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PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-1

PHP Programming with MySQL The Web

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Chapter 2
Functions and Control Structures

At a Glance

Table of Contents
 Chapter Overview

 Chapter Objectives

 Instructor Notes

 Quick Quizzes

 Discussion Questions

 Key Terms
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-2

Lecture Notes

Chapter Overview
In this chapter, students will study how to use functions to organize their PHP code. They will
also learn about variable scope, nested control structures, and conditional coding: if, if…else,
and switch statements and while, do…while, for, and foreach looping statements.
Students will also be introduced to the include and require statements.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, students will:

 Study how to use functions to organize your PHP code

 Learn about variable scope
 Make decisions using if, if…else, and switch statements
 Repeatedly execute code using while, do…while, for, and foreach statements
 Learn about include and require statements

Instructor Notes
In PHP, groups of statements that you can execute as a single unit are called functions. Functions
are often made up of decision-making and looping statements. These are two of the most
fundamental statements that execute in a program.

Mention to your students that functions are like paragraphs in writing

Teaching language. Remember a paragraph is a group of related sentences that make up
Tip one idea. A function is a group of related statements that make up a single task.

Working with Functions

PHP has two types of functions: built–in (internal) and user-defined (custom) functions. PHP has
over 1000 built-in library functions that can be used without declaring them. You can also your
own user-defined functions to perform specific tasks.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-3

Defining Functions

To begin writing a function, you first need to define it. The syntax for the function definition is:

function name of _function(parameters) {

statements;
}

Parameters are placed within the parentheses that follow the function name. The parameter
receives its value when the function is called. When you name a variable within parentheses, you
do not need to explicitly declare and initialize the parameter as you do with a regular variable.

Following the parentheses that contain the function parameters is a set of curly braces, called
function braces, which contain the function statements. Function statements are the statements
that do the actual work of the function and must be contained within the function braces. For
example:

function displayCompanyName($Company1) {

echo "<p>$Company1</p>";
}

Remind your students that functions, like all PHP code, must be contained with
<?php...?> tags. Stress that the function name should be descriptive of the
task that the function will perform.

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”

Teaching Illustrate to students that in a function:

Tip  There is no space between the function name and the opening parentheses
 The opening curly brace is on the same line as the function name
 The function statements are indented five spaces
 The closing curly brace is on a separate line

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-4

Calling Functions

A function definition does not execute automatically. Creating a function definition only names
the function, specifies its parameters (if any), and organizes the statements it will execute.

Teaching Refer to the textbook example on page 77, which defines a function and calls it
Tip passing a literal value to the function argument.

Returning Values

Some functions return a value, which may be displayed or passed as an argument to another
function. A calculator function is a good example of a return value function. A return statement
is a statement that returns a value to the statement that called the function.

Use the textbook example on page 78 to illustrate how a calling statement calls a
Teaching function and sends the multiple values as arguments of the function. The
Tip function then performs a calculation and returns the value to the calling
statement.

Passing Parameters by Reference

Usually, the value of a variable is passed as the parameter of a function, which means that a local
copy of the variable is created to be used by the function. When the value is returned to the
calling statement, any changes are lost. If you want the function to change the value of the
parameter, you must pass the value by reference, so the function works on the actual value
instead of a copy. Any changes made by the function statements remain after the function ends.

Use the textbook example on pages 80 and 81 to illustrate the difference of

passing a parameter by value or by reference.

Teaching Explain to students that a function definition should be placed above any calling
Tip statements. As of PHP4, this is not required, but is considered a good
programming practice.

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-5

Understanding Variable Scope

When you use a variable in a PHP program, you need to be aware of the variable's scope—that
is, you need to think about where in your program a declared variable can be used. A variable's
scope can be either global or local. Global variables are declared outside a function and are
available to all parts of the programs. Local variables are declared inside a function and are only
available within the function in which they are declared.

The global Keyword

Unlike many programming languages that make global variables automatically available to all
parts of your program, in PHP, you must declare a global variable with the global keyword
inside a function for the variable to be available within the scope of that function. When you
declare a global variable with the global keyword, you do not need to assign a value, as you
do when you declare a standard variable. Instead, within the declaration statement you only need
to include the global keyword along with the name of the variable, as in:

global $variable_name;

Teaching Demonstrate the syntax of declaring a global variable within a function using the
Tip textbook example on page 83.

Quick Quiz 1

1. In PHP, groups of statements that you can execute as a single unit are called
_________________________.
ANSWER: functions

2. A _________________________ is a statement that returns a value to the statement that

called the function.
ANSWER: return statement

3. _________________________ are declared inside a function and are only available

within the function in which they are declared.
ANSWER: Local variables

4. A _________________________is a variable that is declared outside a function and is

available to all parts of your program.
ANSWER: global variable
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-6

Making Decisions
In any programming language, the process of determining the order in which statements execute
in the program is called decision making or flow control. The special types of PHP statements
used for making decision are called decision-making statements or control structures.

if Statements

The if statement is used to execute specific programming code if the evaluation of a

conditional expression returns a value of TRUE. The syntax for a simple if statement is as
follows:

if (conditional expression)// condition evaluates to 'TRUE'

statement;

You should insert a space after the conditional keyword if before the opening
parenthesis of the conditional expression. This will help you see a visual
difference between a structure and a function. Using a line break and
indentation to enter the statements to execute makes it easier for the
programmer to follow the flow of the code.

Ask students to add the space and indentation to their list of PHP “Best Coding
Teaching Practices.”
Tip
Explain to students that if there is only one statement, they do not need to use
curly braces. If there are multiple statements, the statements should be
enclosed within beginning and ending curly braces. ({...}).

Ask students to add the use of curly braces to their list of PHP “Best Coding
Practices.”

You can use a command block to construct a decision-making structure using multiple if
statements. A command block is a group of statements contained within a set of braces, similar to
the way function statements are contained within a set of braces. When an if statement
evaluates to TRUE, the statements in the command block execute.

if...else Statements

Should you want to execute one set of statements when the condition evaluates to FALSE, and
another set of statements when the condition evaluates to TRUE, you need to add an else
clause to the if statement.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-7

if (conditional expression) {
statements; //condition evaluates to 'TRUE'
}
else {
statements; //condition evaluates to 'FALSE'
}

Nested if and if...else Statements

When one decision-making statement is contained within another decision-making statement,

they are referred to as nested decision-making structures. An if statement contained within an
if statement or within an if...else statement is called a nested if statement. Similarly, an
if...else statement contained within an if or if…else statement is called a nested
if...else statement. You use nested if and if...else statements to perform conditional
evaluation that must be executed after the original conditional evaluation.

switch Statements

The switch statement controls program flow by executing a specific set of statements,
depending on the value of the expression. The switch statement compares the value of an
expression to a value contained within a special statement called a case label. A case label
represents a specific value and contains one or more statements that execute if the value of the
case label matches the value of the switch statement’s expression. The syntax for the switch
statement is a follows:
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-8

switch (expression) {
case label:
statement(s);
break;
case label:
statement(s);
break;
...
default:
statement(s);
break;
}

Another type of label used within switch statements is the default label. The default
label contains statements that execute when the value returned by the switch statement does
not match a case label. A default label consists of the keyword default followed by a
colon. In a switch statement, execution does not automatically end when a matching label is
found. A break statement is used to exit a control structures before it reaches the closing brace
(}). A break statement is also used to exit while, do...while, and for looping
statements.

The break statement after the default case is optional; however, it is good
Teaching programming practice to include it.
Tip
Ask the students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-9

Quick Quiz 2

1. The process of determining the order in which statements execute in a program is called
_________________________.
ANSWER: decision-making or flow control

2. When one decision-making statement is contained within another decision-making

statement, they are referred to as _________________________.
ANSWER: nested decision-making structures

3. The _________________________ statement is used to execute specific programming

code if the evaluation of a conditional expression returns a value of TRUE.
ANSWER: if

4. The _________________________ statement controls program flow by executing a

specific set of statements, depending on the value of the expression.
ANSWER: switch

Repeating Code

Conditional statements allow you select only a single branch of code to execute and then
continue to the statement that follows. If you need to perform the same statement more than
once, however, you need a use a loop statement, a control structure that repeatedly executes a
statement or a series of statements while a specific condition is TRUE or until a specific
condition becomes TRUE. In an infinite loop, a loop statement never ends because its conditional
expression is never FALSE.

while Statements

The while statement is a simple loop statement that repeats a statement or series of statements
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE. The syntax for the while statement
is as follows:

while (conditional expression) {

statement(s);
}

Each repetition of a looping statement is called an iteration. The loop ends and the next
statement, following the while statement executes only when the conditional statement
evaluates to FALSE. You normally track the progress of the while statement evaluation, or
any other loop, with a counter. A counter is a variable that increments or decrements with each
iteration of a loop statement.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-10

Programmers often name counter variables $Count, $Counter, or

something descriptive of its purpose. The letters i, j, k, l, x, y, z are also
Teaching commonly used as counter names. Using a variable name such as count or the
Tip letter i (for iteration) helps you remember (and informs other programmers)
that the variable is being used as a counter.

do...while Statements

The do...while statement executes a statement or statements once, then repeats the execution
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE The syntax for the do...while
statement is as follows:

do {
statements(s);
} while (conditional expression);

for Statements

The for statement is used for repeating a statement or series of statements as long as a given
conditional expression evaluates to TRUE. The syntax of the for statement is as follows:

for (counter declaration and initialization; condition;

update statement) {
statement(s);
}

foreach Statements

The foreach statement is used to iterate or loop through the elements in an array. With each
loop, a foreach statement moves to the next element in an array. The basic syntax of the
foreach statement is as follows:

foreach ($array_name as $variable_name) {

statement(s);
}
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PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-11

Most of the conditional statements (such as the if, if...else, while,

do...while, and for) are probably familiar to students, but the foreach
Teaching statement, which iterates through elements of an array may not be as familiar.
Tip
Illustrate the syntax of the foreach statement using the basic and advanced
forms shown on pages 105 – 107 of the textbook.

Quick Quiz 3

1. Each repetition of a looping statement is called a(n) _________________________.

ANSWER: iteration

2. A _________________________ is a variable that increments or decrements with each

iteration of a loop statement.
ANSWER: counter

3. The foreach statement is used to iterate or loop through the elements in a(n)
_________________________.
ANSWER: array

Discussion Questions
 When is it better to use a global variable in programming? When is it better to use a local
variable?

 Why are conditional statements important in programming?

 Explain the difference between a while statement and a do…while statement.

PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-12

Key Terms
 break statement: Used to exit control structures.
 case label: In a switch statement, represents a specific value and contains one or more
statements that execute if the value of the case label matches the value of the switch
statement’s expression.
 command block: A group of statements contained within a set of braces, similar to the way
function statements are contained within a set of braces.
 counter: A variable that increments or decrements with each iteration of a loop statement.
 decision making (or flow control): The process of determining the order in which
statements execute in a program.
 default label: Contains statements that execute when the value returned by the switch
statement expression does not match a case label.
 do…while statement: Executes a statement or statements once, then repeats the execution
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE.
 for statement: Used for repeating a statement or series of statements as long as a given
conditional expression evaluates to TRUE.
 function definition: Line of code that make up a function.
 functions: Groups of statements that execute as a single unit.
 global variable: A variable declared outside a function and available to all parts of the
program.
 if statement: Used to execute specific programming code if the evaluation of a conditional
expression returns a value of TRUE.
 if…else statement: if statement with an else clause that is implemented when the
condition returns a value of FALSE.
 infinite loop: A loop statement never ends because its exit condition is never met.
 iteration: The repetition of a looping statement.
 local variable: A variable declared inside a function and only available with the function in
which it is declared.
 loop statement: A control structure that repeatedly executes a statement or a series of
statements while a specific condition is TRUE or until a specific condition becomes TRUE.
 nested decision-making structures: One decision-making statement contained within
another decision-making statement.
 parameter: A variable that is passed to a function from the calling statement.
 return statement: A statement that returns a value to the statement that called the function.
 switch statement: Controls program flow by executing a specific set of statements,
depending on the value of an expression.
 variable scope: The context in which a variable is accessible (such as local or global).
 while statement: Repeats a statement or a series of statements as long as a given conditional
expression evaluates to TRUE.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-13

Best Coding Practices – Chapter 2

Topic Best Practice
Formatting code Format code consistently within a program
Indent code five spaces for readability
Writing PHP code blocks Use the Standard Script Delimiters <?php … ?>
Using the echo statement Use the echo construct exclusively
Use lowercase characters for the echo keyword
Coding the echo statement Do not use parentheses with the echo statement
Adding comments to PHP script Add both line and block comments to your PHP code
Adding a line comment Use the two forward slashes (//) to begin a line comment
Displaying array elements with built-in Enclose the print_r(), var_export(), and
functions var_dump() functions in beginning and ending <pre> tags
Writing a user-defined function The name of a user-defined function should be descriptive of the
task it will perform
Writing a function definition Do NOT space between the function name and the opening
parenthesis
Key the opening curly brace on the same line as the function
name
Indent the function statements five spaces
Key the closing curly brace on a separate line
Calling a function Place the function definition above the calling statement
Writing a control structure To differentiate a control structure from a function, space once
after the conditional keyword before the parenthesis i.e. if
(...) or else (...)
Indent the statements to make them easier for the programmer to
follow the flow
Use curly braces around the statements to execute in a control
structure if there is more than one statement.
Coding a switch statement Include the optional break statement after the default case
label in a switch statement
Naming a counter variable If appropriate, name your counter variable $Count or
$Counter or use the letters ( i, j, k, l, x, y , z)
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
On Wednesday, the thirtieth of May, the magistrates and company
being detained two days by rain, proceeded over the Kittochtinny
Mountains and entered into the Tuscarora Path or Path Valley,
through which the road to Alleghany lies. Many settlements were
formed in this valley, and all the people were sent for, and the
following persons appeared, viz.: Abraham Slach, James Blair, Moses
Moore, Arthur Dunlap, Alexander McCartie, David Lewis, Adam
McCartie, Felix Doyle, Andrew Dunlap, Robert Wilson, Jacob Pyatt,
Jr., William Ramage, Reynolds Alexander, Robert Baker, John
Armstrong, and John Potts; who were all convicted by their own
confession to the magistrates of the like trespasses with those at
Sheerman's Creek, and were bound in the like recognisances to
appear at court, and bonds to the proprietaries to remove with all
their families, servants, cattle, and effects; and having voluntarily
given possession of their houses to me, some ordinary log-houses,
to the number of eleven, were burnt to the ground; the trespassers,
most of them cheerfully, and a very few of them with reluctance,
carrying out all their goods. Some had been deserted before, and lay
waste.

At Aucquick, Peter Falconer, Nicholas De Long, Samuel Perry, and

John Charleton, were convicted on the view of the magistrates, and
having entered into like recognisances and executed the like bonds,
Charleton's cabin was burnt, and fire set to another that was just
begun, consisting only of a few logs piled and fastened to one
another.

The like proceedings at Big Cove (now within Bedford county)

against Andrew Donnaldson, John MacClelland, Charles Stewart,
James Downy, John MacMean, Robert Kendell, Samuel Brown,
William Shepperd, Roger Murphy, Robert Smith, William Dickey,
William Millican, William MacConnell, James Campbell, William
Carrell, John Martin, John Jamison, Hans Patter, John MacCollin,
James Wilson, and John Wilson; who, coming before the
magistrates, were convicted on their own confession of the like
trespasses, as in former cases, and were all bound over in like
recognisances and executed the like bond to the proprietaries. Three
waste cabins of no value were burnt at the north end of the Cove by
the persons who claimed a right to them.

The Little Cove (in Franklin county) and the Big and Little
Conolloways being the only places remaining to be visited, as this
was on the borders of Maryland, the magistrates declined going
there, and departed for their homes.

About the year 1740 or 1741, one Frederick Star, a German, with
two or three more of his countrymen, made some settlements at the
place where we found William White, the Galloways, and Andrew
Lycon, on Big Juniata, situate at the distance of twenty miles from
the mouth thereof, and about ten miles north of the Blue Hills,—a
place much esteemed by the Indians for some of their best hunting
ground; which (German settlers) were discovered by the Delawares
at Shamokin to the deputies of the Six Nations as they came down
to Philadelphia in the year 1742, to hold a treaty with this
government; and they were disturbed at, as to inquire with a
peculiar warmth of Governor Thomas if these people had come there
by the orders or with the privilege of the government; alleging that,
if it was so, this was a breach of the treaties subsisting between the
Six Nations and the proprietor, William Penn, who in the most
solemn manner engaged to them not to suffer any of the people to
settle lands till they had purchased from the Council of the Six
Nations. The governor, as he might with great truth, disowned any
knowledge of those persons' settlements; and on the Indians
insisting that they should be immediately thrown over the
mountains, he promised to issue his proclamation, and, if this had
no effect, to put the laws in execution against them. The Indians, in
the same treaty, publicly expressed very severe threats against the
inhabitants of Maryland for settling lands for which they had
received no satisfaction, and said that if they would not do them
justice they would do justice to themselves, and would certainly
have committed hostilities if a treaty had not been under foot
between Maryland and the Six Nations, under the mediation of
Governor Thomas; at which the Indians consented to sell lands and
receive a valuable consideration for them, which put an end to the
danger.

The proprietaries were then in England; but observing, on perusing

the treaty, with what asperity they had expressed themselves
against Maryland, and that the Indians had just cause to complain of
the settlements at Juniata, so near Shamokin, they wrote to their
governor, in very pressing terms, to cause those trespassers to be
immediately removed; and both the proprietaries and governor laid
these commands on me to see this done, which I accordingly did in
June, 1743, the governor having first given them notice by a
proclamation served on them.

At that time none had presumed to settle at a place called the Big
Cove—having this name from its being enclosed in the form of a
basin by the southernmost range of the Kittochtinny Hills and
Tuscarora Hills; which last end here, and lose themselves in other
hills. This Big Cove is about five miles north of the temporary line,
and not far west of the place where the line terminated. Between
the Big Cove and the temporary line lies the Little Cove,—so called
from being likewise encircled with hills; and to the west of the Little
Cove, toward Potowmec, lie two other places, called the Big and
Little Conollaways, all of them situate on the temporary line, and all
of them extended toward the Potowmec.

In the year 1741 or 1742 information was likewise given that people
were beginning to settle in those places, some from Maryland and
some from this province. But as the two governments were not then
on very good terms, the governor did not think proper to take any
other notice of these settlements than to send the sheriff to serve
his proclamation on them, though they had ample occasion to
lament the vast inconveniences which attend unsettled boundaries.
After this the French war came on, and the people in those parts,
taking advantage of the confusion of the times, by little and little
stole into the Great Cove; so that at the end of the war it was said
thirty families had settled there; not, however, without frequent
prohibitions on the part of the government, and admonitions of the
great danger they run of being cut off by the Indians, as these
settlements were on lands not purchased of them. At the close of
the war, Mr. Maxwell, one of the justices of Lancaster county,
delivered a particular message from this government to them,
ordering their removal, that they might not occasion a breach with
the Indians, but it had no effect.

These were, to the best of my remembrance, all the places settled

by Pennsylvanians in the unpurchased part of the province, till about
three years ago, when some persons had the presumption to go into
Path Valley or Tuscarora Gap, lying to the east of the Big Cove, and
into a place called Aucquick, lying to the northward of it; and
likewise into a place called Sheerman's creek, lying along the waters
of Juniata, and is situate east of the Path Valley, through which the
present road goes from Harris's Ferry to Alleghany; and lastly, they
extended their settlements to Big Juniata; the Indians all this while
repeatedly complaining that their hunting-ground was every day
more and more taken from them; and that there must infallibly arise
quarrels between their warriors and these settlers, which would in
the end break the chain of friendship, and pressing in the most
importunate terms their speedy removal. The government in 1748
sent the sheriff and three magistrates, with Mr. Weiser, into these
places to warn the people; but they, notwithstanding, continued
their settlements in opposition to all this; and, as if those people
were prompted by a desire to make mischief, settled lands no better,
nay not so good, as many vacant lands within the purchased parts of
the province.

The bulk of these settlements were made during the administration

of President Palmer; and it is well known to your honor, though then
in England, that his attention to the safety of the city and the lower
counties would not permit him to extend more care to places so
remote.

Finding such a general submission, except the two Galloways and

Andrew Lycon, and vainly believing the evil would be effectually
taken away, there was no kindness in my power which I did not do
for the offenders. I gave them money where they were poor, and
telling them they might go directly on any part of the two millions of
acres lately purchased of the Indians; and where the families were
large, as I happened to have several of my own plantations vacant, I
offered them to stay on them rent free, till they could provide for
themselves: then I told them that if after all this lenity and good
usage they would dare to stay after the time limited for their
departure, no mercy would be shown them, but that they would feel
the rigor of the law.

It may be proper to add that the cabins or log-houses which were

burnt were of no considerable value; being such as the country
people erect in a day or two, and cost only the charge of an
entertainment.

Richard Peters.

July 2, 1750.

From this summary proceeding originated the name of the place

called the Burnt Cabins, the locality of which is pointed out to the
traveller to this day.

That these ejected tenants at will did not remain permanently

ejected from the fertile valley of the Juniata is evident from the fact
that their descendants, or many of them, of the third and fourth
generations, are now occupying the very lands they were driven
from.
In July, 1750, the government was thrown into alarm by the rumor
that a Mr. Delany had, while speaking of the removal of the
trespassers on the unpurchased lands northwest of the Kittochtinny
Hills, said, "that if the people of the Great and Little Coves would
apply to Maryland they might have warrants for their lands; and if
those of the Tuscarora Path Valley would apply to Virginia, he did not
doubt but they might obtain rights there."

Petitions were sent to the Council from the residents of the Coves, in
which it was set forth that they did not wish to be either in the
province of Maryland or Virginia, and prayed permission to remain,
until the boundary of the provinces was determined, on the lands
purchased from the Indians.

This proposition was not accepted, and was only followed up by

proclamations imposing severe penalties upon trespassers. This was
deemed absolutely necessary by Governor Hamilton, for the French
were assuming a menacing attitude along the frontier, and it was
necessary, at all hazards, to preserve the alliance of the Indians.

The Provincial Government was strong enough to drive the settlers

out of the valley, but immeasurably too weak to keep them out. This
brought about the treaty at Albany in 1754, to which we have
previously alluded. Thomas and Richard Penn, seeing the
government unable to remove the squatters permanently, in
consequence of the feelings of the people being with the latter,
bought from the sachems the very considerable slice of land in
which was included the Valley of the Juniata, for the trifling
consideration of £400. This was supposed to act as a healing balm
for the trespasses upon their hunting-grounds, and at the same time
the Penns undoubtedly entertained the idea that they could realize a
handsome profit in re-selling the lands at an advanced price to those
who occupied them, as well as to European emigrants constantly
arriving and anxious to purchase.
The Indian chiefs and sachems who were not present at this treaty
were highly indignant, and pronounced the whole transaction a
gross fraud; and those who were present at the treaty declared they
were outwitted by misrepresentations, and grossly defrauded.
Conrad Weiser, the Indian interpreter, in his journal of a conference
at Aughwick, stated that the dissatisfaction with the purchase of
1754 was general. The Indians said they did not understand the
points of the compass, and if the line was so run as to include the
west branch of Susquehanna, they would never agree to it.
According to Smith's Laws, vol. xxi., p. 120, "the land where the
Shawnee and Ohio Indians lived, and the hunting-grounds of the
Delawares, the Nanticokes, and the Tutelos, were all included."

So decided and general was the dissatisfaction of the Indians, that,

in order to keep what few remained from being alienated, the
proprietors found it necessary to cede back to them, at a treaty held
in Easton, in October, 1758, all the land lying north and west of the
Alleghany Mountains within the province. The restoration, however,
came too late to effect much good.

But even the lands west of the Alleghany Mountains were not sacred
to the Indians, mountainous as they were and unfertile as they were
deemed; for westward the squatter went, gradually encroaching
upon the red men's last reserve, until he finally settled in their midst.
These aggressions were followed by the usual proclamations from
the government, but they had little or no effect in preventing the
bold adventurers from crossing the Alleghany Mountains and staking
out farms in the valley of the Conemaugh. This continued for a
number of years, until the government, wearied by unavailing efforts
to keep settlers from Indian lands, caused a stringent law to be
passed by Council in February, 1768, when it was enacted "that if
any person settled upon the unpurchased lands neglected or refused
to remove from the same within thirty days after they were required
so to do by persons to be appointed for that purpose by the
governor or by his proclamation, or, having so removed, should
return to such settlement, or the settlement of any other person,
with or without a family, to remain and settle on such lands, or if any
person after such notice resided and settled on such lands, every
such person so neglecting or refusing to remove, or returning to
settle as aforesaid, or that should settle after the requisition or
notice aforesaid, being legally convicted, was to be punished with
death without the benefit of clergy."
There is no evidence on record that the provision of this act was
ever enforced, although it was openly violated. It was succeeded by
laws a little more lenient, making fine and imprisonment the
punishment in lieu of the death-penalty "without the benefit of
clergy." Neither does the record say that the coffers of the provincial
treasury ever became plethoric with the collection of fines paid by
trespassers.

During the Indian wars of 1762-63, many of the inhabitants of the

valley fled to the more densely populated districts for safety. Up to
this time few forts were built for defence, and the settlers dreaded
the merciless warfare of the savages. The restoration of peace in the
latter year brought a considerable degree of repose to the long
harassed colonies. The turbulent Indians of the Ohio buried the
hatchet in October, 1764, on the plains of Muskingum, which
enabled the husbandman to reassume his labors and to extend his
cultivation and improvements. The prosperity of Pennsylvania
increased rapidly; and those who were compelled by Indian warfare
to abandon their settlements rapidly returned to them. The Juniata
Valley, and especially the lower part of it, gained a considerable
accession of inhabitants in the shape of sturdy tillers of the soil and
well-disposed Christian people.

For a time the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians maintained rule in religion;

but, about 1767, German Lutherans, Irish Catholics, and some few
Dunkards and other denominations, found their way to the valley.
Meeting-houses were built, stockade forts erected, and communities
of neighbors formed for mutual protection, without regard to
religious distinctions.

The first settlements of the upper portion of the valley were not
effected until between 1765 and 1770. True, there was here and
there an isolated family, but the danger of being so near the
Kittaning Path was deemed too hazardous. It was in the upper part
of the valley, too, that most of the massacres took place between
1776 and 1782, as the lower end of it was too thickly populated and
too well prepared for the marauders to permit them to make
incursions or commit depredations.
 CHAPTER III.

JUNIATA ISLAND — AN INDIAN PARADISE — REV. DAVID BRAINERD

AMONG THE SAVAGES — THE EARLY SETTLERS, HULINGS, WATTS,
AND BASKINS — INDIAN BATTLES — REMARKABLE ESCAPE OF MRS.
HULINGS, ETC.

Juniata Island—now called Duncan's Island, in consequence of the

Duncan family being the proprietors for many years—is formed by
the confluence of the Juniata and Susquehanna. Stretching
northward, it presents a lovely and fertile plain, surrounded by
gorgeous and romantic scenery, surpassed by few places in the
State. This must have been a very paradise for the sons of the
forest. Facing to the west, before them lay their beautiful hunting-
grounds; facing to the south, the eye rested upon the "long crooked
river," over whose rippling bosom danced the light bark canoe, and
whose waters were filled with the choicest of fish. With such
blessings within their reach, the inhabitants of the Juniata Island
should have been superlatively happy, and probably would, had it
not been for the internal feuds which existed among the tribes.
Although the wigwams of two distinct tribes dotted the island on the
arrival of the white man, social intercourse and the most friendly
terms of intimacy existed between them. They were the Shawnees
and the Conoys. Then, too, it betokened a peaceable spot, and yet it
had been a famous Indian battle-ground in its day. The traditions
speak of a battle fought many years ago, between the Delawares
and the Cayugas, on this island, when the gullies ran red with blood
of mighty warriors, and the bones of a thousand of them were
entombed in one common grave upon the battle-field. Both tribes
suffered severely. The Delawares, although they lost the most
braves, and were ultimately driven from the field, fought with the
most savage desperation; but the Cayugas had the advantage in
point of numbers, and some of them used fire-arms, then totally
unknown to the Delawares.

The first adventurers who went up the Susquehanna were Indian

traders, who took up articles for traffic in canoes. Fascinated by the
beautiful scenery of the country, and impressed with the idea that
corn and fruits grew upon the island spontaneously, these traders
did not fail to give it a name and reputation; and curiosity soon
prompted others to visit the "Big Island," as they called it. Some of
them soon went so far as to contemplate a settlement upon it. This,
however, the Indians would not permit; they were willing to trade at
all times with them, but the island was a kind of reservation, and on
no condition would they permit the pale-faces to share it with them.
Even had they suffered white men to settle among them, none
would have repented the act, as a rash step, more bitterly than the
white men themselves; for the Shawnees were a treacherous nation,
and exceedingly jealous of any innovations upon their rights or the
customs of their fathers.

Still, the island became settled at an early day. The roving Shawnees
pushed their way westward, and the prejudices of those who took
their place were probably overcome by presents of guns,
ammunition, tobacco, and fire-water.

The Rev. David Brainerd, a devout and pious missionary, visited the
island in 1745, in the spring while going up the river, and in the fall
while returning. His object was to convert the Indians, which he
found quite as hopeless a task as did Heckwelder and Loskiel, who
preceded him with the same object in view. During his
peregrinations Brainerd kept a journal, which, together with his life,
was published by the American Tract Society. From this journal we
extract the following, in order to give his views of savage life, as well
as an interesting account of what he saw and heard at the island:—
Sept. 20.—Visited the Indians again at Juneauta Island, and found
them almost universally very busy in making preparations for a great
sacrifice and dance. Had no opportunity to get them together in
order to discourse with them about Christianity, by reason of their
being so much engaged about their sacrifice. My spirits were much
sunk with a prospect so very discouraging, and specially seeing I
had this day no interpreter but a pagan, who was as much attached
to idolatry as any of them, and who could neither speak nor
understand the language of these Indians; so that I was under the
greatest disadvantages imaginable. However, I attempted to
discourse privately with some of them, but without any appearance
of success; notwithstanding, I still tarried with them.

The valuable interpreter was probably a Delaware Indian, who was a

visitor to take part in the dance and sacrifice, while the inhabitants
of the island were Shawnees, who originally came from the south,
and their languages were entirely dissimilar. Brainerd calls them
"pagans" and "idolaters." This is a charge the Indians used to
combat most vehemently. They most unquestionably had small
images carved out of wood to represent the Deity; yet they
repudiated the idea of worshipping the wood, or the wooden image,
merely using it as a symbol through which to worship the Unseen
Spirit. If such was the fact, they could not well be called pagans in
the common acceptation of the term. The journal goes on to say:—

In the evening they met together, nearly one hundred of them, and
danced around a large fire, having prepared ten fat deer for the
sacrifice. The fat of the inwards they burnt in the fire while they
were dancing, which sometimes raised the flame to a prodigious
height, at the same time yelling and shouting in such a manner that
they might easily have been heard two miles or more. They
continued their sacred dance nearly all night; after which they ate
the flesh of the sacrifice, and so retired each one to his own lodging.

Making a burnt-offering of the deer-fat to illuminate the dance, and

to make a meat-offering to the insatiate Indian appetite, after
undergoing such fatigues, of the roasted venison, had not much
idolatry in it. Unconnected with any religious ceremony, such a
proceeding might have been considered rational, and coming
altogether within the meaning of the Masonic principle which
recognises "refreshment after labor." Mr. Brainerd continues:—

Lord's-day, Sep. 21.—Spent the day with the Indians on the island.
As soon as they were well up in the morning, I attempted to instruct
them, and labored for that purpose to get them together, but soon
found they had something else to do; for near noon they gathered
together all their powaws, or conjurors, and set about half a dozen
of them playing their juggling tricks and acting their frantic,
distracted postures, in order to find out why they were then so sickly
upon the island, numbers of them being at that time disordered with
a fever and bloody flux. In this exercise they were engaged for
several hours, making all the wild, ridiculous, and distracted motions
imaginable; sometimes singing, sometimes howling, sometimes
extending their hands to the utmost stretch and spreading all their
fingers: they seemed to push with them as if they designed to push
something away, or at least to keep it off at arm's-end; sometimes
stroking their faces with their hands, then spouting water as fine as
mist; sometimes sitting flat on the earth, then bowing down their
faces to the ground; then wringing their sides as if in pain and
anguish, twisting their faces, turning up their eyes, grunting, puffing,
&c.
This looks more like idolatry than sacrificing ten fat deer and dancing
by the light of their burning fat. Yet, if curing disease by
powwowing, incantation, or the utterance of charms, can be
considered idolatry, we are not without it even at this late day. We
need not go out of the Juniata Valley to find professing Christians
who believe as much in cures wrought by charms as they do in Holy
Writ itself.

"Their monstrous actions tended to excite ideas of horror, and

seemed to have something in them, as I thought, peculiarly suited
to raise the devil, if he could be raised by any thing odd, ridiculous,
and frightful. Some of them, I could observe, were much more
fervent and devout in the business than others, and seemed to
chant, whoop, and mutter, with a degree of warmth and vigor as if
determined to awaken and engage the powers below. I sat at a
small distance, not more than thirty feet from them, though
undiscovered, with my Bible in my hand, resolving, if possible, to
spoil their sport and prevent their receiving any answers from the
infernal world, and there viewed the whole scene. They continued
their hideous charms and incantations for more than three hours,
until they had all wearied themselves out, although they had in that
space of time taken several intervals of rest; and at length broke up,
I apprehend, without receiving any answer at all."

Very likely they did not; but is it not most singular that a man with
the reputation for piety and learning that Brainerd left behind him
should arm himself with a Bible to spoil the spirit of the Indians, in
case their incantations should raise the demon of darkness, which, it
would really appear, he apprehended? In speaking of the Shawnee
Indians, or "Shawanose," as they were then called, he stigmatizes
them as "drunken, vicious, and profane." What their profanity
consisted of he does not say. According to all Indian historians, the
Indians had nothing in their language that represented an oath.
Brainerd goes on to say of the Shawnees:—

Their customs, in various other respects, differ from those of the

other Indians upon this river. They do not bury their dead in a
common form, but let their flesh consume above the ground, in
close cribs made for that purpose. At the end of a year, or
sometimes a longer space of time, they take the bones, when the
flesh is all consumed, and wash and scrape them, and afterward
bury them with some ceremony. Their method of charming or
conjuring over the sick seems somewhat different from that of the
other Indians, though in substance the same. The whole of it,
among these and others, perhaps, is an imitation of what seems, by
Naaman's expression, (2 Kings v. 11,) to have been the custom of
the ancient heathen. It seems chiefly to consist of their "striking
their hands over the deceased," repeatedly stroking them, "and
calling upon their God," except the spurting of water like a mist, and
some other frantic ceremonies common to the other conjurations
which I have already mentioned.

In order to give Mr. Brainerd's impression of their customs, as well as

an interesting account of a "medicine-man" who possessed rather
singular religious opinions, we shall close with his journal, with
another paragraph:—

When I was in this region in May last, I had an opportunity of

learning many of the notions and customs of the Indians, as well as
observing many of their practices. I then travelled more than one
hundred and thirty miles upon the river, above the English
settlements, and in that journey met with individuals of seven or
eight distinct tribes, speaking as many different languages. But of all
the sights I ever saw among them, or indeed anywhere else, none
appeared so frightful or so near akin to what is usually imagined of
infernal powers, none ever excited such images of terror in my mind,
as the appearance of one who was a devout and zealous reformer,
or rather restorer of what he supposed was the ancient religion of
the Indians. He made his appearance in his pontifical garb, which
was a coat of bear-skins, dried with the hair on, and hanging down
to his toes; a pair of bear-skin stockings, and a great wooden face,
painted, the one half black, the other half tawny, about the color of
an Indian's skin, with an extravagant mouth, but very much awry;
the face fastened to a bear-skin cap, which was drawn over his
head. He advanced toward me with the instrument in his hand which
he used for music in his idolatrous worship, which was a dry
tortoise-shell with some corn in it, and the neck of it drawn on to a
piece of wood, which made a very convenient handle. As he came
forward, he beat his tune with the rattle, and danced with all his
might, but did not suffer any part of his body, not so much as his
fingers, to be seen. No one would have imagined, from his
appearance or actions, that he could have been a human creature, if
they had not had some intimation of it otherwise. When he came
near me, I could not but shrink away from him, although it was then
noonday, and I knew who it was, his appearance and gestures were
so prodigiously frightful. He had a house consecrated to religious
uses, with divers images cut upon the several parts of it. I went in,
and found the ground beaten almost as hard as a rock with their
frequent dancing upon it. I discoursed with him about Christianity.
Some of my discourse he seemed to like, but some of it he disliked
extremely. He told me that God had taught him his religion, and that
he never would turn from it, but wanted to find some who would
join heartily with him in it; for the Indians, he said, were grown very
degenerate and corrupt. He had thoughts, he said, of leaving all his
friends, and travelling abroad, in order to find some who would join
with him; for he believed that God had some good people
somewhere, who felt as he did. He had not always, he said, felt as
he now did; but had formerly been like the rest of the Indians, until
about four or five years before that time. Then, he said, his heart
was very much distressed, so that he could not live among the
Indians, but got away into the woods, and lived alone for some
months. At length, he said, God comforted his heart, and showed
him what he should do; and since that time he had known God and
tried to serve him, and loved all men, be they who they would, so as
he never did before. He treated me with uncommon courtesy, and
seemed to be hearty in it. I was told by the Indians that he opposed
their drinking strong liquor with all his power; and that if at any time
he could not dissuade them from it by all he could say, he would
leave them, and go crying into the woods. It was manifest that he
had a set of religious notions, which he had examined for himself
and not taken for granted upon bare tradition; and he relished or
disrelished whatever was spoken of a religious nature, as it either
agreed or disagreed with his standard. While I was discoursing, he
would sometimes say, "Now that I like; so God has taught me," &c.;
and some of his sentiments seemed very just. Yet he utterly denied
the existence of a devil, and declared there was no such creature
known among the Indians of old times, whose religion he supposed
he was attempting to revive. He likewise told me that departed souls
went southward, and that the difference between the good and bad
was this: that the former were admitted into a beautiful town with
spiritual walls, and that the latter would forever hover around these
walls in vain attempts to get in. He seemed to be sincere, honest,
and conscientious, in his own way, and according to his own
religious notions, which was more than ever I saw in any other
pagan. I perceived that he was looked upon and derided among
most of the Indians as a precise zealot, who made a needless noise
about religious matters; but I must say that there was something in
his temper and disposition which looked more like true religion than
any thing I ever observed among other heathens.
If Brainerd was not grossly imposed upon, the Indian was a
remarkable man, and his code of ethics might be used with profit by
a great many persons now treading the paths of civilization and
refinement. But it is more than probable that he had based the
groundwork of his religion on what he had learned from the
Moravian missionaries. In the ensuing summer Brainerd again
ascended the Susquehanna, where he contracted disease by
exposure, and died in the fall.

The earliest permanent white settler upon the island was a

gentleman named Hulings, who located near the mouth of the
Juniata, over which, in after years, he established a ferry; and, after
travel increased and the traders took their goods up the rivers on
pack-horses, he built a sort of causeway, or bridge, for the passage
of horses, at the upper end of the island. He settled on the island in
1746. He was followed by another adventurer, named Watts, who
staked out a small patch of land, with the view of farming it. It was
already cleared, and he purchased it from the Indians. The children
of these families intermarried, and their descendants to this day own
the greater portion of the island. A few years after the settlement of
Watts and Hulings, a gentleman named Baskin came from below,
and settled near the point of the island. He was an enterprising man,
and had no sooner erected himself a temporary shelter than he
established a ferry across the Susquehanna. The ferry became
profitable, and Baskin realized a fortune out of it. It was a sort of
heirloom in the family for several generations, until the State
improvements were built, when a bridge was erected. Baskin's Ferry
was known far and wide; and there are still some descendants of the
name residing, or who did reside a few years ago, where the ferry
crossed.

Shortly after Braddock's defeat, the country was greatly alarmed by

rumors that the French and Indians were coming down the
Susquehanna in great numbers, with the avowed intention of
slaughtering the British colonists and laying waste all their
habitations. Nor was this rumor without foundation; for the
massacres already committed up the Susquehanna seemed fully to
justify the apprehension. Travel along the river was suspended, and
a portion of the settlers fled to Paxton. Hulings abandoned his ferry,
and, with a convoy of friendly Delaware Indians, he went to Fort
Duquesne, where he immediately purchased land, with the view of
settling permanently. There, however, he found little more peace and
quiet than he enjoyed at the island. The country was rife with alarms
of Indian depredations, and the settlers were in constant dread of an
attack which they could not repel. Hulings became dissatisfied,
because the exchange had disappointed all his reasonable
expectations, and he determined to return. To this end he disposed
of his land for £200—land which now composes the heart of the city
of Pittsburg, and could not be purchased for £2,000,000. In
company with another party of friendly Indians on their way to the
east, he returned to the island, re-established his ferry, built himself
a house at the bridge, and for some years lived in security.

About 1761, accounts of Indian depredations above again alarmed

the lower settlements; but Mr. Hulings paid no attention to them,
until a large number of them were seen but a short distance above
the island, encamped upon a piece of table-land. In great haste he
packed up a few of his most valuable articles, and, putting his wife
and child upon a large black horse, took them to the Point, so as to
be ready to fly the moment the savages made their appearance. At
this place there was a half-fallen tree, from the branches of which an
excellent view of his house, as well as of the path beyond it, could
be obtained. Here Hulings watched for some time, hoping that if the
Indians did come down, and find his house abandoned, they would
go up the Juniata. Suddenly it occurred to Hulings that in his haste
he had left some valuable keepsakes, and he returned forthwith
alone. After reconnoitering for some time, he entered the house, and
was somewhat surprised to find an Indian tinkering at his gun-lock.
The savage was unable to shoot, and, as Hulings was a man of
powerful frame, he feared to make a personal attack upon him. Both
appeared to be ready to act upon the defensive, but neither was
willing to risk an attack.

In the mean time, the reconnoitering and parleying of Hulings had

taken up so much time that Mrs. Hulings became alarmed, and
concluded that her husband had been murdered. Without a thought
of the danger, she took her child upon the horse before her, plunged
him into the Susquehanna, and the noble charger carried them
safely to the other shore—a distance of nearly a mile, and at a time,
too, when the river was unusually high! Such an achievement in
modern times would make a woman a heroine, whose daring would
be extolled from one end of the land to the other.

Soon after this extraordinary feat, Mr. Hulings arrived, and he, in
turn, became alarmed at the absence of his wife; but he soon saw
her making a signal on the other side, and, immediately unmooring
a canoe at the mouth of the Juniata, he got into it and paddled it
over. It was the only canoe in the neighborhood,—an old one left by
Baskin when he fled. Hulings had scarcely rejoined his wife before
he saw the flames shooting up from the old log ferry-house, and the
savages dancing around it, brandishing their weapons; but they
were out of harm's way, and succeeded in reaching Paxton the same
day. In a year or so they returned, and ended their days on the
island.

Reference is made by historians to a battle fought between the

whites and Indians on the island in 1760. The old inhabitants, too,
spoke of one, but we could ascertain nothing definite on the subject.
No mention whatever is made of it in the Colonial Records.

After this period but few of the roving bands or war-parties ever
came down either the Susquehanna or the Juniata as far as the
island. The massacre of the Conestoga Indians inspired the up-
country savages with so much terror that they deemed it certain
death to go near the settlement of the Paxton boys.
By the time the Revolution commenced, the neighborhood of the
mouth of the Juniata was thickly populated, and the inhabitants had
within their reach ample means of defence; so that the savages in
the employ of the British prudently confined their operations to the
thickly-settled frontier.
 CHAPTER IV.

INDIAN TOWNS ALONG THE JUNIATA — LOST CREEK VALLEY

DISCOVERED — MEXICO FIRST SETTLED BY CAPTAIN JAMES
PATTERSON IN 1751 — INDIAN ATTACK UPON SETTLERS AT THE
HOUSE OF WILLIAM WHITE — MASSACRE OF WHITE — CAPTURE
OF A LAD NAMED JOHN RIDDLE — HIS RELEASE FROM CAPTIVITY,
ETC.

[For the facts on which the two chapters following are based we are
indebted to a gentleman named Andrew Banks, an old resident of Lost
Creek Valley, Juniata county. He was born near York, and settled
near his late place of residence in 1773, and was nearly eighty-nine
years of age when we called upon him early in December, 1855. We
found him enjoying the evening of a long and well-spent life, with
his sense of hearing somewhat impaired, but his intellect and
memory both good. He was a man of considerable intelligence, and
we found him quite willing to give all he knew of the past worthy of
record. He died about the last of the same month.]

The river, from the island to Newport, is hemmed in by mountains;

and while it afforded excellent territory for hunting, fishing, and
trapping, it held out no inducements for the Indians to erect their
lodges along it. The first Indian village above the mouth of the river
was located on the flat, a short distance above where the town of
Newport now is. Another was located at the mouth of a ravine a little
west of Millerstown. At the former place the Cahoons, Hiddlestons,
and others were settled, who were ejected, and had their cabins
burnt by Secretary Peters. After the purchase of these lands at
Albany, in 1754, both these towns were destroyed, and the Indians
went to Ohio.
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