data Transfer Communication Protocols Device Power Supply

Connection i. Once the device i. Port uses specific Recognition i. Ports provide
i. Ports are physical connected to a communication protocols to i. The device is power to connected
sockets port, data can be transfer data recognised by the devices.
ii. Fixes on transferred ii. For example, USB, which computer and For example
computer or between the offers different data transfer drivers and Smartphones,
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devices to plug computer and the speeds and capabilities, uses automatically install tablets, and USB
cables or device. protocols such as USB 3.0, drivers or configure accessories can be
connectors from ii. Allows USB 3.0C, and USB 2.0C, settings to support it powered using
external devices transferring files to each of which offers different For example, when USB ports without
iii. Cables have and from external data transfer speeds and we connect a USB an adapter.
connectors at both storage devices capabilities. mouse, the system
ends, one to fit into iii. Sending and detects it
the port on the receiving data over automaticall and
computer and the a network enables pointer
other to fit into the connection control.
external device. iv. Streaming
audio and video to
external devices.

Overall, Computer ports allow the computer to communicate and transfer data
with external devices and peripherals.

Characteristics of Ports

A port has the following characteristics −

• External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of the external device
is plugged in.
• Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard,
monitor, microphone, speakers, etc.
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Let us now discuss a few important types of ports −

Serial Port
In the past, it was used to connect different devices which includes modems,
mice, and printers; however, due to the prominence of USB, it has become
completely obsolete in modern computers. Serial ports transmit data
sequentially means one bit at a time. To do the same, these ports require one
cable to transmit 8 bits. However, this makes slower communication. Serial
ports are usually having 9-pin or 25-pin male connectors. They are also known
as COM (communication) ports or RS323C ports.
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Overall, serial ports act as a port which is −

• Used for external modems and older computer mice

• Two versions: 9-pin, 25 pin model
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
Parallel Ports
Another older port that is primarily used for connecting printers and other
devices that are used for external storage; like serial ports, parallel ports are
rarely found on modern computers. Parallel ports can send or receive 8 bits or 1
byte at a time. Parallel ports come in the form of 25-pin female pins and are
used to connect printers, scanners, external hard disk drives, etc.

• Used for scanners and printers

• Also called a printer port
• 25 pin model
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
PS/2 Port
PS/2 stands for Personal System/2. It is a female 6-pin port standard that
connects to the male mini-DIN cable. PS/2 was introduced by IBM to connect
Input/output peripherals to personal computers. Used to create a connection
between keyboards and mice on computers that is of an earlier generation.
PS/2 ports have a circular shape, and they are coloured purple for keyboards
and green for mice.

This port is now mostly obsolete, though some systems compatible with IBM
may have this port.
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• Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

• Also called the mouse port
• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 ports, each for the mouse and
keyboard
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. It is the industry standard for short-
distance digital data connection. It is one of the most popular ports for
connecting accessories, including external hard drives, printers, mice,
keyboards, and more. There are different types and sizes of USB ports, such as
micro-USB, USB-A, USB-B, and USB-C.USB port is a standardized port to
connect a variety of devices like printers, cameras, keyboards, speakers, etc.

Overall, a USB port acts as a port which is −

• It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disks,
printers, scanners, mice, keyboards, etc.
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• It was introduced in 1997.

• Most of the computers provide two USB ports as a minimum.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per second.
• USB-compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
VGA (Video Graphics Array) Port
Before the development of DVI, HDMI and DisplayPort, VGA was in use; it's an
analogue interface between a computer and the monitor. It's a display standard
developed by IBM in 1987; VGA replaced the existing digital CGA and EGA
interfaces with a smaller resolution and fewer colours. A standard VGA works on
16-color displays with a refresh rate of 60 Hz and a resolution of 640 × 480.
There are 256 colours shown if the resolution is lowered to 320 x 200.
Nowadays, it's not in use, older PCs and displays have this video port. Digital
connections like HDMI and DisplayPort are replacing it.

Overall, a VGA port acts as a port that −

• Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

• It has 15 holes.
• Similar to the serial port connector. However, the serial port connector has
pins, VGA port has holes.
Power Connector

For the sole purpose of supplying power to a device, power connectors are
devices that allow an electrical current to pass through them.
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It is possible for a computer or other electronic device to charge its battery and
get power from a wall outlet through its power port. Since desktop computers
don't have batteries, they can't be turned on without a power cord plugged into
the power port. The battery in a device like a laptop can work even if nothing is
plugged into the power port as long as the battery is charged.

Overall, a power connectors port acts as a port which is a

• Three-pronged plug.
• Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall
socket.
Firewire Port
An interface with a high data transfer rate is generally utilized for connecting
digital camcorders, external hard drives, and other multimedia equipment. USB
and Thunderbolt have mostly superseded it. Hence, a FireWire is a high-speed
computer data transfer interface that is used to connect personal computers,
audio and video devices, as well as other professional and consumer electronic
products.
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Overall, a FireWire port acts as a port which is a

• Transfers large amounts of data at a very fast speed.

• Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per second.
• Invented by Apple.
• It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400
connector, and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.
Ethernet Port
An Ethernet port also known as a jack or socket is a port used to access the
internet on commuter. Enables wired network connections, which are normally
used for connecting computers to routers, switches and modems that allow
Internet access. It's like computer network equipment that Ethernet cables plug
into. The main goal of this port is to connect wired network hardware in an
Ethernet LAN, MAN, or wide WAN.

• Connects to a network and high-speed Internet.

• Connects the network cable to a computer.
• This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per second depending upon
the network bandwidth.
SD Card Slot
SD card slots are frequent functionality ports generally seen on desktop
computers and laptops.
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These slots enable users to insert SD memory cards, which are typically utilized
in digital cameras and other portable devices.

Computer - Number System

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers
as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand the
positional number system where there are only a few symbols called digits and
these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy
in the number.

The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −

• The digit
• The position of the digit in the number
• The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total
number of digits available in the number system)
Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number
system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In
decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the
decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens
position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its value
can be written as

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)

(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the

following number systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.No. Number System and Description

1 Binary Number System

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Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

2 Octal Number System

Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

3 Hexa Decimal Number System

Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −

• Uses two digits, 0 and 1

• Also called as base 2 number system
• Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2).
Example 20
• Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2).
Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −

• Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

• Also called as base 8 number system
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• Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8).

Example 80
• Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8).
Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

• Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

• Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12,
D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
• Also called as base 16 number system
• Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base
(16). Example, 160
• Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base
(16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number
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Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers
from one base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the following −

• Decimal to Other Base System

• Other Base System to Decimal
• Other Base System to Non-Decimal
• Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
• Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
• Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
• Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal to Other Base System

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new
base.

Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant
digit) of the new base number.

Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the
new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient
becomes zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the
new base number.
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Example
Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the

reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit
(LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on
the position of the digit and the base of the number system).

Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.

Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value
in decimal.

Example
Binary Number: 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

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Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example
Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder
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Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

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Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits
may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single
binary number.

Example
Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example
Binary Number : 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

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Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the

hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single
binary number.

Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

Computer Fundamentals - Data and

Information
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What is Data?

Data is a raw material; it’s a collection of facts and figures. Data does not have
a significant meaning because of its raw nature. Data may include text, figures,
facts, images, numbers, graphs, and symbols and it can be generated from
different sources like sensors, surveys, transactions, social media etc.

G15, KPL, and Gud are some examples of data. Data needs to be processed to
convert into a useful manner which is known as information. For example – Gud
is data; after text processing, it converts into Good which is information.

• Raw material
• Unstructured information
• It has no context
• Processed Data
• Structured information
• It has context

A proper analysis of data plays an important role in fields like research, science,
business, healthcare, agriculture, and technology, driving decision-making and
innovation.

Characteristics of Data
Some characteristics of different types of data are as follows −

Type of Data Characteristics

• It's in numerical nature.

Quantitative Data • It can be measured and quantified like height, weight, temperature, etc.
• This type of data can be analysed using statistical methods.

• It is descriptive.
Qualitative / • It can be explored using colours, textures, opinions or any other related feature.
Descriptive Data • It's often subjective which requires interpretation.
• It can be categorical or ordinal.

• It is organized in a predefined structure and usually includes a tabular form like databases, or
Structured Data spreadsheets.
• Easy to search
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• It can be analysed using standard tools like SQL.

• Allows performing queries to insert, delete and update.

• It lacks a predefined structure.

• It does not have a pre-defined structure.
Unstructured Data • It may include text documents, social media posts, images, videos, etc.
• It is difficult to analyse using traditional methods.
• It processes using advanced techniques like natural language processing (NLP), machine
learning, etc.

• Data are bigger.

Big Data • It is complex and processes using traditional data processing applications.
• It has five V's to identify i.e. volume, velocity, variety, veracity, and value.

• It gives information on data about data.

Metadata • It includes data dictionaries, file descriptions, tags, etc.
• It gives a direction to understand, manage, and improve data search ability and usability.

• It is continuously generated and transmitted in a real-time environment like sensor data, social
Streaming Data media updates, financial market data, etc.
• It requires real-time data processing.
• It often uses applications like IoT, real-time analytics, etc.

Types of Data
Types of Data

Quantitative
It's available in numerical form, like 50 Kg, 165 cm, 15887 etc.
data

Discrete Data Data that take certain values like whole numbers. For example, the number of employees in a departm

Data that can take any value within a range. For example, wind speed, and temperature. For example -
Continuous
time, certain continuous data, such as the weight of the baby over the year changes or the temperatur
Data
room during the day changes.

Qualitative
It's available in a descriptive form for example name, gender, address, and features of a person.
data

Nominal Data Data that represents categories with no inherent order. For example, colours, and gender.

Data that represents categories with a specific order or ranking. For example, ranking satisfaction level
Ordinal Data
"poor," "average," or "excellent."
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Categorical The data which represents categories or labels and is often qualitative is called categorical data. It can
Data nominal and ordinal data.

Numerical
This type of data includes numbers. It can be either quantitative or qualitative.
Data

Time Series
Data collected over time intervals like stock prices, weather data, and sales figures.
Data

Spatial Data Data associated with geographic locations like Google maps, GPS data, and satellite images.

What is Information?

Information is processed data. It is always useful and used in decision-making.

A person who has a lot of information about a particular thing is always
considered a knowledgeable person. Hence, a good information base always
makes a good knowledge base and a good knowledge base helps to make
healthy or fruitful decisions.

Characteristics of Information
General Characteristics of Information are as follows −

• It is effective and complete to make decisions.

• True information is broad in scope.
• Information relates to the current situation and has an acceptable level of
integrity.
• Information is always compatible with response time.
• Information is concise and does not contain delicacy.
• Information is precise and accurate.
• Information is always relevant.
• Information can be verifiable.
• Information contains facts; that can be shared for making fruitful decisions.
• Information is organised and stored for future reference.
Differences Between Data vs Information
S.No Data Information

1 Data is a raw material It's processed data

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2 It is meaningless It is meaningful

3 Is not use in decision-making Uses in decision-making

4 Data does not rely on information The information relies on data

5 Data is a collection of facts Information kept facts in context

6 Data is unorganized Information is organized

Data is represented in the form of graphs, numbers, Information is presented in the form of words, language,
7
figures, or statistics thoughts, and ideas.

8 Data does not have context Information has context

9 It can be considered as a single unit that is unprocessed It is a product and a collection of data

It is measured using meaningful units like concerning quantity

10 It is measured in bytes and bits.
and time

Basics of Computer Networking

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.
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Characteristics of a Computer Network

• Share resources from one computer to another.
• Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
• Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over the network.

Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer network.

• Network Cables
• Distributors
• Routers
• Internal Network Cards
• External Network Cards
Network Cables

Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is Category 5
cable RJ-45.

Distributors

A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect many
computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work.
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The solution is to use a central body to which other computers, printers, scanners, etc. can be
connected and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

Router

A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other devices
that are a part of the network. It is equipped with holes called ports. Computers and other devices
are connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days router comes in wireless modes
using which computers can be connected without any physical cable.
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Network Card

Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot be

connected over a network. It is also known as the network adapter or Network Interface Card
(NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two
types: Internal and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal network cards
are of two types in which the first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
connection, while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables are
required to provide network access.
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External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card needs
to be inserted into the motherboard, however no network cable is required to connect to the
network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers automatically detect USB card
and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card automatically.
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Basics of Computer Operating System

The Operating System is a program with the following features −

• An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the

software and the computer hardware.
• It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall
resources and operations of the computer.
• It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all
other programs that reside in the computer, including application programs
and other system software.
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Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −

• To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.

• To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
• To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
• To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it
easier for the users to access and use other resources.
• To manage the resources of a computer system.
• To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests,
and mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
• To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and
programs.
Characteristics of Operating System

Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating

Systems −

• Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part
of it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the
memory when a process or program requests it.
• Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and
deallocates the processor when it is no longer required.
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• Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O
controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how
much time.
• File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides
who gets the resources.
• Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means
of passwords and other similar techniques.
• Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs
and/or users.
• Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for
a service and from the system.
• Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console
of the computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System
acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action, and informs the
operation by a display screen.
• Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and
other debugging and error-detecting methods.
• Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to
the various users of the computer systems.

Computer Fundamentals - Keyboard

Shortcut Keys
Before going to have a look at keyboard shortcuts, let's study some basic
working principles of the keyboard and its common types.

Keyboards are standard input devices used to enter data or inputs into a
computer to process. There are several types of keyboards, each designed for
different purposes and preferences.

Here are some common types −

Standard Keyboards − This is the type of keyboard that you find on your desktop
computer. They're equipped with a QWERTY layout of keys, which are named
after the 6 letters at the upper end of the keyboard.
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Additional keys such as function keys, numeric keypads and navigation keys
may be included in the standard keyboard.

Laptop Keyboards − The laptop keyboard is small and integrates with the
machine.

They're usually similar to the standard keyboard layout but may have smaller
keys or missing some key combinations such as numeric keypads to save space.

Mechanical Keyboards − Each key on mechanical keyboards has a mechanical

switch.
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Their durable and precise typing experience is complemented by tactile

feedback. Mechanical keyboards use Cherry MX, Razer, or Gateron switches
with varied actuation pressures and feedback.

Membrane Keyboards − A membrane keyboard, also known as a membrane

switch keyboard, is made up of tiny layers of flexible material that serve as keys
to activate signals for a system or device.

Individual keys are mechanical switches that regulate electrical connections,

generating signals to issue commands. Each switch regulates an electrical circuit
that is inert until pressed.

Gaming Keyboards − Gaming keyboards are designed for optimal performance

and frequently contain customisable backlighting, macro keys, and anti-
ghosting technology to prevent key conflicts during rapid inputs.

Ergonomic Keyboards − Ergonomic keyboards are intended to alleviate strain and

discomfort during prolonged typing sessions by encouraging a more natural
hand position.
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They might have split or curved layouts to accommodate the natural curvature
of the hands and wrists.

Wireless Keyboards − Wireless keyboards link to devices using Bluetooth or RF

(Radio Frequency) technology, eliminating the need for wires.

They provide increased flexibility and convenience by making comfort for their
users to type at a distance.

Virtual Keyboards − Virtual keyboards include touch interfaces like smartphones

and tablets; these are displayed on computer screens with a touch interface.

Instead of physical keys, users tap on the screen to interact with them.

All of the above mentioned are some most common types of keyboards, each
serving different needs and preferences for users.

Keyboard Shortcut Keys

Shortcut Key Function
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Ctrl + C (or Ctrl + Insert) To copy the selected content

Ctrl + X To cut the selected content

Ctrl + V (or Shift + Insert) To paste the selected content

Ctrl + Shift + V To paste as plain text

Ctrl + Z To undo an action.

Ctrl + A To select all items in a document

Ctrl + S To save the current document or file.

Ctrl + P To print the current document.

Ctrl + F Find/search for text within a document or webpage

Ctrl + D (or Delete) To delete the selected item and move it to the Recycle Bin.

Ctrl + R (or F5) To refresh the active window.

Ctrl + Y To redo an action.

Ctrl + N To open a new document or window

Ctrl + W To close the current window or tab

Ctrl + Tab To switch between open tabs or documents

Ctrl + Shift + N To create a new folder

Alt + Tab To switch between multiple open applications

Alt + F4 To close the active item, or exit the active applications

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Windows logo key + L To lock your PC.

Windows logo key + D To display and hide the desktop

F2 To rename the selected content

F3 To search for a file or folder in File Explorer

F4 To show the address bar list in File Explorer

F5 To refresh the active window

F6 To cycle through the screen elements of a window or computer

F10 To activate the menu bar in active applications

Alt + A To focus on the first icon in the recommended actions menu

Alt + F8 To log on to the sign-in screen and see the password

Alt + Esc To cycle the items that have been opened in order of their opening.

Alt + underlined letter To perform the command for that letter

Alt + Enter To display selected content properties

Alt + Spacebar To open the shortcut menu for the active window

Alt + Left arrow To Go back

Alt + Right arrow To Go forward

Alt + Page Up To Move up one screen

Alt + Page Down To Move down one screen

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Ctrl + F4 To close the active document

Ctrl + Right arrow To move the cursor to the beginning of the next word.

Ctrl + Left arrow Move the cursor to the beginning of the previous word.

Ctrl + Down arrow Move the cursor to the beginning of the next paragraph.

Ctrl + Up arrow To move the cursor to the beginning of the previous paragraph.

Ctrl + Alt + Tab To use the arrow keys to switch between all open applications

Ctrl + Shift + arrow keys When a tile is in focus on the Start menu, move it into another tile to create a folder.

Ctrl + arrow keys To resize the Start menu when it's open.

Ctrl + arrow key (to move to an item) +

Select multiple individual items in a window or on the desktop.
Spacebar

Ctrl + Shift with an arrow key Select a block of text.

Ctrl + Esc To open Start.

Ctrl + Shift + Esc To open Task Manager.

Windows Key + D To show/hide the desktop (Windows)

Windows Key + E To open File Explorer

Windows Key + L To lock the computer

Shift + F10 Display the shortcut menu for the selected content

You can choose more than one item in a window or on your desktop, or you can type
Shift with any arrow key
text from the file.
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Shift + Delete Delete the selected item without moving it to the Recycle Bin.

Esc Stop or leave the current task.

PrtScn Take a picture of your entire screen and copy it to the clipboard.

Computer Fundamentals - Antivirus

What is Antivirus?

Antiviruses are computer programs that are specifically created to detect,

prevent and remove malware such as viruses. These programs scan computer
systems to identify viruses, and related malicious programs and delete them to
protect the system. An antivirus works similarly to the medicine given to the
patients to get well.

How does Antivirus Work?

Antivirus programs start their working by fully scanning users' systems

computers and files against different types of malware or viruses. Generally,
hackers constantly create new viruses and distribute them in different ways to
fix users' systems; a good antivirus is always able to scan to identify new or
unknown types of malware threats.

Antivirus software is a software program which is developed by a software

company; the program performs some essential functions such as −

• Check files and folders for malware and malicious patterns.

• Allows users to schedule automatic scanning.
• Remove malicious malware automatically, and clean files after detecting a
virus, in some cases antivirus notify their users about malware and take
consent to clean it.

Most programs use specific detection to identify known malware, generic

detection to find malware or patterns using a common codebase, and heuristic
detection to scan for unknown viruses by identifying suspicious files. If the
program identifies a virus-infected file, it deletes it to protect your device.
Antivirus works using detection techniques these are as −
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Virus detection techniques

Antivirus program uses different techniques to detect a virus in the system.
Some of the most commonly used techniques are as follows −

• Signature-based detection − In this technique, an antivirus detects viruses

using its signatures; every virus has a unique signature as its characteristic
of known malware to flag malicious software. These signatures help
antivirus programs to recognise viruses and are analysed by security
professionals.
• Heuristic-based detection − Heuristic-based detection uses the comparison
of known signatures of viruses against potential threats. This technique can
detect viruses that have not been uncovered yet; it can also detect existing
viruses that do not meet signatures because the virus misguides or has
different features. This method can also provide false-positive matches
when antivirus software misidentifies a programme that behaves like a
virus. A Heuristic detection includes −
o File analysis − This program examines a file's apparent purpose.
o Multicriteria analysis (MCA) − MCA decides whether to classify a file as
a harmful file on different detection methods.
• Behaviour-based detection − Behavior-based virus detection is a proactive
technique for detecting and reducing malware threats by analysing the
behaviour of programmes and processes rather than relying exclusively on
signature-based detection. It includes monitoring system behaviour,
setting a baseline of normal behaviour, anomaly detection, response and
mitigation. This method works well against zero-day exploits and
polymorphic malware that avoid signature-based detection.
• Cloud analysis − Cloud-based virus detection approaches use remote
servers and large databases to analyse possibly malicious files and activity.
Cloud-based antivirus solutions offer faster and more comprehensive
protection than traditional antivirus software installed on individual devices.
Furthermore, they can provide centralised management and monitoring
capabilities, making them ideal for enterprise setups with different devices.
It includes file submission, cloud analysis, signature-based scanning,
behaviour analysis, heuristic analysis, machine learning & AI, response and
mitigation and database update methods to analyse the cloud from
suspicious malware.
• Sandbox analysis − This detection method runs a programme or file in a
virtual sandbox to examine its behaviour before allowing it into the system.
Generally, the Sandbox analysis method can detect malicious programs in
a controlled and isolated environment called a sandbox.
• Host intrusion prevention system (HIPS) − It is used to detect malicious
activities within a program using signature-based detection. A HIPS
monitors activity and immediately warns users by presenting them with
authorisation alternatives such as Allow or Block.
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Popular Antivirus Software

Some popular antivirus programs are as −

• Norton AntiVirus
• McAfee
• Avira's
• Trend Micro
• Avast
• Malwarebytes
• ESET
• Norton 360 Deluxe
Advantages of Antivirus Software
Benifits Significations of Antivirus Software
• Suspicious virus detection and deletion, malware.
• Preventing fraud and phishing, as well as identity theft.
• Alert yourself before clicking on any links or websites that seem risky.
• Scanning the Dark Web for hacked email addresses.
• Secure password encryption for online accounts.
• To keep safer during online access.
• To maintain optimal performance.