CENG 2102 Theory I, Oct 2014 - 2

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
CENG-2102 Theory of Structures I
Course Outline
1. Stability & Determinacy of Structures
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Stability of Structures,
1.3 Determinacy of Structures
2. Loads on Structures
2.1 Dead Load
2.2 Live Load
2.3 Environmental Loads (wind loads, earthquake forces, …)
2.4 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures
2.5 Load Combinations
3. Influence Lines (IL)for Determinate Structures

3.1 IL for Beams (IL for shear forces and bending moment)
3.2 IL for paneled girders
3.3 IL for trusses
4. Deflection of Determinate Structures

4.1 Direct Integration Method
4.2 Moment-Area Method
4.3 Conjugate-Beam Method
4.4 Method of Virtual Work
4.5 Graphical Multiplication
4.6 Castiglione’s Theorem
4.7 Maxwell Beti law of reciprocal deflection
5. Consistent Deformation Method

5.1 Analysis of Indeterminate beams
5.2 Analysis of Trusses by Consistent Deformation Method
References:
• Nigussie Tebeje (Prof.), Statically Indeterminate Structural Analysis, 1984
• Harry H. West and L.F. Geshwindner, Fundamentals of Structural Analysis 2nd ed. 2002
• Popov, E.P., Mechanics of Materials
• EBCS-1, 1995 (Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 1- Loadings)
• EBCS-8, 1995 (Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 8- Design of structures for Earthquake
Resistance)
• Hibbeler, Structural Analysis, Published by Pearson Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Inc.
• A. Kassimali, Structural Analysis, ,4th Edition, SI, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
CENG 2102- Theory of Structures I AAiT, School of Civil and Environmental Eng’g.
•
CHAPTER 1
1. Stability & Determinacy of Structures
1.1 Introduction
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support loads. The fundamental
purpose of a structure is to transmit loads from the point of application to the point of support
and through the foundations to the ground.
Before going into the analysis of any structure, it is necessary to identify its statical type
(classification), i.e., whether it is determinate or indeterminate, stable or unstable. An unstable
arrangement of supports and structural members should be avoided.
All structures are subjected to loads from their functions and to other unavoidable loads.
Establishment of the loads that act on a structure is one of the most difficult and yet important
steps in the design process.
In this chapter; criteria for statically classification will be established and different structures
will be checked for stability and determinacy.
1.2 Stability of Structures
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to satisfy the
equations of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or, constrained by their
supports. In structural analysis, a structure is said to be stable when it can support any possible
system of applied loads.
Stability can be divided into two as external and internal.
A structure in which there are insufficient numbers of reactions to prevent motion from taking
place is called an unstable structure. This is external instability.
What matters is not only the number of support reactions but also their arrangement. Structures
for which the numbers of reaction components are greater than or equal to the number of
available equilibrium equations but that are unstable due to arrangement of these reaction
components are said to be geometrically unstable.
When the reaction elements are three or more like supports that are either parallel or concurrent,
they are not sufficient to maintain static equilibrium.
For the case of parallel reactions, they will offer no resistance to horizontal motion, thus
making the arrangement unstable. The point of intersection of the concurrent reactions becomes
an instantaneous center of rotation and the system is instantaneously unstable.
Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

Yisihak Gebre Page 1
The stable fundamental element of a plane truss is a triangular arrangement of three members.
A truss may have internal instability if four members are used to form an element.
In conclusion, the stability of structures depends on the number and geometric arrangement of
reactions and structural members rather than on the strength of individual member or supports.
Despite the possibility that an unstable structure could become stable under a particular system
of applied loads, the structure is classified as an unstable structure.
1.3 Determinacy of Structures
When all forces in a structure can be determined strictly from equilibrium equations, the
structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than
available equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate.
A statically indeterminate structure is one that cannot be analyzed by the equations of static
equilibrium alone. Indeterminacy is introduced in structures on account of functional
requirements, limitations on types of framing, need for stiffness and often by the nature of
inherent continuity introduced by the type of material used like reinforced concrete.
A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses more members or is supported by more

reactive restraints than are strictly necessary for stability (and equilibrium). The excess
members or restraints are called redundant. The degree of indeterminacy is the number of
unknowns in excess of the available equilibrium equations. In the analysis of indeterminate
structures, therefore, ways of establishing additional equations must be sought. These additional
equations may be derived from compatibility of deformation or from conditions of symmetry.
This additional task would make the analysis of indeterminate structures more difficult than
their determinate counterparts.
Indeterminate structures have some advantages and disadvantages over determinate ones. One
obvious disadvantage is the computational difficulty involved when establishing the required
additional equations. Another disadvantage is that indeterminate structures will be stressed due
to differential settlement of supports, temperature changes and errors in fabrication of members.

On the other hand, however, indeterminate structures are stiffer and in the case of over loads
indeterminate structures can provide an advantage of redistribution of loads within the
structure.
The indeterminacy of a structure can be external (with respect to reactions) or internal (with
respect to member forces). The question of identifying external or internal indeterminacy is
largely of academic interest. What is of primary importance is the total degree of
indeterminacy, Nevertheless, determining external and internal indeterminacy is desirable as a
method to evaluate the total degree of indeterminacy.
A structure is internally indeterminate when it is not possible to determine all internal forces by
using the equations of static equilibrium. For the great majority of structures, the question of
whether or not they are indeterminate can be decided by inspection. For certain structures this is
not so, and for these types rules have to be established. The internal indeterminacy of trusses
will be first considered, and then that of continuous frames
1.4 Criteria for Stability and Determinacy of Structures-Trusses, Beams and Frames
Internal stability of structures and determining which conditions exist in a given case need
experience, especially for trusses. In some cases the structure is different from what our
mathematical criteria tell us. Therefore, stability of trusses is most easily settled by inspection.
1.4.1 Beams
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting

bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams
generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e.,
loads due to an earthquake or wind).
• Stability depends on external supports

• Determinacy relates on the number of available and conditional equations.
- ra < r; structure is statically unstable
- ra = r; structure is statically determinate
- ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate
where:
ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
Remark: r = 3 is not a sufficient conditions for stability

1.4.2 Trusses
A simple truss can be made by combining three bars to form a triangle. Stability depends partly
on external supports and partly on the arrangement of members or bars. Three reaction
components are required for external stability and determinacy of a plane truss without
condition equations.
1.4.2.1 External classification
The external statical classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction
components, ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
- ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
- ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
- ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally
where
ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability,
usually 3+n
The condition for ra ≥ r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification
because the arrangement of the reaction components may render the truss unstable.
1.4.2.2 Internal classification

For internal classification, in addition to the above definition for r; let m be the total number of
bars and j the total number of joints. Then
2j = m + r
The above equation can be rewritten as: m = 2j – r
In this form, m is the number of members required to form an internally statically determinate
truss that connects j joints and has r reaction components required for external stability. If ma is
the actual number of bar forces in the truss, then the following criteria hold true for internal
classification
- ma < m; truss is statically unstable internally

- ma > m; truss is statically determinate internally
- ma > m; truss is statically indeterminate internally
Consider the trusses shown below. The truss shown in fig (a) is stable where as the truss shown
in fig (b) is unstable since the geometric arrangement of the members is not maintained.
Fig (a) Fig (b)

Examples

1.4.3 Frames
Frames are composed of continuous members and rigidly connected joints, The degree of
indeterminacy (DI) is determined as the difference of the total number of unknown reaction
components and the number of static equilibrium equations available. Note that the frame with
the hinge has a fourth condition equation, since the bending moment at the hinge must be zero.
Stability depends partly on external supports and partly on moment resisting joints.
1.4.3.1 External classification

The external statical classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction
components, ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
- ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
- ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
- ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally
where ra is the available number of reaction components

r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability,
usually 3+n
ra ≥ r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification because the
arrangement of the reaction components may render the frame unstable.
1.4.3.2 Internal classification

(3 ma + r) < (3j + n);
Let ma =the actual number of members
r = the minimum number of independent reaction components required for external stability
j= the total number joints
n= number of special/condition equations
Therefore, 3 ma + r =the number of unknowns
3j+n=the number of available equations
Then the following criteria hold true for internal classification of frames
- (3ma + r) < (3j + n); structure is statically unstable
- (3ma + r) = (3j + n); structure is statically determinate
- (3ma + r) > (3j + n); structure is statically indeterminate
Overall classification
The criterion already established for both trusses and frames hold also for investigation of
overall effect. To determine the overall classification of a frame, in the above expressions
replace r by ra.
Note. The number of conditional equation introduced by a hinge joint is equal to the number
of members at the joint minus one.

Examples

CHAPTER 2
2. Loads on Structures
Determination of loads that act on a structure, evaluation of critical force effects in the member
and dimensioning are the most difficult and yet important steps in the overall process of design.
The loads that enter a system are of three different types. Concentrated loads (example a single
vehicular wheel load) are those that are applied over a relatively small area. Line loads are
distributed along a narrow strip of the structure. The weight of a member itself and the weight
of a wall or partition are examples of this type of load. Surface loads are loads that are
distributed over an area. The loads on a warehouse floor and the snow load on a roof are
examples of surface loads.
The loads that act on a structure can be grouped into three categories: dead loads, live loads, and
environmental loads. These categories can be further divided according to the specific nature of
the loading. Because the method of analysis is the same for each category of loading, all loads
could be combined before the analysis is performed. However, separate analyses for the
individual loading cases are usually carried out to facilitate the consideration of various load
combinations.
Furthermore, loads can be classified based on:
• Direction:- Gravity/vertical and Lateral/horizontal loads

• Variation with time:- dead load (permanent) and Live Loads (temporary)
• Structural Response:- Static (loads applied gradually) and dynamic (loads applied
over a short period of time and vary in magnitude with time)
2.1 Dead loads

Dead loads are those that act on the structure as a result of the weight of the structure itself and
of the components of the system that are permanent fixtures. As a result, dead loads are
characterized as having fixed magnitudes and positions. Examples of dead loads are the weights
of the structural members themselves, such as beams and columns, the weights of roof surfaces,
floor slabs, ceilings, or permanent partitions, and so on.
The dead loads associated with the structure can be determined if the materials and sizes of the
various components are known. Some of standard material unit weights are shown in Table 2.1.
(Refer EBCS-1, 1995 Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 1- Loadings)

Table 2.1
Material Unit wt. (kN/m3)
Solid Brick 22
Hollow Concrete Block (HCB) 14-20
Trachyte (Masonry) 26
Concrete (with reinforcement) 25
Steel 77
Zigba 6
2.2 Live loads

In a general sense, live loads are considered to include all loads on the structure that are not
classified as dead loads. However, it has become common to narrow the definition of live loads to
include only loads that are produced through the construction, use, or occupancy of the structure
and not to include environmental.
These loads are dynamic in character in that they vary both in magnitude and position. Live loads
where the dynamic nature has significance because of the rapidity with which change in position
occurs are called moving loads, whereas live loads in which change occurs over an extended period
of time, or where there is the potential for change whether exercised or not, are referred to as
movable loads. Moving loads include vehicular loads on bridges or crane loads in industrial build-
ings. Another type of live load is a variable load or a time dependent load-that is, one whose
magnitude changes with time, such as a load induced through the operation of machinery.
2.2.1 Occupancy live loads

Occupancy live loads for buildings are usually specified in terms of the minimum values that
must be used for design purposes. Some representative values are given in Table 2.2.
(Refer EBCS-1, 1995 Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 1- Loadings)
Table 2.2
Category Uniform Load (kN/m2)
Private dwelling 1.5
Bed rooms, class rooms, . . . 2.0
Offices, Café, . . . 3.0
Assembly halls, Cinema, . . . 4.0
2.2.2 Traffic Loads for Bridges

Bridges must be designed to support the vehicular loads associated with their functional use and
minimum loads are mandated for designed purposes. In the case of highway bridges, these loads
are specified in Bridge Design Manuals. The approach is to specify the weights and spacing of
axles and wheels for a design truck, a design tandem, and the design lane load. These loadings
provide for a set of concentrated loads (which represent a truck type loading) and a uniform
load (which simulates a line of vehicles).

2.2.3 Impact loads

Loads that are applied over a very short period of time have a greater effect on the structure than
would occur if the same loads were applied statically. The manner in which a load varies with
time and the time over which the full load is placed on the structure will determine the factor by
which the static response should be increased to obtain the dynamic response.
For building occupancy loads, the minimum design loads normally include adequate allowance
for ordinary impact conditions. However, provisions must be made in the structural design for
uses and loads that involve unusual vibrations and impact forces. One situation in which an
impact effect (IM is defined as the dynamic load allowance) is applied for moving vehicular
loads on a highway bridge.
2.3 Environmental loads

Structures experience numerous loading conditions as a result of the environment in which they
exist. These are snow and ice loads, roof loads, wind loads and earthquake Loads.
2.3.1 Snow and Ice Loads

The procedure for establishing the static snow loads on a building is normally based on
ground snow loads and an appropriate ground-to-roof conversion.
The distribution of snow on a roof is complex, and many different approaches are used.
Factors considered in calculating snow and ice loads are location, exposure factor, thermal
factor, the effects of unloaded portions of roof, unbalanced or non-uniform loads on various
roof configurations, drifting, sliding snow, and extra loads induced by rain on snow.
Snow loads are not normally considered in bridge design because they are usually small
when compared with other loadings on the structure. However, ice loads can be appreciable
on bridge structures. The icing not only creates loads on the structure but also increases the
member sizes, which, in turn, increases the magnitude of the wind induced loads.
2.3.2 Rain Loads

Roof loads that result from the accumulation of rainwater on flat roofs can be a serious
problem. This condition is produced by the ponding that occurs when the water
accumulates faster than it runs off, either because of the intensity of the rainfall or because
of the inadequacy or blockage of the drainage system. The real danger is that as ponding
occurs the roof deflects into a dished configuration, which can accommodate more water,
and thus greater loads result.
The best way to prevent the problem is to provide a modest slope to the roof (0.25 in. per ft
or 2cm. per m or more) and to design an adequate drainage system. In addition to the
primary drainage, there should be a secondary system to preclude the accumulation of
standing water above a certain level.

2.3.3 Wind Loads

The wind loads that act on a structure result from movement of the air against the
obstructing surfaces. Wind effects induce forces, vibrations, and in some cases instabilities
in the overall structure as well as its non-structural components. These wind effects depend
on the wind speed, mass density of the air, location and geometry of the structure, and
vibrational characteristics of the system.
The design wind pressure that is used to establish the wind load on a structure is directly
related to velocity pressure (q) and is given by:
1 2
q= ρv
2
where: ρ is the mass density of air, and v is the wind velocity.
Wind Forces according to EBSC-1, 1995

Wind Pressure: The external and internal wind pressures are given as:
We = q ref ce ( z e )c pe
Wi = q ref ce ( z e )c pi
Where q ref is the reference wind pressure; We and Wi are the external and internal pressures;
ce(ze) and ce(zi) are the external and internal exposure coefficients; cpe and cpi are the external
and internal pressure coefficients.
Reference wind pressure: The reference wind pressure is given by:

1
qref = ρVref2
2
where: ρ is air density and Vref is the reference wind velocity.
The air density is a function of altitude and depends on the temperature and pressure to be
expected in the region during storms. A temperature of 200 C has been selected as
appropriate for Ethiopia and the variation of mean atmospheric pressure with altitude is
given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Values of air Density, ρ
Site Altitude (m) 0 500 1000 1500 2000

Above Sea Level
Air density, ρ 1.20 1.12 1.06 1.00 0.94
(kg/m3)
Reference wind velocity: The reference wind velocity is taken as 22m/s.

Exposure coefficient: takes into the account the effects of terrain, topography, and elevation.
Ce(z) =fn (terrain category, topographic coefficient, elevation)

 
2 2  7kT 
C e ( z e ) = C r ( z ) • Ct ( z ) 1+ 



Cr ( z )Ct ( z ) 
Where Z = Height above the ground up to the top of the roof

KT = Terrain factor
Cr (Z) - roughness coefficient
Roughness coefficient: accounts for the variability of mean wind velocity at the site of the
structure due to:
• the height above ground level
• the roughness of the terrain depending on the wind direction.
The roughness coefficient Cr(z) at height z is defined by the logarithmic profile and given by:-
 KT ln( z / z0 ) for Zmin ≤ Z ≤ 200m

Cr ( z ) = 
 KT ln( zmin ) for Z <Zmin
Zo - is the roughness length

Zmin - is the minimum height
KT = Terrain factor
Terrain category: The terrain category attempts to take into account the effect of the land
coverage, and is given below. The terrain type is classified into 4 groups as follows:
Category I: Lakes with at least 5 km fetch upwind and smooth flat country without
obstacles.
Category II: Farmland with boundary hedges, occasional small farm structure,
houses or trees
Category III: Suburban or industrial areas and permanent forests.
Category IV: Urban areas in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with
buildings and their average height.
Topography coefficient: The topography coefficient Ct accounts for the increase in mean
wind speed over isolated hills and escarpments and mountainous regions. It is defined by:
Ct =1 for Φ<0.05
Ct =1+2SΦ for 0.05≤Φ<0.3
Ct = 1+0.6S for Φ>0.3
where: S is a factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of S=1.0 at the

crest of a hill or escarpment and the value of S=0 at the boundary on the
topography affected zone, Φ is the upwind slope in the wind direction.

Factor S: Cliffs and escarpments
Factor S: Hills and ridges

Pressure coefficient: The shape factor takes into account the effect of shape of structure on
the pressure distribution.
The external pressure coefficients cpe for buildings and individual parts of building depend
on the size of the loaded area A. They are given for loaded area A of 1m2 and 10m2 in the
relevant tables for the appropriate building configuration as cpe.1 and cpe.10, respectively.
For areas between 1m2 and 10m2, values are obtained by linear interpolation. That is:
Cpe.1 for A≤1m2

Cpe = Cpe.1 +( Cpe.10 - Cpe.1)log10A for 1m2<A<10m2
Cpe.10 for A≥10m2
The values of pressure coefficient are applicable to buildings.
Values of external pressure coefficients for different cases are given in Table A.1 to Table
A.5 of EBCS-1, 1995.

2.3.4 Earthquake Loads

A common dynamic loading that structures must resist is that associated with earthquake
motions. Here, loads are not applied to the structure in the normal fashion. Instead, the base
of the structure is subjected to a sudden movement. Since the upper portion of the structure
resists motion because of its inertia, a deformation is induced in the structure. This
deformation, in turn, induces a horizontal vibration that causes horizontal shear forces
throughout the structure.
It results from the acceleration of the supporting earth. Movement of the ground during EQ
in the direction parallel to the ground surface has the most damaging effect on structures.
The resulting earthquake loads are dependent on the nature of the ground movement and the
inertia response characteristics of the structure. The computation of lateral loads due to EQ
and load distribution to various levels of a building frame as of EBCS-8, 1995 (Ethiopian
Building Code Standards part 8- Design of structures for Earthquake Resistance) is
presented below.
Fb = S d (T1 ).W
S d (T1 ) = α β γ
where: Fb = Total lateral load on the structure (seismic base shear)

S d (T1 ) = Ordinate of the design spectrum
T1 = Fundamental period
W = Seismic dead load DL (+25% for storage and warehouses)
α = α0 I, ( α is the ratio of the design bedrock acceleration to the acceleration
of gravity, g)
I = importance of a structure
β = 1.2 S 2 / 3 ≤ 2.5 ( β is the design response factor)
T
γ = accounts the ductility level (behavior factor)
α 0 = Bed rock acceleration for the site
S = Site coefficient.
T1 = C1 H 3 / 4 ; C1 = 0.075 H = height of the building above base in m
0.085, for steel moment resisting frames


C1 = 0.075, or for RC moment resisting frames, and eccentrically braced frames
0.050, for other buildings

Thus, the total lateral load distributed to various level of the building frame is given by the
Ft formula.
(Fb − Ft ) wi hi
Fi =
∑w h i i
Ft = 0.07 T1 Fb

Where: hi = height of each floor level
wi = Weight of the structure at each floor level
Therefore, Fi at level i distributed in accordance with mass distribution on that level.
The parameters α 0 , I, S and γ are obtained as follows.
i) Bed rock acceleration ( α 0 )

Areas are sub divided into seismic zones depending on the local hazard.
Zone 4 3 2 1
α0 0.1 0.07 0.05 0.03
Examples of seismic zones of some towns of Ethiopia are shown in the following table.
Zone 4 3 2 1 0
Awassa, Mekele, Assela, Addis Ababa, Ambo, Axum, Assossa,
Towns Nazreth, Asaita Dila Dire-Dawa Jima, Jijiga Bahir-dar,
Gondor
Fig. Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia

ii) Importance of a structure (I)

I = 1.4 → hospitals, fire stations, power plants
= 1.2 → schools, halls, …
= 1.0 → ordinary buildings
= 0.8 → buildings of minor importance
iii) Site coefficient (S)

For different soil types, the value of S is given:-
Subsoil A − 1.0 → rock, stiff deposits of sand, gravel or over consolidated clay
B − 1.2 → deep deposits of medium dense sand, gravel or medium stiff clays, ..
C − 1.5 → loose cohesion less soil deposits with or without soft cohesive layers,
iv) The behavior factor (γ )
It depends on the structural system:

• for concrete structures γ ≤ 0.70
• for steel structures, it ranges from 0.17 to 1.0
• for timber structures it varies from 0.30 to 1.0
2.4 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures
Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures partially or
fully submerged in water must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure acts
normal to the submerged surface of the structure, with its magnitude varying linearly with height.
The pressure at a point located at a distance h below the surface of the liquid is given as: P = γ h , in
which γ - unit weight of the liquid.
Underground structures, basement walls and floors, and retaining walls must be designed to resist
soil pressure. Similarly the vertical soil pressure is given by P = γ h , with γ now representing the
unit weight of the soil.

2.5 Load Combinations
To estimate the magnitudes of the design loads, it is necessary to consider the possibility that some
of these loads might act simultaneously on the structure. The structure is finally designed so that it
will be able to withstand the most unfavorable combination of loads that is likely to occur in its
lifetime. The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the structures must be
designed are usually specified in building codes.
Ultimate Design Load

The ultimate design load acting on a member will be the summation of the relevant characteristic
load combinations multiplied by their respective partial safety factors. Thus, the ultimate design
load for the combination of dead and imposed loads will be expressed as follows.
Partial Safety Factors for Load

In practice the applied load may be greater than the characteristic load for any of the following
reasons:
a. Calculation errors
b. Constructional inaccuracies
c. Unforeseen increases in load (the unfavorable deviation of loads from their nominal
values)
To allow for these the respective characteristic loads are multiplied by a partial safety factor γf
to give the ultimate design load appropriate to the limit state being considered. That is,
Ultimate design load = γf x characteristic load
Load combinations depend on the design philosophy adopted.

Load Combinations for Ultimate Limit States (ULS)

o Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qki)
Fd = 1.3Gk + 1.6Qki
o Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable actions

Fd = l.3Gk + 1.35ΣQki
o Permanent action, variable action and accidental (seismic) action

Fd = GK + Qki +AEd = 0.75 (l.3Gk + 1.6 Qk) + AEd
Load Combinations for Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

o Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qk1)
Fd = Gk + Qki
o Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable actions

Fd = Gk + 0.9ΣQki
The final design of a structure must be consistent with the most critical combination of loads
that the structure is to support. However, some judgment is necessary in selecting loading
conditions that can reasonably be combined. Obviously, the maximum effects of all loading
conditions should not be combined because it is unlikely that they will all occur simultaneously.

CHAPTER 3
3. Influence Lines for Determinate Structures
Introduction
An influence line for a given function, such as a reaction, axial force, shear force, or bending
moment, is a graph that shows the variation of that function at any given point on a structure due to
the application of a unit load at any point on the structure.
An influence line for a function differs from a shear, axial or bending moment diagram. Influence
lines can be generated by independently applying a unit load at several points on a structure and
determining the value of the function due to this load, i.e. shear, axial, and moment at the desired
location. The calculated values for each function are then plotted where the load was applied and
then connected together to generate the influence line for the function.
Influence Lines for a Simple Beam

For illustration consider the simply supported beam shown in figure 3.1 and draw the influence
lines for the reactions RA, RC, and the shear and bending moment at point B, of the simply supported
beam shown.
Figure 3.1
i. Influence Line for Reaction at A, RA
The influence line for a reaction at a support is found by independently applying a unit load
at several points on the structure and determining, through statics, what the resulting
reaction at the support will be for each case.
Figure 3.1a
MC = 0
RA(L)=1(L-x) RA = (L-x)/L
If the unit load is applied at A, the reaction at A will be equal to unity. Similarly, if the unit
load is applied at B (at x=Ll), the reaction at A will be equal to (L- Ll)/L = Lr/L, and if the
unit load is applied at C (at x=L), the reaction at A will be equal to 0.

Figure 3.1b - Influence line for the support reaction at A
ii. Influence Line for Reaction at C, RC
From figure 3.1a above,

MA = 0
RC(L)=1(x) Rc = X/L
At x=0, RC=0 and at x=L, RC=1
Figure 3.1c - Influence line for the reaction at support C
iii. Influence Line for Shear at B

The influence line for the shear at point B can be found by developing equations for the
shear at the section using statics. This can be accomplished as follows:
Figure 3.1d Figure 3.1e
a) if the load moves from A to B, consider figure 3.1d

Fy = 0 VB=RA-1
But, RA = (L-x)/L
Therefore the shear force at B, VB becomes
VB=-1 +(L-x)/L = -x/L
At x=0, VB=0 and at x=Ll, VB= -Ll/L
b) if the load moves from B to C, figure 3.1e

Fy = 0 VB = 1- Rc
But, Rc = x/L Fig 3.1f Influence line for the Shear at
Up on substitution, the shear force at B, VB point B.
becomes: VB=( L-x)/L
At x=Ll, VB=( L-L1)/L= Lr/L and at x=L, VB= 0

iv. Influence line for Moment at B

The influence line for the moment at point B can be found by using statics to develop
equations for the moment at the point of interest, due to a unit load acting at any location on
the structure.
a) if the load moves from A to B, consider figure 3.1d

MB = 0 MB+1(Ll-x)-RA(Ll) = 0
X
BM B = Rr Lr = Lr
L
at x = 0 BM B = 0 Lℓ L r
m =
Lℓ L r L
at x = Lℓ BM B =
L
b) if the load moves from B to C, figure 3.1e

MB = 0 RC(Lr) -1(x-Ll)-MB = 0
L−x
BM B = Rr ℓ t = Lℓ Fig 3.1g Influence line for Bending
L moment at point B.
Lr Lℓ
at x = l ℓ , BM B =
L
at x = L BM B = 0
• Determination of a stress at a point due to different loads using influence curve

i) Series of concentrated loads say P1 and P2 as shown.
Fig 3.1g IL for SFB
The product of the load P1 and the ordinate of the influence line at the position of the
respective load shall give the magnitude of the stress at the section due to the induced load
In the particular case

SFa = S1 P1 + S 2 P2
Where S1 and S 2 represent the ordinates of the IL with appropriate sign for SFa, at the
respective positions of the loads P1 and P2 .

ii) Uniformly distributed load w, say for a length d, position as shown
Fig 3.1h IL for SFB
Consider a length d x and force acting F = wdx.

d dx d
SFa due to total load over length d = ∑ wd x . Si =
i =1
∑ Si d
i =1
x
Where: ∑ Si d x is the area under w of the IL
Hence, the product of W and the area under the influence curve give the stress under
consideration due to a uniformly distributed load:
• Determination of position of moving load system for maximum value of a particular

function:
To establish criteria for position of LL (living load) the different type of load system are
considered.
A. Single moving load.
- Place the load at the point of the ordinate of the IL for that function is a maximum
B. Uniform load longer than the span of the structure for which the ordinates to IL for that
function have the same sign.
- Place the load over all those portion of the structure for which the ordinates to IL for
that function have the same sign.
C. Uniform load less than the span:-
- In this particular case, lets consider the shape of influence curve
- IL for SF type of simple beam:-
Place the head of the load at the section and let the load covers the left
portion for maximum negative and the right portion for maximum value.
- IL for BM type of simple beam
Critical position may be obtained if the load is placed in such a way that the
section divides the load in the same ratio as the section divides the span.

In this case,
wy l
= l
w( d − y ) l r
D. Series of concentrated leads at fixed distance a part:-

Here also we need to consider the shape of IL
- Shear force type
The maximum SF occurs the first load of the system which give an intensity of leading
equal to or greater than the average intensity of loading for the loads an the span moving
from left for negative SF and from right for positive SF
i.e
Pr
≥
∑P
ℓr ℓ
- BM at a section of simple beam:-
w1 − resultant of the force at the right

w1 w2
For the load to the left of the section > , while for the load to the right of the
ℓ1 ℓ2
w1 w2
section < ,
ℓ1 ℓ2

E. Absolute maximum stress for simple beam:

i) Absolute maximum SF
- Occurs at a section immediately adjacent to one of the supports.
ii) Absolute max BM
a) For simple or uniform load. Absolute maximum BM occurs at mid span
b) for simple or concentrated load.
The absolute maximum BM occurs under any particular load when the center of the span is mid
way between that load and the resultant (R) of all the loads on the span.
⇒ x = (l − d ) / 2
3.2 IL for paneled girders

In bridge construction, the live loads are usually transmitted to the main beams or girders through
floor beams. Consider the following figure shown in Fig. 3.2a to construct IL for shear force at
point P.
Fig 3.2a Paneled Girders
For u=1 between joint 1 and 2,
l2 − x x − l1
R1 = and R2 =
l2 − l1 l 2 − l1

Consider the lower beam shown in Fig. 3.2b
Fig 3.2b Lower beam
From statics,
l −x x
RA = and R B =
L L
SFP=RA-R1
 l − x   l2 − x 
SFA =   − 
 L   l 2 − l1 
   
At x = l1 , SFA = − l1 / L at x = l 2 = l1 + l 3 , SFA = L − l 2 / L
Fig 3.2c IL for shear force at point P, SFP

3.3 IL for trusses

As the loads are gradually applied to a truss at panel points (joints), the same procedure as that used
for constructing ILs for paneled girders is applicable.
The basic assumption to construct ILs for trusses and girders is the stringers act as simple beams
between the adjacent floor beams so that the IL will be a straight line between any two adjacent
panel points/joints.
The following procedure may be considering for the construction of influence lines for axial forces
in members trusses:
Draw the influence lines for the reactions of the given truss.
Determine the expression(s) of the member force whose influence line is desired. /by using the
method of sections or the method of joints/
If using the method of sections,
Apply a unit load to the left of the left end of the panel through which the section passes,
and determine the expression for the member force by applying the equilibrium equation
to the free body of the truss to the right of the section.
Next, apply the unit load to the right of the right end of the section, and determine the
member force expression by applying the equilibrium equation to the free body to the
left of the section.
Construct the influence line by plotting the member force expressions and by connecting
the ordinates at the ends of the sectioned panel by a straight line.
When using the method of joints,
If the joint being considered is not located on the loaded chord of the truss, then
determine the expression of the desired member force directly by applying the equation
of equilibrium to the free body of the joint. Otherwise, apply a unit load at the joint
under consideration, and determine the magnitude of the member force by considering
the equilibrium of the joint.
Next, determine the expression for the member force for a position of the unit load
outside the panels adjacent to the joint under consideration.
Finally, connect the influence-line segments and ordinates thus obtained by straight lines
to complete the influence.

For illustration, consider the truss shown in Fig. 3.3a below. Suppose it is desired to construct IL
for forces in members’ cj and ck; for bottom boom loading.
Fig. 3.3a
i) IL for diagonal member cj
For u=1 between a to k consider the right portion of section 1-1.

Rr −x
∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ Fcj = =
sin θ L sin θ
− 2l
@ x = 0 , Fcj = 0 and @ x = 2l , Fcj =
L sin θ
Fig 3.3b
For u=1 between j to g consider the left portion of section 1-1.
L−x
∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ Rl − Fcj sin θ = 0 ⇒ Fcj =
L sin θ
L − 3l 3l
@ x = 3l , Fcj = = ; and
L sin θ L sin θ
@ x = L = 6l , Fcj = 0
Fig 3.3c
For u=1 between k to j, the straight line connects the two points will complete the IL for forces in
member cj.

Fig 3.3d IL for Fcj
ii) IL for Fck (Vertical member, for bottom boom loading)
For u=1 between a to k consider the right portion of section 2-2.
x
∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ Fck =
L
2l
@ x = 0 , Fck = 0 and @ x = 2l , Fck =
L
Fig 3.3e
For u=1 between j to g consider the left portion of section 2-2.
L−x
Fck + Rl = 0 ⇒ Fck = − Rl = −
L
− 3l
@ x = 3l , Fck = ; and
L
@ x = L = 6l , Fck = 0
Fig 3.3f
Thus, the IL for force in member ck, Fck for bottom boom loading is drawn in the following figure.

Fig 3.3g IL for Fck (bottom boom loading)
Similarly, for top boom loading the IL for forces in member ck is shown in the following figure.
Fig 3.3h IL for Fck (top boom loading)

CHAPTER 4
4. Deflection of Determinate Structures
Beams
As a flexural structure responds to loading, it assumes an equilibrium configuration under the
combined action of the loads and reactions. Corresponding to this external state of equilibrium,
there is a distribution of internal shears and bending moments throughout the structure. These
internal actions would normally be shown in the form of shear and moment diagrams for each
member. At any given point within the structure, there is a curvature that is consistent with the
moment at that point. These curvatures accumulate as angle changes along the member lengths,
causing each member to deflect into a flexed or bent configuration. The individual members of the
deformed structure must fit together in a compatible fashion, and all the displacement boundary
conditions must be satisfied.
The design of beams is not complete until the amount of deflection has been determined for the
specified loads. Failure to control beam deflection with in proper limit in building results in cracks
in walls and ceilings. If these deflections are excessive, they may result in psychological frustration
of occupants and stacking of opening beams in machine. The deflection of a beam depends on:
• The strength of the material

• The dimension of the beam
• The magnitude of the loads
• Types of supports
Deflection of structures can be calculated in the following methods:

• Direct Integration Method
• Moment-Area Method
• Conjugate-Beam Method
• Method of Virtual Work
• Graphical Multiplication
• Castiglione’s Theorem
• Maxwell Beti law of reciprocal deflection
4.1 Direct Integration Method

Differential equation of the elastic curve
For a flexural member, the force-deformation relationships must relate member-end moments to the
corresponding member-end rotations. In a more general formulation, member-end shears and
transverse deflections would be included, but they are omitted here.
Consider a member under flexural action as shown in Fig. 4.1a, and from it isolate the beam
element ab as shown in Fig. 4.1b, which is subjected to the positive moment M. As the element
bends, the top fibers are compressed while the bottom fibers are elongated. In between, there is a
longitudinal fiber whose length remains unchanged: this fiber is the so-called neutral fiber of the
member.
It is assumed that as the beam deflects, plane cross sections before and after bending remain plane.
For the element ab, extensions of lines through cross sections at a and b intersect at point o, the
center of curvature, forming the angle de. If tangents to the deflected neutral fiber are constructed at
points a and b, it is evident that de also measures the angular deformation over the length of the
beam element. The line eb is constructed parallel to the deflected cross section at a creating triangle
bde. Then, for small angles, comparing triangles bde and oab, we have
dx dl (1)
dθ = =
ρ c
Where ρ is the radius of curvature of the element, c is the distance from the neutral fiber to the
topmost fiber, and dl is the shortening of that top fiber. Equation (1) can be rewritten in the form
dl c
= =ε
dx ρ (2)
From stress strain relationship, σ = Eε
Thus, equation 2 becomes

c (3)
σ = −E
ρ
Fig. 4.1 Flexural deformations of beam element
(a) Deflected beam (b) Beam element subjected to moment

Where σ is the stress in the top fiber and E is Young's modulus. The minus sign is introduced to
indicate that the element is being compressed (negative stress). This fiber stress could also be
expressed by the familiar expression from basic mechanics that
Mc
σ = (4)
I
where M is the moment acting on the element and I is the moment of inertia. Here the negative sign
indicates that a positive moment produces a negative (compressive) stress on the top fiber.
Equating equations 3 and 4, yields
1 M
= (5)
ρ EI
But from elementary calculus, the curvature of a plane curve is given by:
d2y
1 dx 2
k= = (6)
ρ  dy  2 
3/ 2
1 +   
  dx  
where: k is defined as the curvature.
Practically the elastic curves of beams are very flat (slope of the deflected structure) thus their slope
1 d2y
dy/dx is negligible as compared to unity. Thus, k = = 2 .
ρ dx
2
d y M
Therefore, = (This is the basic differential equation of the elastic curve).
dx 2 EI
From the relationships were developed between static functions load, shear, and bending moment,
these static functions can be written as follows:
dM d3y dV d4y
V ( x) = = EI 3 and q ( x) = = EI 4
dx dx dx dx
The family of relationships is extended to include the deformation quantities of slope and
deflection.
M
dθ = dx
EI
The systematic solution of beam deflection problems conditions is called boundary conditions
where the constants of integration are determined from the boundary and continuity conditions on
V, M, θ, and y.
Fig. 4.2 below serves to summarize the family of relationships spanning from the load intensity p
through the displacement y. In this figure, a simply supported beam is subjected to a general loading
and the member responses are shown through plotted functions for load, shear, moment, slope, and
deflection.

Fig 4.2 Relationships of p, V, M, θ and y
4.2 Moment-Area Method
The integration method is of greatest value when the loading is such as to produce a moment
diagram that is a continuous function over the entire length of the beam.
When concentrated loads occur along the span, or internal reaction points exist, then the moment
diagram has discontinuities. This leads to additional constants of integration that are evaluated by
applying continuity conditions at the points of moment discontinuity.
If deflection of certain selected points only is to be determined, the moment area method is
preferable and also more efficient for beams with several discontinuities due to change in loading
and variation in the rigidity of the beams.
Consider the beam structure of Fig. 4.3a, which is shown in a deflected configuration under the
action of the applied loads. An enlarged view of a portion of the deflected structure between points
A and B is isolated in Fig. 4.3b.

Fig 4.3
Within region AB, an element of length dx with tangents with the deflected member constructed
at each end of the element. The angle between these end tangents, which represents the angle
change that occurs over the length dx, is denoted dθ. This angle change is given by
M
dθ = dx
EI
Where M and I are the bending moment and moment of inertia at point x, respectively, and E is
the modulus of elasticity of the material. If the M/EI values are plotted as shown in Fig. 4.3c, it is
clear that dθ is given by the shaded area.
The total angle change that occurs between tangents constructed at points A and B is labeled θ B
A
in Fig. 4.3b. This angle is the slope at B relative to the slope at A; it results from the summation
of the incremental angle changes between A and B and is given by
B
θ = ∫ dθ
A
B
A
Upon substitution it becomes
B
M
θ BA = ∫ dx
A
EI

This equation is the basis for the first moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:
The angle change between points A and B on the deflected structure, or the slope at
point B relative to the slope at point A, is given by the area under the M/EI diagram
between these two points.
Examination of Fig. 4.3b shows that if the tangents to the element of length dx are extended, they
embrace an intercept of d∆ on a vertical line through point B. For small angles, this intercept is
given by
d∆ = xdθ
M
Up on substitution, we obtain d∆ = xdx which shows that the intercept d∆ is given by the static
EI
moment of the shaded area of the M/EI diagram taken about an axis through point B. The
accumulation of these intercepts for all increments between points A and B gives:
B
∆AB = ∫ d∆
A
Where ∆AB is the vertical displacement of point B on the deflected structure with, respect to a line
drawn tangent to the structure at point A.
Upon substitution the above equation yields:

B
M
∆AB = ∫ xdx
A
EI
This equation is the basis for the second moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:
The deflection of point B on the deflected structure with respect to a line drawn tangent to
point A on the structure is given by the static moment of the area under the M/EI diagram
between points A and B taken about an axis through point B.
It is emphasized that the deflection quantities that are determined by using the second moment-area
theorem are normal to the original orientation of the member.
Application of the moment-area method involves computation of the areas and moments of areas of
various portions of the M/EI diagram. When a beam is subjected to a combination of distributed
and concentrated loads/different types of loads /, determination of the properties of the resultant
M/EI diagram, due to the combined effect of all the loads, can become a difficult task. This
difficulty can be avoided by constructing the bending moment diagram in parts that is, constructing
a separate bending moment diagram for each of the loads. The ordinates of the bending moment
diagrams thus obtained are then divided by EI to obtain the M/EI diagrams. These diagrams usually
consist of simple geometric shapes, so their areas and moments of areas can be easily computed.

Example:- Figure 4.4 shows the M/EI diagram by parts about point B for a beam subjected to a
combination of a uniformly distributed load and a concentrated load.
From statics, RA = 116.667kN and RB = 208.333kN
Fig. 4.4 M/EI diagram by parts about point B

4.3 Conjugate-Beam Method
Another method, which is derived from the moment area principle, is the conjugate-beam method.
Essentially, it requires the same amount of computation as the moment-area theorems to determine
a beam’s slope or deflection; however, this method relies only on the principles of statics, and
hence its application will be more familiar.
The method may be used to obtain an expression for the entire deflection curve over the whole of a
structure. The problem of beam statics is governed by the following equation.
dV d 2 M
q ( x) = =
dx dx 2
This is a second-order linear differential equation, and the solution is the familiar shear and moment
diagram problem: starting with the load, the first integration gives the shear and the second
integration gives the moment. Similarly, the beam deflection problem is governed by:
M dθ d2y
= = 2
EI dx dx
This is also a second-order linear differential equation. Here, we start with the curvature, M/EI; the
first integration yields the slope, and the second integration gives the deflection. This observation
would enable us utilize the semi graphical method to obtain y’(x) and y(x).
As shown in Table below, a pin or roller support at the end of the real beam provides zero
displacement, but the beam has a nonzero slope. Consequently, the conjugate beam must be
supported by a pin or roller, since this support has zero moment but has a shear or end reaction.
When the real beam is fixed supported, both the slope and displacement at the support are zero.
Here the conjugate beam has a free end, since at this end there is zero shear and zero moment.
To make this comparison, consider a beam having the same length as the real beam, but referred to
here as the “conjugate beam” and “loaded” with the M/EI diagram derived from the load w on the
real beam.
The conjugate beam has a set of boundary conditions

and internal continuity conditions on shear and
moment that match the corresponding real beam
boundary conditions and internal continuity
conditions on slope and deflection.
Fig. 4.5, real and conjugate beams

Unlike the moment-area method, an orderly sign convention can be employed with the conjugate
beam method. If positive curvature (M/EI) is applied as positive (upward) load intensity on the
conjugate beam will correspond to the correct signs of the resulting shears and moments on the
conjugate beam correspond to the correct signs of the slope and deflection, respectively, on the real
beam.
The following table shows that the geometric conditions of the real beam and the corresponding
force conditions of the conjugate beam.
Therefore, from the above comparisons, the two theorems related to the conjugate beam and the
real beam can be stated as follows:
Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the moment
at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.

Procedure for Analysis
The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the slopes and deflections of
beams by the conjugate-beam method.
• Construct the M/EI diagram for the given (real) beam subjected to the specified (real)
loading. If the beam is subjected to a combination of different types of loads, the analysis
can be considerably expedited by constructing the M/EI diagram by parts.
• Determine the conjugate beam corresponding to the given real beam. The external supports
and internal connections for the conjugate beam must be selected so that the shear and
bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam are consistent with the slope and
deflection, respectively, at that point on the real beam.
• Apply the M/EI diagram (from step 1) as the load on the conjugate beam. The positive
ordinates of the M/EI diagram are applied as upward loads on the conjugate beam and vice
versa.
• Calculate the reactions at the supports of the conjugate beam by applying the equations of
equilibrium and condition (if any).
• Determine the shears at those points on the conjugate beam where slopes are desired on the
real beam. Determine the bending moments at those points on the conjugate beam where
deflections are desired on the real beam.

4.4 The Method of Virtual Work

If a deformable structure, in equilibrium and sustaining a given system loads is subjected to a
virtual deformation as result of some additional action the external virtual work of the given system
of loads is equal to the internal virtual work of the stress caused by the given system of load.
i.e External virtual work = Internal virtual work
i) Deflection resulting from axial strains
Consider the truss shown above. Suppose ∆ , the vertical displacement of the truss at point a, is
required.
- First remove the real loads and apply unit fictitious load at point a in ∆ direction.
- Superpose the real loads next. Thus, the unit fictitious force will move through a distance ∆ .
Therefore, the external virtual work is 1× ∆ .
On the other hand, let u be the fictitious bar force resulting from the action of unit force
•The strain in each member due to the superposed load is SL EA.

SL
• The internal virtual work due to u an each member = u
EA
SL
• Then the total internal virtual work for entire truss = ∑ u .
EA
SL
• Hence, by the principle of virtual work, 1 × ∆ = ∑ u
EA
SL
Note:- If the sign of ∑ u is positive, then the actual deflection has the same sense as the
EA
unit force otherwise opposite to it. However, it is important that the proper sign for
tension (+) and compression (-) be consistent throughout due to the computation for u
and S.
The fictitious member force u is a deflection coefficient. So when multiplied by the change in
length of the corresponding member, this coefficient u will give the effect of the change in length of
that member on to the required deflection component.
ii) Deflection resulting from flexural strains

1× ∆ and 1× θ expression for external virtual work.
For the expression of internal virtual work consider the simple beam shown. Suppose ∆ A is
required. A unit fictitious load is applied at A as shown above.
- Let mx be internal moment at x due to the fictitious unit load.
Due to the flexural strains resulting from the application of real loads, the internal fictitious
moment on one face of the DE is caused to rotate through some virtual angle βx relative to
the other face.
Internal virtual work for a length dx = mx Bx
Mxy δd M yd
- Since δ = due to the real load, ∆ dxy = x = x x
I E EI
- For small angle β x ,
∆dxy M x d x
β x = tan β x = =
y EI
M xd x
Substitution yields m x β x = m x
EI
Then the expression for internal work resulting from flexural strains in the total length
L M xdx
becomes ∫O
mx
EI
L mx d x
Hence, for linear deflection 1× ∆ = ∫ M x ,
O EI
Md x
For rotational deflection 1× θ = ∫O mα
L
,
EI
In which M is the internal moment due to real loads, mx and mα are the internal moments
caused due to unit fictitious force and fictitious couple, respectively.
iii) Deflection resulting from torsional strains
Consider the cantilever shaft under real torque T.
Due to the applied torque, T, the free end rotates a φ rad. The fictitious torque t will move
td x
through φ radians tφ = t , for a differential length dx . For the entire length L, the
JG
L Td x
internal virtual work is given as: ∫ O
t
JG
.
L Td L Td x
∫
Thus, 1× ∆ = t x and 1× θ = t
O JG ∫O JG
4.5 Graphical Multiplication

Displacement computations may be simplified considerably by the introduction of a special
technique known as the graphical multiplication method for the calculation of product integrals
L
belonging to the type ∫ mMdx .
0
Note that the integral contains the products of two ordinates to the m and M curves. For the
technique to apply, at least one of the curves must be a straight line while the other may be
bounded by any curve.

Since m = x tanα
L L L
∫ mMdx = tan α ∫ xMdx = tan α ∫ xdA
0 0 0
M
Where:
Mdx = dAM represents the differential of the area AM bounded by the M - curve.
L
Consequently, ∫ xdA
0
M = AM xc
where: Q = statical moment of the area AM about o -o' axis
Xc = abscissa of the centroid of AM
L
Therefore, ∫ mMdx = xc (tan α ) AM = AM xc
0
Hence, the product of the multiplication of two graphs, one of which at least is bounded by a
straight line, equals the area bounded by the area of the graph of arbitrary outline multiplied
by the ordinate to the first graph measured along the vertical passing through the centroid of
the second one. It should be noted that the ordinate mc must be measured on the graph
bounded by a straight line.
When a graph of a trapezoid shape or of a quadratic parabola has to be multiplied by another

trapezoid graph, it is convenient to subdivide into triangular and parabolic segments.

For rapid computations, evaluation of the areas and positions of centroids of different shapes
must be readily available. In the case of beams of variable section, EI must be included
under the sign. A numerical integration could be applied to the integral
L M
∫0
m(
EI
)dx
Alternatively, the value of the integral can be found from

L M
∫0
m(
EI
)dx = AM* mc*
where AM* is the area under the M/EI curve and mc* is the ordinate of the m-curve
corresponding to the centroid of the area of the M/EI curve.
The areas and positions of their centroids for simple curves are given in the following Table.
Position of centroid
Shape of graph Area
a b
hL L/2 L/2
hL/2 L/3 2L/3
hL/3 L/4 3L/4
hL/4 L/5 4L/5
2hL/3 3L/8 5L/8

4.6. Castiglione’s Theorem

The deflection component of the point of application of an action on a structure in the
direction of that action will be obtained by evaluating the 1st partial derivative of the total
internal strain energy of the structure wrt the applied action.
i.e ∆ = ∂w
∂p
Consider the simple beam loaded as shown below
Internal strain energy = external work for gradual application (a)

p∆ Qγ
⇒w= + − − − (1)
2 2
When dp is added lP ⇒ the resulting increment of internal energy
 dp 
dw =  p +  d∆ + Qdγ neglecting differential of higher order
 2 
dw = pd∆ + Qdγ − − − (2)
If p and dp and Q were gradually and simultaneously placed,
Internal strain energy
p∆ dp∆ pd∆ Qγ Qdγ
w1 = + + + + − − − (3)
2 2 2 2 2
But dw = w1 − w
dp∆ pd∆ Qdγ
dw = + + − − − ( 4) {subtract 1 from 3}
2 2 2
Upon simplifying using 2,

dw
∆= , thus the thm hold
dp

Since more than one action will usually be applied to the structure, the general expression
for deflection by this theorem should be written as a partial derivative.
∂w
i.e ∆ =
∂p
Moreover, this may be simplified as, say for internal work resulting from bending as.
∂ M 2 dx ∂M dx
∆= ∫ 2 EI = ∫ M ∂p EI
∂p
Likewise, for axial strain

∂s L
∆ = ∑S
∂p AE
For rotational deflection, the partial derivates will be taken with respect to a moment and is
written as:
∂M dx
θ = ∫M
∂M o EI
Similar expression for deflection resulting from torsional strains could be applied as:
∂T dx ∂T dx
∆ = ∫T and θ = ∫ T
∂p JG ∂M o JG
During computation, if the sign of the answer is negative, the actual deflection is opposite to
the sense of the action with respect to which the derivative taken. If a deflection component
is required for a pt where no action is applied or if an action exist at the point but not in the
direction of the desired deflection component, and then an imaginary action is applied at the
point and in the desired direction until the derivative of the total internal strain energy has
been found. The imaginary action is then reduced to zero.

4.7 Maxwell Beti law of reciprocal deflection

The principle of reciprocal deflections is one of the most important in the theory of
structures and has a wide application in the analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem may be stated as follows:
In any elastic system, the displacement caused by a unit load along the line of action
of another unit load is equal to the displacement due to the second unit load along the
line of action of the first load. The theorem for the beam shown below can be
expressed as:
mb dx m dx
δ ab = ∫ ma ( ) = ∫ mb ( a ) = δ ba
EI EI
In a similar manner for the beam shown below, Maxwell's Theorem states that the slope
(rotational displacement) at point b due to a unit force at a is equal to the linear
displacement at a, due to a unit couple at b.
ma dx m dx
That is; δ ab = ∫ mθ ( ) = ∫ m a ( θ ) = δ ba
EI EI
It will be found that Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem is perfectly general. Using the symbol δ to
indicate any type of displacement, the theorem can be written as
δ ij = δ ji
This equation expresses Maxwell's law. That is, for a linearly elastic structure, the displacement
at point i due to a unit load at point j is equal to the displacement at point j due to a unit load at
point i.

CHAPTER 5
5. The Consistent Deformation Method

The method of consistent deformations, or sometimes referred to as the force or flexibility
method, is one of the several techniques available to analyze indeterminate structures. The
following is the procedure that describes the concept of this method for analyzing externally
indeterminate structures with single or double degrees of indeterminacy.
Principle: - Given a set of forces on a structure, the reactions must assume such a value as are
not only in static equilibrium with the applied forces but also satisfy the conditions of geometry
at the supports as well as the indeterminate points of the structure.
This method involves with the replacement of redundant supports or restrains by unknown
actions in such a way that one obtain a basic determinate structure under the action of the
applied loading and these unknown reactions or redundant. Then, the derived basic determinate
structure must still satisfy the physical requirements at the location of the excess supports now
replace by redundant reactions.
5.1 Beams by Consistent Deformation
The basic procedures to solve intermediate beams by the method of consistent deformation
method are as follows:
• determine the degree of indeterminacy

• select redundant and remove restraint
• determine reactions and draw moment diagram for the primary structure
• calculate deformations at redundant due to the applied and unit loads
• write consistent deformation equation
• solve consistent deformation equation
• determine support reactions
• draw moment, shear, and axial load diagrams
For illustration consider the beam loaded as shown
Fig 5.1 (a)

Basic determinate beam under applied loading is shown below.
Fig 5.1 (b)
Basic beam under the reaction of RB =1
The condition of geometry dictates that

∆B
∆ B − R B δ B = 0 ⇒ RB = =0
δB
Using either of the methods discussed in chapter four, compute the deflection of end B due
to the applied load P and the redundant reaction RB.
5 PL3 RB L3
∆B = and δ B =
48 EI 3EI
11 3
From statics, RB = P and M A = PL
16 16
5.2 Trusses by Consistent Deformation
The method essentially consists of choosing a basic determinate truss (structure) on which
the applied loading and the redundant force act and the applying conditions of geometry
requiring the deflection in the direction of the redundant force must be zero or specified
value. Once the redundant are determined, the member forces and other desired reaction
components can be determined by the principle of super position.
For illustration consider the followings.
i) Indeterminate to the 1st degree
The truss shown in Fig. 5.2 (a) below is indeterminate to the 1st degree internally. A basic
determinate structure shown in Fig. 5.2 (b) is selected with external redundant HD (the
horizontal reaction).

Fig. 5.2
From the geometry of the original structure shown in Fig.5.2(b), the horizontal
displacement of support D due to the applied load becomes:
SL
∆ 0 = ∑ u1
AE
Similarly, for Fig. 5.2 (c), the horizontal displacement of support D due to the fictitious
load u1=1kN, becomes:
2
u1 L
δ1 = ∑
AE
The horizontal displacement of support D of the actual structure is zero. Thus the following
equation holds true.
∆0
∆ 0 + H Dδ 1 = 0 , ⇒ H D = −
δ1
ii) Indeterminate to the 2nd degree
Fig 5.3
The given truss is indeterminate to the 1st degree internally and to the 1st degree externally.
A basic determinate structure shown is selected with external redundant HD (the horizontal
reaction) and the internal redundant (diagonal member f).

Fig. 5.4
From the geometry of the original structure (Fig. 5.3):
SL SL
∆10 = ∑ u1 , ∆ 20 = ∑ u2
AE AE
u1 L u L
δ 11 = ∑ u1 , δ 22 = ∑ u 2 2
AE AE
u2 L
δ 12 = δ 21 = ∑u 1
AE
Then, the consistent deformation equation is ∆ 10 + δ 11 H D + δ 12 * f = 0
∆ 20 + δ 21 H D + δ 22 * f = 0
For this the following format is of great value
E∆ 10 E∆ 20 Eδ 11 Eδ 21 Eδ 22
Member
Length
Area
u1 SL u 2 SL u1u1 L u1u 2 L u2u2 L

S u1 u2 Fi
A A A A A
ab
yz
The final member force is obtained as Fi = S i + H D u1 i + f u 2i
Where S – internal member forces of basic determinate structures under the action of the
applied load
ui – internal member forces under the action of unit load at the redundant,( u=1)


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ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CENG-2102 Theory of Structures I

3. Influence Lines (IL)for Determinate Structures

4. Deflection of Determinate Structures

5. Consistent Deformation Method

1. Stability & Determinacy of Structures

1.2 Stability of Structures

Stability can be divided into two as external and internal.

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

1.3 Determinacy of Structures

A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses more members or is supported by more

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting

• Stability depends on external supports

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

1.4.2.2 Internal classification

- ma < m; truss is statically unstable internally

Fig (a) Fig (b)

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

1.4.3.1 External classification

where ra is the available number of reaction components

1.4.3.2 Internal classification

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

Furthermore, loads can be classified based on:

• Direction:- Gravity/vertical and Lateral/horizontal loads

2.1 Dead loads

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

2.2 Live loads

2.2.1 Occupancy live loads

2.2.2 Traffic Loads for Bridges

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

2.2.3 Impact loads

2.3 Environmental loads

2.3.1 Snow and Ice Loads

2.3.2 Rain Loads

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

2.3.3 Wind Loads

Wind Forces according to EBSC-1, 1995

Reference wind pressure: The reference wind pressure is given by:

Site Altitude (m) 0 500 1000 1500 2000

Reference wind velocity: The reference wind velocity is taken as 22m/s.

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

Where Z = Height above the ground up to the top of the roof

 KT ln( z / z0 ) for Zmin ≤ Z ≤ 200m

Zo - is the roughness length

where: S is a factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of S=1.0 at the

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

Factor S: Cliffs and escarpments

Factor S: Hills and ridges

Cpe.1 for A≤1m2

The values of pressure coefficient are applicable to buildings.

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and

2.3.4 Earthquake Loads

where: Fb = Total lateral load on the structure (seismic base shear)

0.085, for steel moment resisting frames

Lecture Note by : Dr. Abrham Gebre and