FUNCTION GENERATOR AND SIGNAL GENERATOR

FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is a specific form of signal generator that is able to generate waveforms with
common shapes. Unlike RF generators and some others that only create sine waves, the function
generator is able to create repetitive waveforms with a number of common shapes.

In particular it can be made to become a sine wave generator, square wave generator, and
triangular wave generator.

Also a function generator may be able to vary the characteristics of the waveforms, changing the
length of the pulse, i.e. the mark space ratio, or the ramps of the different edges of triangular or sawtooth
waveforms.

The function generator is only be able to create the waveforms that are built in to the function
generator. It cannot be programmed to create additional waveforms - an arbitrary waveform generator,
AWG is required for this.

Apart from just generating the waveforms themselves, this type of test instrument has the
capability to add a DC offset to the signal. This can be very useful in a number of testing applications.

Typically function generators are only able to operate at relatively low frequencies, some only
operating to frequencies of around 100kHz, although more costly test instruments can operate at higher
frequencies, up to 20 or 30MHz.
 It is also interesting to note that many oscilloscopes now include a function generator - this can
be included quite easily in many designs, and therefore manufacturers believe this will give their product
additional functionality and appeal.

Function generator capabilities

The name of the function generator arises from the fact that it is able to generate a number of
different functions or waveforms. Function generators are capable of producing a variety of commonly
used repetitive waveforms.

The waveforms generated will generally be a sine wave, square wave, sawtooth, pulsed, etc.
With a function generator, there is no capability to have user generated waveforms, as it then would
become an arbitrary waveform generator.

 Sine wave: A function generator will normally be able to act as a sine wave generator. This is
the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a standard sinusoidal shape. Using
the function generator as a sine wave generator is one of the more commonly used applications.
Sine waves are widely used in testing applications.

A sine wave is always useful as it provides a single frequency signal - other waveform formats
have harmonicas. A sine wave can be used for many electronic circuits, especially analogue
ones where the only the basic single frequency is needed.

 Square wave: Another very widely used waveform is the square wave. It consists of a signal
moving directly between high and low levels. Used as a square wave generator, this test
instrument provides a very useful source of a basic digital waveform.
 Square waves may primarily be used for logic or digital circuit testing. The square wave
could be used as a clock for a circuit, or there are many other instances were a square wave
can be useful.

When using a function generator for a digital circuit, it is necessary to make sure the rise
and fall times of the edges are fast enough. Typically the output from a function generator will
be quite fast, but as some logic circuits require very fast edges, this is worth noting. Also any
test leads carrying the signals could slow the edges.

One way to overcome this type of issue is to make sure that there is a buffer at the input
of the board to ensure that all edges are fast enough.

 Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It is
effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1. This
form of waveform is again often used within digital applications.

For function generators that incorporate a pulse waveform capability, there may be an
adjustment to change the mark space ratio. Typically a pulse signal will be used to provide a
rising or falling edge as a clock signal, so the actual mark space ratio is not always important.

As with the square wave, the speed of the rising and falling edges can be important whan
driving a logic circuit.

 Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point. This form of waveform is often generated using an operational
 amplifier acting as an integrator. The triangular waveform generator typically also has a
square wave output as well, and it is used as the basis for generating all the waveforms in a
function generator test instrument.

The triangular waveform is often used in testing amplifiers - it is far easier to see distortion and
clipping on a triangular waveform than it is on a sine waveform.

 Sawtooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the waveform
faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a sawtooth.
The waveform is generated by the same circuit as the triangular waveform, but with the
different rise and fall times created by changing the charge rate for the rise and fall elements
of the integrator.

Often the sorter element of the sawtooth is made to be as fast as possible. These
waveforms were widely used in cathode ray displays where the slower increasing voltage was
used to enable the scan to proceed across the screen, but a very fast flyback was required so
that the next scan could start.

These are the basic waveforms that are produced within a function generator test
instrument. These waveforms satisfy most of the needs for testing a number of items. Where
specialized waveforms are required, then an arbitrary waveform generator is required.

To find out more about these waveforms check out the video below which covers the
main waveforms generated by function generators.
Function generator controls

In addition to a selection of the basic waveforms that are available, other controls on the function
generator may include:

 Frequency: As would be expected, this control alters the basic frequency at which the
waveform repeats. It is independent of the waveform type.
 Waveform type : This enables the different basic waveform types to be selected:

 Sine wave

 Square wave

 Triangular wave

 DC offset: This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to 0V or ground.

 Duty cycle: This control on the function generator changes the ratio of high voltage to low
voltage time in a square wave signal, i.e. changing the waveform from a square wave with a
1:1 duty cycle to a pulse waveform, or a triangular waveform with equal rise and fall times to a
sawtooth.
Function generator usage

Function generators are normally used within electronics development, manufacturing test and
service departments. They provide a flexible form of waveform generation that can be used in many tests.

These test instruments are very flexible and not thought of as specialist instruments. Although
they can often generate signals into the low end of the RF spectrum, normally a specific RF generator
would be used, unless none were available.

Also they are generally not used for performance audio testing as the levels of distortion on the
sine waves that would normally be used would have higher levels of distortion than these tests sometimes
require. A typical figure for the sine wave distortion might be about 1%.

If very high frequency stability is required, then some of these test instruments allow for the
output signal to be phase locked to another source.

Types of function generator

There are a number of ways of designing function generator circuits. However there are two main
approaches that may be used:
 Analogue function generator: This type of function generator was the first type to be
developed. First models appeared in the early 1950s when digital technology was not widely
used.
Despite the fact that they use analogue technology, these analogue function generators offer
a number of advantages:

 Cost effective: Analogue function generators are very cost effective, being at the
lower end of the function generator price range.
 Simple to use: Analogue function generators provide an effective test instrument
that is able to meet most user needs, while remaining simple and easy to use.
 Maximum frequencies: The analogue function generators do not have the high
frequency limitations on non-sinusoidal waveforms such as triangles and ramps as
do the digital function generators.

 Digital function generator: As the name indicates, digital function generators utilize digital
technology to generate the waveforms. There are a number of ways in which this can be
done, but the most versatile and most widely used technique for digital function generators is
to use direct digital synthesis, DDS.
DDS uses a phase accumulator, a look-up table containing a digital representation of the
waveform, and a DAC. The phase accumulator moves another position each time it receives a
clock pulse. The next position in the look-up table is then accessed giving the digital value for
the waveform at that point. This digital value is then converted into an analogue value using a
digital to analogue converter, DAC.

Digital function generators are able to offer high levels of accuracy and stability because
the clock for the system is crystal controlled. Also digital function generators provide a high
spectral purity and low phase noise. A DDS based digital function generator can also can be
swept over a much wider frequency range than an analogue function generator. It can also
perform a number of other functions such as phase continuous frequency hopping because of
the action of the direct digital synthesizer.

The disadvantage of the digital function generators is that they are more comprehensive
than their analogue cousins, they require a high performance DAC and other digital circuitry
and this means they are more costly and also more complicated to sue as a result of their
additional functionality

 Sweep function generator: A sweep function generator is simply one that can sweep its
frequency. Typically the more versatile sweep function generators utilise digital technology,
but it is also possible to use analogue versions as well.
 Sweep function generators may be able to sweep over ranges of up to 100:1 or more,
although this is very dependent upon the actual generator type in question. Speed of the
sweep may also be important. Another feature that may be of importance is whether the
sweep is linear or logarithmic. Some function generators may have a switch for this.

Most current function generators adopt a digital approach to the waveform generation.
Some older function generators may use analogue techniques, but it is unlikely that any new
ones will.

Function generator formats

There are several forms that the function generator can take. With modern digital technology
there are many formats for this type of test equipment.

The format for the function generator will depend on factors including the approach that will be
adopted for testing, and the environment in which it will be used - rack testing, bench-top testing, or wil an
accompanying computer be available for control.

 Bench top test instrument: The most widely used form of function generator in the test
laboratory is the test instrument contained within a box that sits on the laboratory bench. This
test instrument contains the power supply, controls, display and of course the output
connector.
 Rack based test instrument: Another format that this type of test equipment can take is a
module within a rack system like PXI. Based on PCI, the PXI rack system has been developed
specifically for test applications and includes a slot for either a controller or link to a computer.
Test instrument cards slot into the chassis, enabling a test system to be created to meet the
needs of the particular test application required. The test instrument cards can include any
type of test instrument including volt meters, oscilloscopes, and of course a function generator
 USB function generator: A number of small function generators are available as USB
based test instruments. They contain the core oft he function generator within the module that
connects to a computer via a USB connection. This approach means that the power and
control interfaces can use the PC rather than having the expense and space required to
provide these within a larger box for the test instrument.
 Computer based function generator: A different approach is to use software based within
a computer to provide the required waveforms and then use a digital card of the computer's
audio output for the signal. Whilst very cheap, this may not have the output capability and
accuracy of other types of test instrument. Also if the output is damaged as a result of the
testing and a possible misconnection, etc it can result in costly repairs.
  Within oscilloscopes: Often oscilloscopes contain a simple function generator. As these
instruments are relatively easy to construct, they can be incorporated into a scope for little
additional cost and enable them to have an onboard signal source which can be very useful
on a number of occasions.

There is a wide range of different function generators available on the market. These can
range from high quality and high performance bench or computer operated devices to small very
low cost kits that can be built very very cheaply.
It is necessary to assess exactly what is needed so that the most cost effective solution is found to
a requirement for a function generator.

Function generator circuit block diagram

Function generators may be designed using one of two basic technologies or design approaches.
They may use analogue techniques, or they may use a digital approach.

Of the two the digital approach is more widely used these days, but the analogue versions were the first
to be designed as they were used before digital technology had advanced to make this approach viable.

Analogue function generator block diagram

There may be a number of ways in which an analogue function generator may be designed, but
the block diagram of the one shown below adopts the sort of approach most widely used.

An oscillator based around an integrator and a Schmitt trigger was used to generate the triangular
and square waves, and then the triangular waveform was passed through a shaping circuit to provide the
sine wave.
 Looking at the circuit block diagram in more detail, the heart of the circuit is formed by the
combination of the integrator and the Schmitt trigger.

The integrator takes the voltage at the input and the output voltage rises linearly until a point is
reached where the Schmitt trigger triggers and the output changes. This is used to drive the input to the
integrator and its is in such a sense that the integrator voltage now falls.

The Schmitt trigger can often be used directly for this, or a current source may be used - using a
dedicated current source, typically one for each sense is much better because it enables the drive to the
integrator to be more what is required.

The output from the Schmitt trigger is a square waveform, and this can be take directly to

switch to select the type of waveform and then to a buffer amplifier. This prevents any loading on the
output of the Schmitt trigger hat might alter the integrity of the square wave. The output from the
integrator is a triangular wave and this can be taken tot he waveform type selector switch and again this is
buffered for the same reasons.

Finally the triangular waveform output of the integrator is taken via a buffer amplifier to a
waveform shaper to convert the triangular waveform into a sine wave. This network typically consists of a
resistor diode network which removes the sharp peak and generally shapes the waveform to provide a
sine wave.

It should be noted that the output from the Schmitt trigger must enable the integrator to rise and
fall at exactly the same rate if a true triangular wave, a square wave with a 1:1 mark space ratio and a
good sine wave are to be produced.

• Digital function generator block diagram

More commonly these days, a digital approach is adopted to generate the function outputs. Using
a digital approach these days enables much greater levels of performance and flexibility.

Also with the costs of the digital components needed now much lower and the top frequencies
much higher, this approach is normally the ideal option.

Essentially a form of direct digital frequency synthesizer is used. The circuitry can be contained in
just a few chips along with a few other electronic components, and the performance is normally very high.
 Basic direct digital synthesizer block diagram - this technique is used for many digital function
generators. The phase increment signal determines the frequency of the output signal and the clock can
be a simple crystal oscillator which will enable a very frequency stable output signal to be generated.
The output filtering is key to many of the specifications, and this removes many of the unwanted
products. The different waveforms required can be stored in the waveform map ROM, and this enables a
wide variety of waveforms to be stored and used.

Function generator specifications

The specifications of function generators are obviously important when testing circuits. The
performance must exceed that of the requirements for the circuit under test.

Accordingly, the various factors that need to be assessed must be carefully investigated to
ensure they meet the requirements for the testing so that erroneous testing does not occur.

Factors including the frequency range, output voltage range, square and pulse waveform rise and
fall times, and several other aspects are all important. It is also worth checking that the frequency stability
is sufficient because many function generators can use low stability oscillators within their circuits.

Notes, E. (n.d.). Function generators explained » Electronics notes. https://www.electronics-

notes.com/articles/test-methods/signal-generators/function-generator.php

SIGNAL GENERATOR
 A signal generator is an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating
waveforms used to test and evaluate electronic test equipment. It simulates real-world signals and
conditions, enabling you and other engineers to test the performance and behavior of electronic systems.

You find signal generators in different fields, including telecommunications, audio engineering,
and medical electronics.

The history of signal generators dates back to the 1920s when they were first developed as
simple sine wave generators. Over time, they have evolved to include more complex waveform
generation capabilities, improved accuracy, and greater flexibility.

Today, signal generators offer a wide range of output waveforms, modulation options, and
frequency ranges, allowing you to tailor your test signals precisely to your specific needs.

How Signal Generators Work?

A signal generator has several key components, including an oscillator, modulator, amplifier,
and output stage. The signal generation process starts with the oscillator, which generates a stable and
repetitive waveform, such as a sine wave.
 The waveform passes through the modulator, which shapes the waveform into the desired signal
type, such as a square wave or triangle wave. It adds any modulation, such as amplitude, frequency, or
phase modulation. It then amplifies the output signal to the desired level and sends it to the DUT (device
under test).

A signal generator can generate various waveforms, including sine, square, triangle, sawtooth,
and arbitrary. Sine wave signals are commonly used for testing and evaluating audio systems, while
square and triangle signals test digital circuits. Sawtooth and arbitrary signals test various electronic
systems, as they can simulate real-world signals and conditions.

While signal generators are handy tools, they also have limitations and challenges.

 Accuracy. One of the biggest challenges is accuracy, as even minor errors in the generated
signal can affect the test results.
 Noise. Another challenge is noise, which can corrupt the signal and limit its usefulness.
 Distortion. A final issue that can also be a problem is distortion, which can introduce unwanted
non-linearities into the signal.

To overcome these challenges, choose the correct signal generator for the application and use it
correctly, considering its specifications and limitations.

Applications of Signal Generators

You use signal generators in various industries and applications, testing and measuring
equipment ranging from electronic equipment to telecommunications and audio/video equipment. Let's
take a closer look at some of the most common applications.

Industry Industry
 Electronic testing Signal generators are essential for engineers, as they allow for precise and
customizable signals to test and evaluate electronic systems. For example,
engineers can use signal generators to simulate real-world signals and
conditions.
Telecommunications Signal generators test and verify the performance of various communication
systems, such as cellular networks, satellite systems, and data networks. For
example, a technician can use a signal generator to transmit a test signal to a
cellular base station to evaluate its receiver sensitivity, transmitter power, and
other performance metrics.
Audio and video Signal generators test and evaluate audio and video equipment, such as
amplifiers, speakers, and displays. For example, signal generators generate
sine wave signals to test the frequency response of audio systems.
Automotive Signal generators test and evaluate various automotive electronic systems,
such as engine management systems, powertrain control systems, and
infotainment systems. For example, a signal generator can simulate sensor
signals, such as throttle position and engine speed, to test the performance of
engine management systems.

As you can see, signal generators are versatile and valuable tools for engineers and technicians,
providing a range of signals for testing and evaluating electronic systems in various industries and
applications. Whether you're working in telecommunications, audio and video equipment, or the
automotive industry, a signal generator can help you achieve accurate and reliable testing results.

Types of Signal Generators

There are many signal generators available on the market, from simple function generators to complex
arbitrary waveform generators. Let's take a look at five common types of signal generators.

 RF signal generators
 Vector signal generators
 Arbitrary waveform generators
 Function generators
 Pulse generators

 RF Signal Generators

A radio frequency (RF) generator generates high-frequency signals in the radio frequency
spectrum, typically ranging from a few kilohertz to several gigahertz. RF generators can test and
evaluate the performance of RF components and systems, such as antennas, filters, amplifiers,
and communication systems.

The primary function of an RF generator is to provide a stable and reliable signal source for
testing and evaluating electronic circuits and devices. RF generators consist of a local oscillator, a
modulator, and a power amplifier.

 The local oscillator generates the basic RF signal.

 The modulator adds the desired modulation to the signal, such as amplitude modulation (AM) or
frequency modulation (FM).
 The power amplifier amplifies the modulated signal to the desired level, making it suitable for
testing and evaluating RF components and systems.

You can find RF generators in various applications, such as telecommunications, military and
defense, and industrial electronics. They play a big role in testing and evaluating RF components
and systems, ensuring they meet the desired performance specifications.

 Vector Signal Generators

A vector signal generator (VSG) is a signal generator that can generate both amplitude and
phase-modulated signals, also known as vector signals. Unlike traditional signal generators, which
only generate signals with a constant amplitude, a VSG can generate signals with variable amplitude
and phase, which are essential for testing and evaluating cellular networks and satellite systems.

The primary function of a VSG is to generate complex signals for testing and evaluating
communication systems and electronic devices, such as filters, amplifiers, and modems.

A VSG typically includes a digital signal generator, a modulator, and a power amplifier, that work
together to produce the desired signal. The digital signal generator generates a baseband signal,
which is then modulated in amplitude and phase to make the final modulated signal.

You can find VSGs in the telecommunications industry, where they play a critical role in testing
and evaluating modern communication systems and devices. In other industries, such as military
and defense, VSGs test and evaluate radar and missile guidance systems.
 Arbitrary Waveform Generators

An arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) is a signal generator that can produce any waveform
within its frequency range. Unlike other signal generators that generate predefined waveforms,
such as sine, square, and triangle waves, an AWG can produce a wide range of waveforms that can
be programmed or defined by the user.

The waveform is created by digitally synthesizing a series of samples stored in memory, which
are then converted to an analog signal by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

You find AWGs in various applications, such as

 Electronic testing and measurements

 Telecommunications
 Audio and video equipment
 The automotive industry
 Military and defense
 Research and development

AWGs offer high precision, flexibility, and versatility, allowing you to generate different waveforms
for testing and evaluation purposes. Additionally, an arbitrary waveform generator can generate more
sophisticated waveforms, such as pulsed and modulated signals, that can simulate real-world
conditions, making them an essential tool in many industries.

 Function Generators

A function generator generates various electrical waveforms, such as sine, square, triangle,
and sawtooth, over a wide range of frequencies. The main function of a function generator is to
 provide a convenient and versatile source of signals for testing and evaluating electronic circuits and
devices.

Function generators typically consist of a waveform generator, a frequency control circuit, and an
amplifier. The waveform generator generates the basic waveform, while the frequency control circuit
determines the frequency of the waveform. The amplifier amplifies the waveform to the desired level,
making it suitable for testing and evaluating electronic circuits and devices.

You will find function generators in various applications, such as electronics testing, education,
and research. Electronics engineers, technicians, and students use function generators to test and
evaluate the performance of electronic circuits and devices. They are also used in the development
and testing of audio and video equipment, as well as in the production of various electronic devices.

 Pulse Generators
A pulse generator generates electrical signals or pulses, typically with precise timing and
duration. Pulse generators test and evaluate various electronic circuits and devices, such as digital
circuits, timing circuits, and communication systems.
The primary function of a pulse generator is to provide a precise and controlled source of pulses
for testing and evaluating electronic circuits and devices. Pulse generators consist of a timing circuit,
a shaping circuit, and an amplifier.

The timing circuit determines the timing of the pulses, while the shaping circuit determines the
shape of the pulses, such as square, triangular, or sawtooth. The amplifier amplifies the pulses to the
desired level, making them suitable for testing and evaluating electronic circuits and devices.

Many people in different fields use pulse generators.

 Electronics engineers use pulse generators to test and evaluate the performance of digital
circuits, timing circuits, and communication systems.
 Technicians use pulse generators to diagnose and repair electronic devices and systems.
 Researchers use pulse generators to study and experiment with electronic circuits and systems.
 Students in electronics and engineering courses use pulse generators to learn about and
experiment with electronic circuits.

Signal Generators Key Features

When choosing a signal generator, it is important to consider several key features to ensure that
it will meet your needs and perform to your expectations. This way, you can be sure that your signal
generator will provide accurate and reliable test results.
 1. The frequency range of a signal generator refers to the range of frequencies in hertz (Hz) that
the generator can produce. The frequency range is essential to consider as it affects the accuracy
of the generated signal and the ability to test different devices and systems.
2. The amplitude range refers to the range of amplitudes that a signal generator can produce. The
higher the amplitude range, the more versatile and accurate a signal generator is. It is important
to consider the amplitude range to ensure that the generated signal has the desired amplitude
level for the application.
3. Output power refers to the level of power supply that a signal generator can produce. This is an
essential factor to consider as it affects the accuracy and range of the generated signal. Too low
or too high an output power can lead to inaccurate test results or poor performance of the device
under test.
4. Modulation capabilities refer to the ability of a signal generator to modulate the amplitude,
frequency, or phase of the generated signal. Modulation is important as it allows you to test
different devices and systems, including those that use amplitude modulation, pulse modulation,
frequency modulation, or phase modulation.
5. Sweep and burst functions allow the user to generate signals over a specified frequency range
and time duration. This function is useful for testing devices and systems that require periodic
signals, such as radio frequency transmitters.
6. The format of a signal generator refers to the type of waveform that can be generated (e.g., sine,
square, triangle, etc.). You will need to consider the format of a signal generator to ensure that it
can create the type of signal required for your application.
7. Triggering options allow the user to synchronize the generation of signals with other signals or
events. This function is vital for testing systems that require synchronization, such as digital
circuits and timing circuits. Triggering is also helpful for studying and experimenting with
electronic circuits, as it allows you to control the timing of the generated signals.
8. Waveform memory allows the user to store waveforms for later use. This function is useful for
storing commonly used signals or waveshapes and can save time when setting up tests or
experiments.

What is a Signal Generator? - Keysight Technologies. (n.d.).

https://savings.em.keysight.com/en/knowledge/guides/signal-generator-buying-guide/what-is-a-signal-
generator