Joel.Kimarai@dkut.ac.

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Lesson 1
By. Mr. Kimarai Joel
ECE 2214: THEORY OF STRUCTURES II
I: Prerequisites
Theory of Structures I
Purpose of the Course
To equip the learner with the fundamentals of structural analysis of:
i. Cables and arches
ii. Beams
iii. Trusses
Expected Learning Outcomes of the course
At the end of this course, the learner should be able to:
i. Analyze Cables and Arches; determinate structures.
ii. Determine elastic deformation for determinate beams and Trusses.
iii. Draw influence lines for determinate structures.
Course Content
Introduction to Cables, Determinate Arches systems, types and methods of analysis.
Influence line diagrams for determinate beams, trusses, and arches. Determination
of Elastic deformations for determinate beams and trusses.
Course Assessment
Continuous Assessment Tests – 30%
End of Semester Examination – 70%
Total – 100%
Mode of Delivery
Lectures, Tutorials, Case Studies, Seminars, Presentations, and Discussions.
Instruction Materials and Equipment
Whiteboard, Projector, Handouts, Computer, Internet, and Programming Software.

Reference
Hibbeler, R. (2018). Structural Analysis in SI Units. Pearson Education Limited.
 COURSE OUTLINE
I. Introduction to Theory of Structures II
❖ Recap TOS I
❖ Types of Structures & Identifications
• Determinate structures
• Indeterminate Structures
❖ Types of Indeterminacies in structures & identification
• Static Indeterminacy & Calculations
• Kinetic indeterminacy & Calculations
❖ Advantages and disadvantages of Determinate and Indeterminate Structures
❖ Practice Questions
II. Analysis of Cables and Arches Structures
❖ Introduction to Cable and Arches structures
❖ Analysis of Cable Structures
• Cables subjected to Concentrated Loads
• Cables subjected to Uniformly Distributed loads
• Solved Examples
❖ Analysis of Arches
• Arches subjected to Concentrated loads
• Arches subjected to UDL
• Solved Examples
❖ Civil Engineering Applications of Cables and Arches structures
❖ Practice Questions
III. Elastic Deformation of Determinate Beams and Trusses – Geometric
Method
❖ Introduction to Geometric structural analysis method.
❖ Forms of deformations of determinate beams and trusses
❖ Determining an Elastic Curve for deformation determination
❖ Double Integration method and its application
• Formulation and application
• Solved Examples.
❖ Singularity Method – McCaulay’s Principle
• Formulation/method approach
• Solved Examples
IV. Influence Line Diagrams (ILDs)
❖ Introduction to ILDs
❖ Applications and Case Studies
❖ ILDs for Reactions at supports, Shear forces, and Moments
• Point loads
• Moving loads
❖ Solved Examples
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO TOS II
A. Recap TOS I
Determinate structures, covered in TOS I, incorporated the calculation of Reactions
and Moments due to point load, distributed, and axial forces. Also, the identification
of reactions on different sections of trusses with point and distributed loads applied
was covered.
Methods of analyzing determinate structures; Direct analysis (where the number of
external loads accommodates the number of unknowns), Methods of sections
(different zones on the member are adopted for the accurate calculation of shear and
moments of forces both on the left and right of the point of application of load), and
Method of joints (where boundaries from two adjacent supports or joints are used);
were all used in TOS 1 and will also be used in this course (TOS II).
The use of calculated values to construct NFDs, SFDs, and BMDs while paying
close attention to sign convention, observation for both reactions and moments; and
the correct placing of each in its positive and negative end on either SFD or BMD
diagrams.
The learned or acquired knowledge would be used in the analysis involving
determinate structures like Cables, Arches, cantilever beams, and trusses. The
reactions and tensions, moments, deformations, and Influence Line Diagrams (ILDs)
will be covered throughout this second phase of Theory of Structures.
Example:
i. Establish a suitable x-y coordinate for the horizontal and vertical unknowns
ii. Draw an FBD for the structure under analysis
iii. Apply the equations of equilibrium to determine the unknown reactions and
moments.
 B. Types of Structures & Identifications
The determination of a form of structure is identified from a combination of the
elements (n) and the number of unknowns involved (x). The equity (=) or difference
(>, <) in these two compositions creates the degrees of freedom that determine the
static or kinetic conditions of the structure.
In identifying the determinacy of a structure, the following THREE factors are
considered WRT the X=><N condition:
• Equilibrium forces
• Compatibility of deformations
• Force-deformation relations
Using these considerations, both determinate and indeterminate structures would be
easily identified and analyzed.
❖ Determinate Structures: A statically determinate structure is one that is
stable and all unknown reaction forces can be determined from the equations
of equilibrium alone (x=n).
Only THREE equations would be required to analyze these forms of structures;
depending on the summation of forces in the X and Y axis, and the respective
Moments.
Here, NFDs, SFDs, and BMDs can be introduced to help in the analysis process to
determine the unknowns and present them in diagrammatic representations.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0

For example; simply supported beams, cantilever beams, single and double
overhanging beams, three-hinged arches, etc.
❖ Indeterminate Structures: A statically indeterminate structure is one that is
stable but contains more unknown forces than available equations of
equilibrium. Statically indeterminate structures can be solved but require
information on the deformation of the structure (x>n). The combination of the
deformation and forces that the structure is subjected to creates a
compatibility that helps in its analysis and solution.

There is a composition of elements and joints that do not simultaneously match. As a

result, a differential degree of freedom is created that requires additional equations
for the solution.
When the identified compatibility, per section, that creates a determinate structural
member to analyze using equilibrium equations is attained, the solution from the
analysis of an indeterminate structure would be achieved.
Statically indeterminate structures are also called redundant structures because
the redundant reaction components or members are not necessary for stability
consideration. For instance, a statically indeterminate structure of the first degree
can possess one redundant reaction or member, the removal of which does not
affect the static stability.
The Followings are three basic types of indeterminate structures.
❖ Discrete (Skeletal) Structures
Pin Jointed & Rigid Jointed
❖ Continuum Structures
Surface Structures (Like slab, shell, etc.)
Solid Structures (Space dôme etc.)
❖ Discrete & Continuum Structures
Bridges with Slab
 C. Determinacy in Structures
Both determinate and indeterminate structures possess different features governed
by their ability to counter the effects of external and internal loads they are subjected
to. However, when different loads are not countered, these structures may
experience instability of different magnitudes.
Determinate and indeterminate structures may experience instabilities defined by the
following:
• Static Instability: On the application of external loads, the structure becomes
undesirably unstable and may collapse i.e. we don’t know what the final
condition will be. For instance;

In figures 1.2 & 1.3, the static instability is due to the reaction forces being parallel.
In figures 1.4 & 1.5, the static instability is due to the reaction forces being
concurrent.
In figure 1.6, the static instability is due to the inadequate arrangement of members
in the truss.
• Geometric Instability: On the application of external loads, the structure may
change its shape but the collapse of the structure doesn’t occur and finally,
the structure assumes a stable shape. However, in many structures it is
undesirable.
 • Structural Instability: The structure resists the external load for some time
and when the resisting force is exceeded by the external force, it yields. For
example, yield mechanism, geometric buckling, etc.

Structurally Indeterminate structures are not unstable. However, they are defined by
two forms of indeterminacy origins and how each is dealt with for the structure to
maintain its stability. These are:
i. Static Indeterminacy
If conditions of static equilibrium are not sufficient to analyze the structure, it is called
a statically indeterminate structure. As per the definition, bending moments and
shear forces are dependent on material properties and cross-section.
Static indeterminacy is of two types; external (ISE) and internal (ISI).
The total static indeterminacy (IS) is the sum of these two as follows:
Is = ISE+ISI.
• External Indeterminacy: It is the indeterminacy in the external reaction
component. If the number of resultant reactions is more than the available
 equations of equilibrium. For all statically indeterminate structures, the
external static indeterminacy is calculated as follows:

Where r is the no. of independent reactions, d is an integer (2 or 3) for dimension

(2D or 3D) and s is the no. of special conditions.
#for 2-D structures, d = 2 and hence;

For 3-D structures, d = 3 and so;

The special conditions that a statically indeterminate structure can have are
defined by the joint provisions as follows:
No. of special conditions, s = 1, for internal hinge as shown;

s = 2, for a link as shown;

• Internal Indeterminacy: If the number of internal forces or stresses cannot

be evaluated based on equilibrium equations, the structure is internally
indeterminate. For instance, the member forces of a truss cannot be
determined by static equilibrium equations alone. As a result, the truss
structure is statically indeterminate to the first degree.
For pin-jointed trusses
The Internal indeterminacy of a structure is also depended on the dimensional
perspective of the structure (2D or 3D).

Where m = number of members, j = the number of joints, and d = dimension.

For a compound truss having discontinuities for a simple truss, as that in the figure
below, we have to work in parts.

NB: For a 2-D truss, total static indeterminacy is:

For rigid jointed frames

For example, the frame sections below:

C being the no. of cut or no. of closed loops.

For 1 and 2 above:

For hybrid structures

For a hybrid structure (i.e. rigid and pin-jointed structure);

With m1 being the no. of members meeting at the hinge. Below are two examples of
the hybrid frame.
 ii. Kinetic Indeterminacy
Kinematic indeterminacy (IK) is the total number of unknown joint displacements;
defining the total degree of freedom in the structure.
The number of independent joint displacements that describe all possible
movements of a structure is known as the number of degrees of freedom or
kinematic indeterminacy of the structure.
If the number of independent displacements is set to zero, the structure then
becomes kinematically determinate.
For trusses
For 2-D trusses.

For 3-D trusses.

For Rigid jointed plane frames

The Kinetic indeterminacy depends on whether its members are extensible or
inextensible.
If members are extensible, their kinetic indeterminacy is given as follows:

If members are inextensible, their kinetic indeterminacy is given as follows:

Examples

Hybrid structures

With (i) being the no of internal hinges not at the joints.

Chapter Summary Examples & Practice Questions
a. Differentiate between determinate and indeterminate structures.
b. Identify three groups of indeterminate structures.
c. Differentiate between stable and unstable civil engineering structures.
d. Differentiate between sway (yielding) and non-sway structures.
e. Differentiate between static and kinetic indeterminacy in structures.
f. Calculate the Static (Internal & External) and Kinetic indeterminacy in the
following structures. Group them into determinate or indeterminate while
offering conclusions on the number of degrees of liberty where necessary.
 Determinate and Indeterminate Structures
➢ Both determinate and indeterminate structures possess their respective
engineering advantages and disadvantages throughout their
applications.
➢ Determinate structures are easier to analyze, when presented their
engineering problem for analysis/solve because they do not require any
compatibility equations. However, these structures are at a greater risk
of failing if any of their supports would be removed, interfered with, or
displaced.
Indeterminate structures require knowledge of the compatibility equations for
analysis. However, their stability remains unaltered even with a change in their
supports due to an existing redundant reaction. Again, these structures have a
greater response against settlements, environmental and climatic changes, tolerance
to building conditions, and adaptive to changes in construction aspects.