What is an Operating System (OS)?

An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an intermediary between the computer
hardware and the computer user. Its primary function is to manage hardware resources (such as CPU,
memory, storage, and I/O devices), execute applications, and provide essential services for them.

In essence, the operating system:

1. Manages hardware resources: It controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among
various application programs.
2. Provides a user interface: The OS allows users to interact with the computer, typically through a
graphical user interface (GUI) or command-line interface (CLI).
3. Runs applications: It loads and executes user programs, ensuring they have the necessary
resources (CPU, memory, etc.).
4. Facilitates multitasking: It can run multiple applications at once and ensures that system
resources are fairly shared.
5. Ensures security: It provides mechanisms to safeguard data and restrict unauthorized access.

Some functions of an Operating System

1. Process Management: Allocating CPU time to processes, scheduling tasks, managing

multitasking, and handling system calls from applications.
2. Memory Management: Allocating and deallocating memory spaces as needed by different
programs, optimizing the use of RAM.
3. File System Management: Organizing, storing, retrieving, naming, sharing, and protecting files
on storage devices.
4. Device Management: Coordinating and managing I/O devices such as printers, scanners, and
hard drives.
5. Security & Access Control: Protecting system resources, managing user access rights, and
enforcing data security protocols.
6. User Interface: Offering interaction methods for users, either via a GUI (e.g., Windows, macOS)
or a CLI (e.g., Linux terminal).
History of Operating Systems

1. Early Beginnings (1940s - 1950s)

The first computers, developed in the 1940s and early 1950s, had no operating systems. Programs were
input directly into hardware using punch cards or switches.

Each program had to manage the hardware directly, leading to inefficiencies and the need for complex
programming.

2. Batch Processing Systems (1950s)

As computers evolved, they began to run batch processing systems, where jobs were collected and
processed sequentially. These systems did not allow interaction while the program was running.

General Motors OS (1956): One of the first OS implementations, created for IBM 701.

3. Multiprogramming and Time-Sharing (1960s)

Multiprogramming: Multiple jobs were kept in memory simultaneously, and the OS could switch
between jobs when one was waiting for input/output, making better use of CPU time.

Time-sharing systems (introduced in the 1960s) allowed multiple users to interact with a computer
simultaneously by sharing CPU time, which laid the foundation for modern multi-user operating systems.

4. UNIX Era (1969)

UNIX, developed at Bell Labs in 1969, was a revolutionary OS because of its portability, multitasking
capabilities, and its use in academic and business environments. It influenced many later OSes, including
Linux and macOS.

5. Personal Computer Revolution (1970s - 1980s)

The rise of personal computers in the 1970s and 1980s required more user-friendly operating systems.

Early personal computer Operating System include:

CP/M (1973): One of the first OS for microcomputers.

MS-DOS (1981): Developed by Microsoft for IBM PCs, becoming the dominant OS of the time.
Apple's Macintosh OS (1984): Introduced the first GUI-based OS, making computers more accessible to
everyday users.

6. Windows Era (1980s - Present)

Microsoft launched Windows 1.0 in 1985 as a GUI-based extension for MS-DOS. By the 1990s,
Windows became the dominant OS for personal computers, with Windows 95 (1995) marking a
significant advancement in user-friendliness and multitasking.

7. Open Source and Linux (1990s)

In 1991, Linus Torvalds developed Linux, an open-source UNIX-like operating system. It became highly
popular in servers, academic settings, and embedded systems. Today, Linux is widely used in many forms
(e.g., Ubuntu, Red Hat).

8. Modern Operating Systems (2000s - Present)

macOS: Apple evolved its original Mac OS into macOS, based on UNIX, with improved security and
efficiency.

Windows 10 and 11: Microsoft continues to dominate the desktop market with advanced versions of
Windows, integrating cloud services and support for touchscreens.

Mobile Operating Systm: With the rise of smartphones, mobile operating systems like iOS (Apple) and
Android (Google) dominate the mobile space.

Note:

Operating systems have evolved from simple batch processing systems to complex, multitasking
environments that run on desktops, servers, and mobile devices. They continue to evolve, driven by
advancements in hardware, user needs, and emerging technologies like cloud computing, artificial
intelligence, and virtualization.
Some terms to remember

 Kernel: The core part of the operating system that manages resources and communication
between hardware and software.
 GUI (Graphical User Interface): Allows users to interact with the system through graphical
elements like icons and windows.
 CLI (Command Line Interface): A text-based interface where users input commands to
communicate with the system.
 Multitasking: Running more than one task simultaneously on a computer.
 Time-sharing: Allowing multiple users to use a computer by allocating time slices of CPU usage
to each user.

Booting a computer involves starting it up from a powered-off state.

Here are the steps in the boot process:
Self Test (POST)
The system checks hardware components like RAM, processor, keyboard, and storage devices.
If there are errors (e.g., missing RAM), the system may beep or display an error message.
3. BIOS/UEFI Initialization
The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) or Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is loaded.
It checks and initializes hardware 1. Power On the Computer
Press the power button on the CPU (desktop) or laptop.
Ensure the power supply is connected properly.
2. Power-On components.
4. Bootloader Execution
The bootloader (e.g., GRUB for Linux, Windows Boot Manager for Windows) is loaded.
It finds the operating system installed on the computer.
5. Operating System Loading
The OS kernel is loaded into memory.
The system initializes essential drivers and services.
6. User Login
The login screen appears, allowing the user to enter credentials.
Once logged in, the desktop environment or user interface loads.
After these steps, the computer is fully operational and ready for use.

Definition of Icons
An icon is a small graphical representation or symbol used to represent an application, file, folder, tool, or
function in a graphical user interface (GUI). Icons provide a visual way for users to interact with the
computer system without relying on text-based commands.

Functions of Icons
1. Visual Representation
Icons help users quickly identify and differentiate between applications, files, and system
functions.
2. Quick Access
Clicking or tapping an icon opens the associated application or file, making navigation easier
and faster.
3. Enhance User Experience
Icons make interfaces more intuitive and user-friendly, reducing the need for textual
descriptions.
4. Categorization and Organization
Icons help in organizing desktop items, toolbars, and menus, improving workflow and
efficiency.
5. Shortcut Functionality
Icons can serve as shortcuts to frequently used applications or commands (e.g., "Recycle Bin"
or "My Computer").
6. Customization and Personalization
Users can change or personalize icons to suit their preferences.

Application software

Application software refers to a type of computer program designed to help users perform specific tasks
or activities. Unlike system software, which manages and operates the computer hardware, application
software is intended for end-users and focuses on tasks like word processing, data management, design,
entertainment, or communication.
Some examples of application software include:

1. Word Processors: Programs like Microsoft Word or Google Docs, used for creating, editing, and
formatting text documents.
2. Spreadsheets: Software like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets, used for organizing, analyzing,
and visualizing data.
3. Web Browsers: Programs like Google Chrome or Mozilla Firefox, used to browse the internet.
4. Media Players: Applications like VLC or Windows Media Player, used for playing audio and
video files.
5. Graphic Design Software: Tools like Adobe Photoshop or Canva, used for creating and editing
images.
6. Video Games: Entertainment software, such as Fortnite or Minecraft, designed for gaming
purposes.