Solar Tracking System Using Arduino

Abstract

The transition to renewable energy sources is crucial in mitigating climate change and reducing
dependence on non-renewable resources. Solar energy, one of the most abundant and sustainable
energy sources, has gained prominence globally. However, the efficiency of solar energy systems
depends significantly on their ability to harness maximum sunlight. Solar tracking systems enhance
the efficiency of solar panels by aligning them perpendicularly to the sun's rays. This report details
the design, development, and implementation of a solar tracking system using the Arduino Uno
microcontroller. It covers the hardware and software aspects, working principles, and potential
applications.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Background and Literature Review
3. Objectives
4. Components and Materials
o Arduino Uno Details
o Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
o Servo Motors
o Power Supply System
5. Circuit Design and Assembly
6. Software Development
7. System Working and Testing
8. Results and Analysis
9. Challenges and Limitations
10. Applications and Future Scope
11. Conclusion
12. References

1. Introduction

Solar energy is a pivotal part of the global renewable energy landscape. The efficiency of solar
panels, however, is limited by their fixed positioning, which prevents them from capturing optimal
sunlight throughout the day. Solar tracking systems resolve this issue by dynamically adjusting the
panel orientation to follow the sun's trajectory.

Overview

Solarenergyispopularduetoitsrenewablenature,widespreadavailability,and
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decreasingcosts,makingitasustainable,accessible,andcost-effectivesourceof
powerwithminimalenvironmentalimpact. Solarpowerisbecomingincreasingly
popular as a source of renewable energy due to its numerous benefits such as
cost-effectiveness, reliability, and sustainability. The use of solar energy for
agriculturalpurposes has been gaining attention as it provides farmers with a
reliable andsustainable source of energy for irrigation, crop drying, and other
activities. However,the efficiency and effectiveness of solar panels in agriculture
can be improved byemploying a single-axis sun-tracking mechanism.

In this project, we aim to design and manufacture a passive solar tracking system
withsingle axis tracking, in this there is no use of any kind of electrical power
required forthe rotation for solar panel instead of electrical use we using
mechanical source ofpower. In the spiral spring mechanical energy is stored and
with the help of
geararrangementspeedwillreducesuchawaythatthatcanmatchthesunspeedthrougho
ut the day.
The main goal of this project to design tracking system for the domestic and
industrialpurpose solar plate for increase the efficacy of panel.

SolarEnergy
Solarenergyisarenewableandsustainableenergysourcethatisbecoming
increasinglypopularintheworldduetoitsmanybenefits.Solarenergyisproduced by
the sun, which emits light and heat energy through a process called nuclear
fusion. This energy is then captured and converted into usable electricity by solar
panels. The use of solar energy has many advantages, including reduced
environmental impact, reduced dependence on fossil fuels, and increased energy
independence.
One of the main advantages of solar energy is that it is a clean and renewable
energy source. Unlike fossil fuels, solar energy does not produce harmful
emissions that can damage the environment and contribute to climate change.
Solar panels also do not require any fuel to generate electricity, which means that
they have zero fuel costs and

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produce no waste or pollution. Another advantage of solar energy is that it is a
decentralized energy source.
This means that solar panels can be installed on rooftops, in remote areas, or in
areas without access to a traditional power grid. This is particularly important in
developing countries where access to electricity is limited and unreliable.

1.2.3AboutSun

Diameter: The Sun has an approximate diameter of about 1.39 million kilometers
(864,000 miles).It is about 109 times larger than the Earth in diameter.

Mass: The Sun's mass is approximately 1.989 × 10^30 kilograms, which is about
333,000 times the mass of the Earth.
SurfaceTemperature:ThetemperatureontheSun'ssurface,knownasthe photosphere,
is around 5,500 degrees Celsius (9,932 degrees Fahrenheit).

Core Temperature: The core of the Sun is incredibly hot, with temperatures
reaching around 15 million degrees Celsius (27 million degrees Fahrenheit). This
is wherenuclear fusion occurs, converting hydrogen into helium and releasing
tremendous amounts of energy.

Luminosity: The Sun's luminosity is a measure of the total amount of energy it

emitsper unit oftime. It is approximately 3.8 x 10^26 watts, which is equivalent
to theenergy output of about 3.8 trillion billion 100-watt light bulbs.

DistancefromEarth:TheaveragedistancebetweentheSunandtheEarth,knownas an
astronomical unit (AU), is approximately 149.6 million kilometers (93
millionmiles).Thisdistanceisusedasastandardtomeasuredistanceswithinthesolar
system.

Solar Irradiance: The solar irradiance, which represents the power per unit area
of sunlightreachingtheEarth'souteratmosphere,isapproximately1361wattsper
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square meter (W/m²). However, by the time sunlight reaches the Earth's surface,
it is affectedby variousfactorsandcanvary depending onlocation,timeof
day,season, and atmospheric conditions.

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Age: The Sun is estimated to be around 4.6 billion years old and is considered
middle- aged.Itiscurrently inthemainsequencephaseofitslifecycle,whereitfuses
hydrogen into helium in its core.

1.2.1SolarRadiation

Solarradiation,alsoknownassolarenergyorsunlight,istheelectromagnetic
radiationemittedbytheSun.Itistheprimary sourceofenergyforourplanetand plays a
crucial role in various natural processes and human activities. In this brief
overview, we will explore the characteristics, components, measurement, and
significance of solar radiation.

Solar radiation consists of a broad spectrum of electromagnetic waves, ranging

from high-energy gamma rays and X-rays to lower-energy ultraviolet (UV)
rays,visiblelight, and infrared (IR) radiation. However, only a small portion of
this spectrum is relevant for solar power generation and biological processes on
Earth.
The intensity of solar radiation varies based on several factors, including time of
day,season, geographic location, and atmospheric conditions. The angle at which
sunlightreaches the Earth's surface influences the amount of energy received.
Sunlight is mostintense when it strikes the Earth perpendicular to the surface,
which occurs at noonwhenthe Sunisdirectly overhead.Conversely, during sunrise
orsunset,sunlighttravels through a thicker portion of the atmosphere, leading to
lower intensity and alonger path for the radiation to reach the surface.
Solar radiation consists of a broad spectrum of electromagnetic waves, ranging
from high-energy gamma rays and X-rays to lower-energy ultraviolet (UV) rays,
visiblelight, and infrared (IR) radiation. However, only a small portion of this
spectrum is relevant for solar power generation and biological processes on
Earth.

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TheEarth'satmosphereactsasafilterforsolarradiation,allowingcertain
wavelengthsto pass through while absorbingor scattering others.UV rays,for
example, are mostly absorbed by the ozone layer in the Earth's stratosphere. This
absorption helps protect living organisms from the harmful effects of excessive
UV radiation. Visible light is the portion of solar radiation that our eyes can
perceive. It
consistsofarangeofcolors,witheachcolorcorrespondingtoaspecificwavelength.

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When combined, these colors form white light. The Earth's atmosphere allows
visible light to pass through with minimal absorption, enabling it to reach the
Earth's surface. Infrared radiation, also known as heat radiation, has longer
wavelengths than visible light.It accounts for a significant portion of solar
radiation and plays a crucial role inthe Earth's energy balance. Infrared radiation
is responsible for warming the Earth's surface and playsa vital role in
maintaining a suitable climate for life.

Measurement of solar radiation involves various instruments and units. The most
commonly used instrument is a pyrometer, which measures the total amount of
solar radiation received on a horizontal surface. Pyrometers measure solar
irradiance, expressed in watts per square meter (W/m²). Another important
measurement is solar insolation, which represents the amount of solar radiation
received over a specific period,typicallyinkilowatt-hoursper
squaremeter(kWh/m²) ormega joulesper square meter (MJ/m²).
The intensity of solar radiation varies based on several factors, including time of
day, season, geographic location, and atmospheric conditions. The angle at
which sunlight reaches the Earth's surface influences the amount of energy
received. Sunlight is most intense when it strikes the Earth perpendicular to the
surface, which occurs at noonwhentheSunisdirectly overhead.Conversely, during
sunriseor sunset,sunlight travels through a thicker portion of the atmosphere,
leading to lower intensity and a longer path for the radiation to reach the surface.
Geographiclocationplaysasignificantroleinsolarradiation.Regionsnearthe equator
receive more direct sunlight throughout the year, resulting in higher solar
radiation levels. In contrast, areas farther from the equator, such as Polar
Regions,
experiencelowersolarradiationduetotheinclinedangleatwhichsunlightreaches the
surface. The Earth's atmosphere also affects solar radiation. Cloud cover,
aerosols, and pollutants can scatter or absorb solar radiation,reducing
theamountthatreaches
theEarth'ssurface.Thisphenomenonisparticularlynotableduringcloudyorhazy days
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when solar radiation levels are lower.
Solar radiation also plays a crucial role in agriculture and plant growth. Plants
rely on solar energy for photosynthesis, the process by which they convert
sunlight into chemical energy to fuel their growth and development. The
availability of solarradiation influences plant productivity, flowering, and
fruiting.

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Solar radiation has implications for weather and climate as well. The distribution
ofsolar radiation across the Earth's surface drives temperature gradients, air
circulation patterns, and atmospheric dynamics, contributing to the formation of
weather systems and climate patterns. Solar radiation is a key driver of the
Earth's energy balance, affecting the distribution of heat and moisture on a global
scale.
Solar radiation has numerous practical applications beyond power generation and
agriculture.Itisutilizedinsolarwaterheatingsystems,solarcooking,solardrying, and
solar thermal technologies. Solar radiation is also harnessed for solar water
desalination,providingfreshwaterinregionswithlimitedaccesstocleanwater
sources.

1.2.2TheSunandEarth

TheSunandEarthareintegralcomponentsofoursolarsystem,withtheSunbeing the
central star and the Earth being the third planet from the Sun. Here is a brief
description of the Sun and its relationship with Earth:
The Sun is a massive ball of hot, glowing gas, primarily composed of hydrogen
and helium.Itislocatedatthecenterofoursolarsystemandprovidestheprimarysource
oflight,heat,and energy for Earth andotherplanets.TheSunconsists ofseveral
layers, including the core, radioactive zone, convective zone, photosphere,
chromosphere, and corona. At its core, the Sun undergoes nuclear fusion, where
hydrogen atoms combine to form helium, releasing tremendous amounts of
energy
intheprocess.ThisenergyeventuallyreachestheSun'ssurfaceandisradiatedinto space
as sunlight.
TheSunemitselectromagneticradiationacrossabroadspectrum,including ultraviolet
(UV), visible light, and infrared (IR) radiation. This solar radiation isessential for
supporting life on Earth and drives various natural processes, including weather,
climate, and the water cycle. Earth orbits the Sun in an elliptical path,
completingonerevolutionarounditapproximatelyevery365days,resultingina

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year.Thisorbitalpath,combinedwiththetiltofEarth'saxis,givesrisetothe changing
seasons. During the summer solstice, the hemisphere tilted towards the Sun
experiences longer days and receives more direct sunlight, leading to warmer
temperatures. Conversely, during the winter solstice, the hemisphere tilted away
fromthe Sun experiences shorter days and receives less direct sunlight, resulting
in colder
temperatures.SunlightiscrucialforsustaininglifeonEarth.Throughtheprocessof

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photosynthesis,plantsandsomemicroorganismsconvertsunlightintochemical
energy, producing oxygen and forming the foundation of the food chain.
Sunlight also plays a vital role in regulating Earth's climate, driving atmospheric
circulation, and influencing weather patterns.

PhotovoltaicSystem

A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also known as a solar cell, is a device that converts
sunlight
directlyintoelectricitythroughthephotovoltaiceffect.PVcellsarethebuilding blocks
of solar panels and play a crucial role in solar power generation. Here is an
overview of PV cells, including their structure, working principle, types, and
applications.
Structure: A PV cell typically consists of several layers of different
semiconductor
materials,mostcommonlysilicon.Themaincomponentsofatypicalsilicon-based PV
cell are:
Absorber Layer: This layer is usually made of silicon and is responsible for
absorbing
sunlight.Siliconisasemiconductormaterialthatcangenerateelectricitywhen exposed
to light.
P-N Junction: The absorber layer is doped with impurities to create a p-n
junction,which is the boundary between the positively charged (p-type) and
negatively charged (n-type) regions.This junction allows fortheseparation and
flowof electrons and holes, enabling the generation of an electric current.

Contacts:Metalcontactsareplacedonthefrontandbacksurfacesofthecellto collect
and carry the generated electricity. The front contact is usually a grid-

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likepattern,allowingsunlighttoreachtheabsorberlayer,whilethebackcontactcovers
the entire back surface.

Working Principle: The functioning of a PV cell is based on the photovoltaic

effect. Whensunlight,consistingofphotons,strikestheabsorberlayerofthePVcell,it

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transfers energy to the atoms in the material. This energy excites electrons in the
material, creating electron-hole pairs. The p-n junction within the cell separates
these electron-hole pairs, with the electrons flowing to the n-side and the holes to
the p-side. The electric field created by the p-n junction causes the electrons to
move towards the front surface of the cell, while the holes move towards the
back surface. This flow of electrons and holes creates a voltage difference
between the front and back contacts, generating an electric current.The metal
contacts collect this current and transfer it toan external circuit for utilization.

1.3.2TypesofPVCell

There are several types of photovoltaic (PV) cells, each employing different
materials and technologies to convert sunlight into electricity. Here is a brief
description of the most common types:

Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) Cells: These cells are made from slices of crystalline
silicon,
whichcanbeeithermonocrystallineormulticrystalline.Monocrystallinecellsare
made from a single crystal structure, offering high efficiency and a uniform
black appearance.Multicrystallinecellsarecomposedofmultiplecrystalstructures,
resulting in a slightly lower efficiency but lower production costs. Crystalline
silicon cells are widely used and known for their long-term reliability.

Thin-Film Cells: Thin-film cells utilize a thin semiconductor layer, which is

typically deposited on a substrate material such as glass or metal. The most
common thin-film materials include amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride
(CdTe), and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS). Thin-film cells are less
expensive to producecompared to crystalline silicon cells and can be flexible,
allowing for more versatile applications.

MultijunctionCells:Multijunctioncellsconsistofmultiplesemiconductorlayers,
each tuned to absorb different portions of the solar spectrum. By stacking
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different materials with varying band gaps, multijunction cells achieve higher
efficiency than single-junction cells. They are often used in concentrated
photovoltaic (CPV) systems and space applications where efficiency is crucial.

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Organic Cells: Organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells utilize organic materials, such
as polymersorsmallmolecules,astheactivelayer.Thesecellshavethepotentialfor
low-cost production and can be flexible. However, they currently have
lowerefficiencies compared to traditional PV technologies and are primarily used
in niche applications.

Dye-Sensitized Cells: Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) use a layer of

photosensitive dye to capture sunlight. The dye absorbs photons and transfers the
energy to a semiconductor material, generating an electric current. DSSCs have
lower production costsandperformwell underlow-
lightconditions,buttheirefficiencyistypically lower compared to other PV cell
types.
PerovskiteCells:Perovskitesolarcellsareanemergingtechnologythatuses perovskite
materials as the light-absorbing layer. These cells have rapidly improved in
efficiency in recent years and have the potential for low-cost production.
However, further research is still underway to address issues related to stability
and scalability.

SolarTracking
Asolartrackingsystemisamechanismordeviceusedtoorientsolarpanelsor
mirrorstowardtheSuntomaximizetheabsorptionofsolarradiation.Theprimary
goalofasolartrackingsystemistooptimizetheincidentangleofsunlightonthe
solarpanels,ensuringthattheyreceivethehighestpossiblesolarirradiance throughout
the day. This increased efficiency can significantly enhance the
energyoutputofsolarpowersystems.Thereareprimarilytwotypesofsolartracking
systems: single-axis and dual-axis.

Single-Axis Tracking System: A single-axis tracking system adjusts the position

ofsolar panels along one axis, typically either the horizontal (azimuth) or vertical
(elevation) axis. Horizontal single-axis tracking systems rotate the solar panels
fromeasttowest,followingtheSun'spaththroughouttheday.Thisallowsthepanelsto
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face the Sun directly as it moves across the sky. Vertical single-axis tracking
systemstilt the panels to optimize the angle of incidence as the Sun's elevation
changes throughout the day. Single-axis tracking systems are relatively simpler
and more cost- effective than dual-axis systems.

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Dual-Axis Tracking System: A dual-axis tracking system adjusts the position of
solar panelsalongboththehorizontalandverticalaxes.Thesesystemsallowthesolar
panelstotracktheSun'smovementbothhorizontallyandvertically,ensuringthat they
are always perpendicular to the incoming sunlight. Dual-axis tracking
systemsofferthehighestlevelofaccuracyandefficiency,astheycanfollowtheSun's
position more precisely throughout the day. However, they are more complex
and expensive compared to single-axis systems.

EffectofTracking
Solar tracking systems offer several benefits and effects that can enhance the
performanceandefficiencyofsolarpowersystems.Herearesomekeyeffectsof using a
solar tracking system:
IncreasedEnergyProduction:Solartrackingsystemsallowsolarpanelsto
continuously face the Sun as it moves across the sky. By optimizing the incident
angleof sunlight, the panels can capture more solar radiation throughout the day.
This
increasedexposuretosunlightleadstohigherenergyproductioncomparedtofixed- tilt
systems. Studies have shown that solar tracking systems can improve energy
production by 20% to 40% or more, depending onthe location and tracking
accuracy.

Extended Peak Power Output: With solar tracking, the peak power output of
solarpanels is extended. Fixed-tilt systems have a relatively short period of
optimal performanceduringthedaywhentheSunisdirectlyfacing
thepanels.Incontrast, solar tracking systems continuously adjust the panels to
face the Sun, maximizingpower output over a more extended period. This can be
particularly beneficial during mornings and evenings when the Sun is at lower
angles.

ImprovedEfficiency:Solartrackingsystemsmaximizetheutilizationofavailable
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solarirradiancebyreducingtheincidenceanglemismatchbetweenthesolarpanels and
sunlight. By maintaining an optimal angle of incidence, the system reduces
reflectionandincreasestheamountofsolarradiationabsorbedbythepanels.This leads
to improved overall system efficiency and higher energy conversion rates.

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Enhanced Return on Investment (ROI): Solar tracking systems can provide a
higher return on investment over the lifespan of a solar power system. The
increased energy production and improved efficiency result in higher electricity
generation, which can lead to faster payback periods and greater financial
benefits. While solar tracking systemshavehigherupfrontcostscomparedtofixed-
tiltsystems,theadditional energy generated can offset the initial investment.

ReducedLandRequirement:Solartrackingsystemscangeneratemoreenergyper
unitareacomparedtofixed-tiltsystems.Bymaximizingtheenergyoutputfroma
givenarea,solartrackingsystemscanhelpreducethelandrequirementforsolar
powerinstallations.Thisisparticularlyadvantageousinsituationswhereavailable
land is limited or expensive.

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LITERATURE SURVEY
INTRODUCTION
The available renewable energy resources are solar, Wind, Hydro, Fuel
Cell(FC)etc.Amongthese,thesolarenergy isapollutionfree,promisingandreliable
green source to meet the growing demand. The increasing demand for energy
with the concern of depletion in conventional fuels, and protecting the
environment from pollution have made the researchers to develop a new solution
of utilizing therenewable energy. Considering all these factors. The PV system
converts sunlight into electrical power using the principle of photovoltaic effect.
Whenever light falls on PV cell, the energy from photon is transferred to the
charge carriers. Then the chargecarriers split into positively charged holes and
negatively charged electrons due to the electric field across the junction. This
results in the flow of current if a closed path is provided to the circuit by
connecting a load. The basic operation of a PV cell is shownin Fig.1. The total
amount of solar energy that consumed worldwide increased exponentially the
total capacity, generated, and consumed energy has increased exponentially,and
the total growth of solar energy capacity and usage is 29.6%.

Sun

Negativeelectrode

n-type
h+e e e e
Transportation
e-
hgenerati
on e
h +++++++ -
+++++

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Electricpotential(E) +

LOAD
Depletionzone

-- - - - - --- ----

h
p-type h+
h e
h

Positiveelectrode

Fig1:SolarTrackingSystem

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A. Need: Sun irradiance varies with months, time of day, weather conditions,
geographical area, and position of the sun in the sky. So to maintain the
maximum irradiance thesystem called as solar tracker is generally usedwhich can
enhances
poweroutputby25%.Solartrackersystemsaredesignedanddevelopedtoincrease the
amount of solar radiation received by photovoltaic devices and thereby
increasingtheoutputofPVmodule.Thisprocessiscarriedoutbymaintainingtheoptimu
m angleofthesolarpaneltoproducethebestpoweroutput.Manysolartracking systems
have been built and designed to achieve the optimal amount of solar energy,and
many models have been proposed to enhance the efficiency of PV module.
A solar tracking system tracks the position of the sun and maintains the solar
photovoltaic modules at an angle that produces the best power output. Several
solar trackingprinciplesandtechniqueshavebeenproposedtotrackthesunefficiently.
The idea behind designing a solar tracking system isto fix solar photovoltaic
modulesinapositionthatcantrackthemotionofthesunacrosstheskytocapturethe
maximum amount of sunlight. Tracker system should be placed in a position that
can receive the best angle of incidence to maximize the electrical energy output.

Type ofTracking
The complexity of a tracking system depends on the number of axes used to
move the solarphotovoltaicmodulesi.e.horizontally,vertically,or both.Two
maintypesof solar tracking systems exist. The first one is single axis tracking,
which can be used to movethesolar photovoltaichorizontally or
vertically.Thesecond typeis dualaxis solar tracking systems, also known as two-
axis tracking, which can be used to simultaneously change in both angles of
azimuth and tilt angle. In other words the tracker which track sun in only one
direction is single axis tracker while if it tracks in
bothdirectionthetrackerwillbecalledasdoubleaxistrackersystemasshownin fig.2

Moving solar tracking systems from sideto sideis equally important as cost
ofdoing
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so.Thereforesolartrackingsystemscanbemanuallymovedmechanicallythrough
theuseofcantilevers,gearsormotors.Themostimportantpointtoassistthe proposed
solar tracking systems is calculating the gained energy compared with the
consumedenergybythetrackercomponents.Motors,hardwarecomponents,

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resistors,andthesizeofphotovoltaicpanelscanaffectthegainedpower.Solar tracking
systems can be mainly divided into two main groups based on the techniques that
control the photovoltaic module. These two main groups are active and passive
tracking system. Active tracking systems use some form of electric energy to
drive motorsandgeartrainstodirectthepaneltowardthesun.Passivetrackingsystems
uses the non-electric energy such as a low boiling point compressed gas fluid
that expands due to energy gain from solar heat or any other phase change
material.

ActiveTracking
Active and passive solar tracking are the two main techniques utilized to
efficiently
trackthesun.Activetrackeraccounts75%usageinapplicationswhilethesecond most
type is the passive solar tracker accounting 7.55%. [1] In general the tracker uses
light detecting sensors like LDR, averages of the signals generated from four
LDR’s placed at the four corners of a photovoltaic cell. Based on the computed
averages, the microcontroller gives instructions to servomotors for rotation of the
PV cells towardsthe direction of maximum incident sun rays as shown in Fig. 2.
Their result obtained show a 54.71% increase in the generated output power for
the tracking system as opposed to the fixed solar panel [2].

Another Study of 5 PV cells as the input device to controller for photovoltaic

performance of a dual-axis solar tracker based on photovoltaic cells with
different inclinationanglesathighaltitudes above3800m.a.s.l.Asolartracking
system activated by two linear actuatorswasimplemented to automatically follow
thetrajectory of the sun during the day. As shown in fig.3,

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Fig2:Magnetizationasafunctionofappliedfieldfig3:SolarTracking
EachPVcellmeasuresthesolarirradianceindependentlyconnectedtothePLC;
withinitsprogramming,thePLCobtainsthemaximumreferencesolarirradiance value
and compares it with the irradiance of the solar tracker to optimize the range of
motion of the axes and find the point of maximum power. It reviles comparison
offixed, single and double tracking system. Tracking sun improves the efficiency
ofenergy conversion up to 24% to 30 % like the dual-axis solar tracker had a
maximum
monthlyphotovoltaicyieldof37.63%morethanthefixedphotovoltaicsystemand
theenergyproductionof10.66kWh/m2/dmorethanthatinthefixedsystem[3], which
produced 7.75 kWh/m2 /d as shown in fig.4. In contrast, on rainy days
withpartial cloudiness, the performance of both photovoltaic systems was
reduced to 14.38%,
[4]butthismaynotbetrueallthetimeconsideringtheavailabilityofsun rays region
wise.
Efficiency of Fixed Photovoltaic module is 0.4% greater than single Sun Tracker
Photovoltaic.Inthedryseason,SunTrackerPhotovoltaichas0.5%greater interference
than Photovoltaic Fixed Mounting. The maximum efficiency
inPhotovoltaicFixedInstallationis12.4%,whilethemaximumefficiencyofSun
Tracker photovoltaic is 13%.[5] Thus using solar trackers more solar radiation
are allowed to capture by maintaining the surface of the module approximately
perpendiculartothesourceforalongerperiodtherebyproducingmoreelectric power.
Another studies shows that, Active- single-axis and double-axis solar tracking
systems maximize electricity production, increasing the capture of solar radiation
and photovoltaicefficiencybybetween15%and45%comparedtootherfixed
photovoltaic systems of equal power [6]; by 19.97% compared with dual-axis
systems based on light dependent resistors (LDR) [7]; by up to 40% compared
with other low- cost systems with four and 8 simulated LDRs [8] and by up to
54.39% compared tousing a closed circuit control loop[9]. Currently, dual-axis
solar trackers have greater photovoltaic efficiency in the production of electricity
because they follow thetrajectory ofthe
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suninasynchronizedmovementacrossthehorizontalasazimuth angle and vertical
axes.
To control a solar trajectory tracking system, several control strategies are used,
including open, closed or combined loops [9], Classic strategies such as ON-
OFF, PIand PID controls, and control algorithms through a programmable logic
controller
(PLC).Forenteringinformationaboutthesensors,thesequenceoftheprocessesand

26
the output of the actuators that automatically direct the solar tracker software can
beused[10].Therefore,somesolartrackersusephotosensorsorphotodiodesasthe
mainsolartrackingdevice;however,thenormaloperationofthesesensorsdepends on
clear skies and favorable weather conditions [11].
Othershaveusedlow-costLDRs[12]andphotovoltaicpanels[5,13].Inaddition, the
performance of these solar trackers can be improved by MPPT strategies [14].
The performance of trackers is affected by several factors, such as irregular
precipitation, partial cloud cover, seasonality and altitude. To correlate these
variables in a scatterplot, performing principal component analysis is used to
determine which factor influences the loss of performance [15]. This technique
divides the variables into relevant blocks and is very effective for the monitoring
and detection of faults.
The study also shows that performance of both type of tracker is function of
types of actuators, mechanical components, materials and pay load of solar
module and terrainof operation.

PASSIVETRACKER
Other type of tracker system is passive which uses either the phase change
material which changes physical properties of fluids as solar energy in tracking
the sun or gravitational potential or through mounting spring or integration of
wind energy. An
earlyattemptforsingleaxispassivesolartrackerbasedonshapememoryalloy (SMA)
actuators tested andfound useful than bimetallicactuators with higherefficiency
[16].On other hand bimetallic laminates of Ni36/Mn75Ni15Cu10 strip for
organic cell can be used as main actuator for tracking which changes the shape as
itbendanddeformduetotheinfluenceoftemperaturedependingontheshadowarea and
the solar cell perpendicular to light as shown in fig.5 and 6.

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Fig3:Applicationofbimetallicandlaminateforsolartracking

28
 Fig.
Fig4:Actuationeffectoflaminateandbimetalfromstable1to2andpositionof actuator
and laminate

The results hold good feasibility and reasonablein term of stability,

deformationprocess of bistable laminates. The study reviles the deformation
capability called as actuation effectwhichisdirectly related with tracking
efficiencyisfunction ofthe snap-through temperatures, arrangement of the
bimetallic strip on the bistablelaminates, thickness of the bimetallic strip tested
numerically and experimentally andhas reasonably good aggregate[17]. Clifford
et. Al. designs a bimetallic strip tracker
whichconsistsoftwobimetallicstripsofaluminumandsteel.Thebimetallicstrips are
positioned on a wooden frame, symmetrically on either side of a central
horizontal
axissuchthatthestripwhichiswayfromthesunabsorbsthermalradiationasshown in
fig.7 while the other remains shaded.

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 Fig.5:GravitybasedPassiveTracked
Theexposedbimetallicstripgetshotter;thealuminumbendsmorethanthesteeldue to
its higher coefficient of thermal expansion. This bending causes a maximum
deflectionatthestripmidpointandwiththeattachedmassanunbalancedmoment

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results,whichgeneratingmovementtowardsthesunrotatesthesolarpanelalong [18].
Another attempt by Suhail Zaki Farooqui et.al.[19] is of making gravity
basedsolar tracker for specially solar cooker. It consists of actuation of stretch
spring and mirror as shown in fig.8.
InitiallyWaterstoredinsideacontainerisattachedtoaspringthroughachord,thus
anamountofpotentialenergystoredinthestretchedspringandwatergetdischarged at a
constant rate from the container, thus the spring slowly returns to its un-stretched
positiondraggingthesolarcookeralongwithit.Further,byincreasingtheheightof
theboostermirrorattachedtothesolarcookerfulfillstherequirementoftracking along
changing solar elevation. The controlled discharge of water if matched with the
rate of change of the solar azimuth, the solar tracking can be achieved. The
wholesystemhasbeenoptimizedfor6hofcookingperday,withoutmanualtracking
resulted optimum angle of inclination of the booster mirror as 25 degree.

CONCIUSION
Solartrackingsystemshaveveryhighefficiencyandperformancecomparedwith fixed
or stationary solar photovoltaic systems. The main advantage of solar tracking
systems is the increased electricity generation depending on thegeographical
locationof the solar tracker and other variables. However, solar tracking systems
possess numerous limitations. Solar tracking systems are more expensive than
fixed systemsdue to the complexity of the technology used and their use of
expensive products for their complex operations. It is observed that active tracker
using optical sensor and microcontroller based active drives offer the advantage
of high precision tracking andare used widely and also frequently used in
comparison with the auxiliary bifacial and
timebasedactivedrives.However,theyhaveacommondisadvantageoflow efficiency
on cloudy days since the sensors require sunlight to function effectively. Passive
drives rely on the changing physical properties of fluids rather than complexand
complicated control circuits, motors, gears and sensors used in active drives.
This makes them more viable than active drives. Also the factors that affect the
energyoutputofsuchsystemsincludethephotovoltaicmaterial,geographicallocation
31
of solar irradiances, ambient temperature and weather, angle of sun incidence,
and orientation of the
panel.

32
METHODOLOGY

ResearchandLiteratureReview:
Conductacomprehensiveliteraturereviewonsolartrackingsystems,focusingon both
active and passive tracking mechanisms. Explore the principles, advantages, and
limitationsofdifferenttrackingapproaches.Identifykeydesignconsiderations,such
as incident angle optimization, mechanical components, and system efficiency.
SystemRequirementsandDesignSpecifications:
Definethespecificrequirementsforthepassivesolartrackingsystembasedon project
goals and objectives. Determine the desired accuracy, tracking range, and
adaptability to different solar panel configurations. Establish design
specifications forthe mechanical components, sensors, and actuators of the
tracking system.
ConceptualDesign:
Develop a conceptual design for the passive solar tracking system, considering
simplicity,reliability,andcost-effectiveness.Determinethetrackingmechanism
basedonselectedpassivetrackingtechniques,suchasbimetallicstrips,compressed gas
systems, or shape memory alloys.
Createinitialsketches,diagrams,and3Dmodelstovisualizetheoverallsystem design
and components.
DetailedEngineeringDesign:
Refine the conceptual design into a detailed engineering design, incorporating
specific mechanical components and materials. Use computer-aided design
(CAD) software to create precise 3D models of the tracking mechanism and
related subsystems. Perform structural analysis and simulations to ensure the
design's mechanical integrity and reliability.
ComponentSelectionandProcurement:
Select mechanical components, such as linkages, gears, and pivots, based on
design specifications and compatibility with the passive tracking mechanism.
Source lightweight and durable materials suitable for the fabrication of the
tracking system.
Procure necessary sensors, actuators, and other electronic components required
33
 for the autonomous operation of the system.
PrototypeDevelopmentandTesting:
Fabricate a prototype of the passive solar tracking system, following the detailed
engineering design. Assemble the mechanical components, integrate sensors and
actuators,andensureproperalignmentandmovementofthetrackingmechanism.

34
 Conduct extensive testing of the prototype under various environmental
conditions, recording data on energy output, tracking accuracy, and
system efficiency.

PerformanceEvaluationandOptimization:
Analyze the test data to evaluate the performance of the passive solar
tracking system. Assess energy production improvements and compare
them with fixed-tilt systems or
simulations.Identifyareasforoptimizationandrefinementinthedesignand
operation of the tracking system, addressing any limitations or
challenges.

DocumentationandReporting:
Prepareacomprehensivereportdocumentingtheentireproject,including
methodology,design specifications, testing procedures,results, and
analysis. Presentthe findings in a clear and concise manner, supported by
visuals such as diagrams,
charts,andphotographs.Includedetaileddocumentationofthedesign,fabrica
tion, and assembly processes for future reference.
ConclusionandFutureWork:
Summarize the project's key findings, emphasizing the feasibility and
benefits of the passive solar tracking system. Discuss potential future
research and development opportunities for further improving the
design, efficiency, and applicability of the
passivetrackingmechanism.Reflectontheproject'srelevanceinpromoting
sustainable and efficient solar power systems.
ProjectManagement:
Establish aprojecttimeline,milestones,and task assignments to
ensureeffective project management.Monitor and track progress
regularly, addressing any
challengesorobstaclesthatarise.Allocateresourcesappropriatelyandensure
adherenceto project goals and objectives. Maintain effective
communication and collaborationamong team members throughout the

35
 project lifecycle.

2.3 Role of Microcontrollers

Arduino Uno is a popular choice for prototyping due to its ease of use, affordability, and
extensive community support. Its integration with sensors and actuators makes it ideal for
solar tracking applications.

3. Objectives

1. To design and implement a cost-effective solar tracking system.

2. To use LDRs for detecting sunlight intensity.
3. To develop an Arduino-based system for real-time tracking.
4. To analyze the system’s efficiency in comparison to static solar panels.

4. Components and Materials

4.1 Arduino Uno Details

Arduino Uno

Uno is a microcontroller board developed by Arduino.cc which is an open-source electronics

platform mainly based on AVR microcontroller Atmega328. Above image shows Arduino
Uno R3. The R3 is the third, and latest, revision of the Arduino Uno.

Arduino Uno Description:

Uno is a microcontroller board based on 8-bit ATmega328P microcontroller. Along with
ATmega328P, it consists other components such as crystal oscillator, serial communication,
voltage regulator, etc. to support the microcontroller.

The Arduino Uno comes with USB interface, 6 analog input pins, 14 I/O digital ports that are
used to connect with external electronic circuits. Out of 14 I/O ports, 6 pins can be used for
PWM output. It allows the designers to control and sense the external electronic devices in the
real world.

The software used for Arduino devices is called IDE (Integrated Development Environment).
It can be programmed using C and C++ language.

Arduino Uno Features

This board comes with all the features required to run the controller and can be directly
connected to the computer through USB cable that is used to transfer the code to the controller
using IDE (Integrated Development Environment) software, mainly developed to program
Arduino. So, let’s dive into the features of Arduino Uno.

36
 1. More frequency and number of instructions per cycle: Atmega328 microcontroller
is placed on the board that comes with a number of features like timers, counters,
interrupts, PWM, CPU, I/O pins and based on a 16MHz clock that helps in producing
more frequency and number of instructions/cycle.
2. Built-in regulation: This board comes with a built-in regulation feature which keeps
the voltage under control when the device is connected to the external device.
3. Flexibility & Ease of use: There are 14 I/O digital and 6 analog pins incorporated in
the board that allows the external connection with any circuit with the board. These
pins provide the flexibility and ease of use to the external devices that can be
connected through these pins.
4. Configurable pins: The 6 analog pins are marked as A0 to A5 and come with a
resolution of 10bits. These pins measure from 0 to 5V, however, they can be
configured to the high range using analogReference() function and AREF pin.
5. Quick Start: Reset pin is available in the board that reset the whole board and takes
the running program in the initial stage. This pin is useful when board hangs up in the
middle of the running program; pushing this pin will clear everything up in the
program and starts the program right from the beginning.
6. Greater Flash Memory: 13KB of flash memory is used to store the number of
instructions in the form of code.
7. Low Voltage Requirement: Only 5 V is required to turn the board on, which can be
achieved directly using USB port or external adapter, however, it can support external
power source up to 12 V which can be regulated and limit to 5 V or 3.3 V based on the
requirement of the project.
8. Plug & Play: There is no hard and fast interface required to connect the devices to the
board. Simply plug the external device into the pins of the board that are laid out on
the board in the form of the header.
9. USB interface: Arduino Uno comes with USB interface i.e. USB port is added on the
board to develop serial communication with the computer.
10. Power alternatives: Apart from USB, battery or AC to DC adopter can also be used to
power the board.
11. More Storage: There is a provision of Mirco SD card to be used in the boards to make
them store more information.

Arduino Uno Specifications

The specifications of Arduino Uno is as given in the table below.

Arduino Uno Specifications Table

ATmega38P – 8 bit AVR

Microcontroller
family microcontroller

Operating Voltage 5V

Recommended Input Voltage 7-12V

Input Voltage Limits 6-20V

Analog Input Pins 6 (A0-A5)

37
 14 (Out of which 6 provide
Digital I/O Pins
PWM output)

DC Current on I/O Pins 40mA

DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50mA

32 KB (0.5 KB is used for

Flash Memory
Bootloader)

SRAM 2kB

EEPROM 1kB

Frequency (Clock Speed) 16MHz

Arduino Uno Pin Diagram

Following figure shows the pin diagram of Arduino Uno.

Pin's information is as given in the table below.

Arduino Uno Pins Info. Table

Pin Category Pin Name Details

Power Vin, 3.3V, 5V, GND Vin: Input voltage to

Arduino when using
an external power
source.
5V: Regulated power

38
 supply used to power
microcontroller and
other components on
the board.
3.3V: 3.3V supply
generated by on-
board voltage
regulator. Maximum
current draw is
50mA.
GND: ground pins.

Resets the
Reset Reset
microcontroller.

Used to provide
Analog Pins A0-A5 analog input in the
range of 0-5V

Can be used as input

Input/Output Pins Input/Output Pins
or output pins.

Used to receive and

Serial 0(Rx), 1(Tx) transmit TTL serial
data.

To trigger an
External Interrupts 2, 3
interrupt.

Provides 8-bit PWM

PWM 3, 5, 6, 9, 11
output.

10 (SS), 11 (MOSI),
Used for SPI
SPI 12 (MISO) and 13
communication.
(SCK)

To turn on the inbuilt

Inbuilt LED 13
LED.

A4 (SDA), A5 Used for TWI

TWI
(SCA) communication.

To provide reference
AREF Analogue REFerence voltage for input
voltage.

39
Arduino Uno Pin Description:
There are several arduino uno pins, more specifically, I/O digital and analog pins placed on
the board which operates at 5V. But, these pins come with standard operating ratings ranging
between 20mA to 40mA. Internal pull-up resistors are used in the board that limits the current
exceeding from the given operating conditions. However, too much increase in current makes
these resistors useless and damages the device.

 LED - Arduino Uno comes with built-in LED which is connected through pin 13.
Providing HIGH value to the pin will turn it ON. Providing LOW will turn it OFF.
 Vin - It is the input voltage provided to the Arduino Board. This pin is used to supply
voltage. It is different than 5 V supplied through a USB port. If a voltage is provided
through power jack, it can be accessed through this pin.
 5V - This board comes with the ability to provide voltage regulation. 5V pin is used to
provide output regulated voltage. The board is powered up using three ways i.e. USB,
Vin pin of the board or DC power jack. USB supports voltage around 5V while Vin
and Power Jack support a voltage ranges between 7V to 20V.
 GND - These are ground pins. There are more than one ground pins are provided on
the board. They can be used as per requirement.
 Reset -This pin is incorporated on the board which resets the program running on the
board. Instead of physical reset on the board, IDE comes with a feature of resetting the
board through programming.
 IOREF -It is the abbreviation of Input Output Voltage Reference. This pin is very
useful for providing voltage reference to the board. A shield is used to read the voltage
across this pin which then select the proper power source.
 PWM – Pulse Width Modulation is provided by 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 pins. These pins are
configured to provide 8-bit output PWM.
 SPI - It is abbreviation of Serial Peripheral Interface. Four pins 10(SS), 11(MOSI),
12(MISO), 13(SCK) provide SPI communication with the help of SPI library.
 AREF - It is called Analog Reference. This pin is used for providing a reference
voltage to the analog inputs.
 TWI - It is called Two-Wire Interface. TWI communication is accessed through Wire
Library. A4 and A5 pins are used for this purpose.
 Serial Communication - Serial communication is carried out through two pins called
Pin 0 (Rx) and Pin 1 (Tx).
 Rx. & Tx. - Rx (Receiver) pin is used to receive data while Tx (Transmitter) pin is
used to transmit data.
 External Interrupts - Pin 2 and 3 are used for providing external interrupts. An
interrupt is called by providing LOW or changing value.

Arduino Uno comes with an ability of interfacing with other Arduino boards, microcontrollers
and computer. The Atmega328 placed on the board provides serial communication using pins
like Rx and Tx. The Atmega16U2 incorporated on the board provides a pathway for serial
communication using USB com drivers. A Serial monitor is provided on the IDE software
which is used to send or receive text data from the board. If LEDs are placed on the Rx and Tx
pins will flash, they indicate the transmission of data.

40
Arduino Uno - Getting into Programming

The 14 digital input/output pins can be used as input or output pins by using pinMode(),
digitalRead() and digitalWrite() functions in arduino programming. Each pin operate at 5V
and can provide or receive a maximum of 40mA current, and has an internal pull-up resistor of
20-50 KOhms which are disconnected by default. Out of these 14 pins, some pins have
specific functions as listed below.

Arduino Uno Pin Configuration:

 Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx):Rx and Tx pins are used to receive and transmit TTL
serial data. They are connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to TTL
serial chip.
 External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3:These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt
on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9 and 11:These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output by using
analogWrite() function.
 SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK):These pins are used for SPI
communication.
 In-built LED Pin 13:This pin is connected with an built-in LED, when pin 13 is
HIGH – LED is on and when pin 13 is LOW, it’s off.

Along with 14 Digital pins, there are 6 analog input pins, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution, i.e. 1024 different values. They measure from 0 to 5 volts but this limit can be
increased by using AREF pin with analog Reference() function.

 Analog pin 4 (SDA) and pin 5 (SCA) also used for TWI communication using Wire
library.

Arduino Uno has a couple of other pins as explained below:

 AREF:Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with analogReference()

function.
 Reset Pin: Making this pin LOW, resets the microcontroller.

Data Transmission in Arduino:

1. Arduino can be used to communicate with a computer, another Arduino board or other
microcontrollers. The ATmega328P microcontroller provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication.
2. Serial communication can be done using digital pin 0 (Rx) and digital pin 1 (Tx). An
ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears
as a virtual com port to software on the computer.
3. The ATmega16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no external
driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required.
4. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be
sent to and from the Arduino board.

41
 5. There are two RX and TX LEDs on the arduino board which will flash when data is
being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (not
for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
6. A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital
pins.
7. The ATmega328P also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication and the Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus.

Programming the Arduino Uno

The IDE Software

The Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a simple and easy to learn software for
writing Arduino codes. Arduino has huge flexibility with which you can make almost
anything you imagine. It can be easily connected to a variety of modules like fire sensors,
obstacle sensors, presence detectors, GPS modules, GSM Modules, or anything with which
you wish to give wings to your dream project.

IDE is equally compatible with Windows, MAC or Linux Systems, however, Windows is
preferable to use. It is an open source platform where anyone can modify and optimize the
board based on the number of instructions and task they want to achieve.

Connecting Arduino to PC

It is recommended to operate the board on 5V. It is important to note that, if a voltage is

supplied through 5V or 3.3V pins, they result in bypassing the voltage regulation that can
damage the board if voltage surpasses from its limit.

Once Arduino IDE is installed on the computer, connect the board with computer using USB
cable. Now open the arduino IDE and choose the correct board by
selecting Tools>Boards>Arduino/Genuino Uno, and choose the correct Port by
selecting Tools>Port. Arduino Uno is programmed using Arduino programming language
based on Wiring. To get it started with Arduino Uno board and blink the built-in LED, load
the example code by selecting Files>Examples>Basics>Blink. Once the example code (also
shown below) is loaded into your IDE, click on the ‘upload’ button given on the top bar. Once
the upload is finished, you should see the Arduino’s built-in LED blinking. Below is the
example code for blinking:

// the setup function runs once when you press reset or power the board

void setup() {

// initialize digital pin 13 as an output.

pinMode(13, OUTPUT);

42
}

// the loop function runs over and over again forever

void loop() {

digitalWrite(13, HIGH); // turn the LED on (HIGH is the voltage level)

delay(1000); // wait for a second

digitalWrite(13, LOW); // turn the LED off by making the voltage LOW

delay(1000); // wait for a second

4.2 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

LDRs are sensors whose resistance varies with the intensity of light falling on them.

Light Dependent Resistor

The Light-dependent resistors made with photosensitive semiconductor materials like

Cadmium Sulphides (CdS), lead sulfide, lead selenide, indium antimonide, or cadmium
selenide and they are placed in a Zig-Zag shape as you can see in the pic below.

43
Two metal contacts are placed on both ends of the Zig-Zag shape these metal contacts help in
creating a connection with the LDRs.

Now, a transparent coating is applied on the top so that the zig-zag-shaped photosensitive
material gets protected and as the coating is transparent the LDR will be able to capture light
from the outer environment for its working.

LDR Symbol

LDR Working Principle

It works on the principle of photoconductivity whenever the light falls on its photoconductive
material, it absorbs its energy and the electrons of that photoconductive material in the
valence band get excited and go to the conduction band and thus increasing the conductivity
as per the increase in light intensity.

Also, the energy in incident light should be greater than the bandgap gap energy so that the
electrons from the valence band got excited and go to the conduction band.

The LDR has the highest resistance in dark around 1012 Ohm and this resistance decreases
with the increase in Light.

Latency in Light Dependent Resistors for Circuit Design

44
Latency in LDRs manifests as a delay from the moment light levels change to when the
resistor attains its stable resistance value for the new light condition. This delay can vary
depending on the specific characteristics of the LDR and is a crucial factor in applications
where light intensity changes rapidly.

For scenarios involving quick light transitions, LDRs might not be the optimal choice due to
their slower response time. However, in environments where light changes occur more
gradually, LDRs perform adequately.

Another related concept is the resistance recovery rate, which refers to the speed at which the
LDR’s resistance returns to normal after a change in light exposure. Typically, an LDR will
respond within tens of milliseconds to light after being in complete darkness, but it may take
up to a second for the resistance to stabilize once the light is removed.

This behavior is often detailed in the component’s datasheet, where specifications such as
dark resistance after specified time intervals—commonly one second and five seconds—are
provided. These metrics offer insights into the latency of the resistor, helping designers
understand how quickly the component reacts to changes in lighting conditions.

The implications of LDR latency are significant in circuit design. While the slow adjustment
to light changes can be a drawback in fast-paced applications, this property can be
advantageous in devices where a smoother response to light is beneficial, such as in audio
compressors and other control equipment that benefit from gradual adjustments.

Moreover, understanding the latency characteristics of LDRs can aid in selecting the right
type of photoresistor for specific applications. By considering both the latency and the light
wavelength sensitivity, engineers can optimize electronic designs to better suit the operational
demands of their projects.

45
LDRs are indispensable in electronic applications for their ability to change resistance based
on light intensity and wavelength. The sensitivity of LDRs varies with different wavelengths,
and their responsiveness diminishes when the wavelength is outside a specific range.

Additionally, the latency of LDRs—the time taken to adjust resistance in response to

changing light levels—is a critical factor in circuit design, affecting how quickly devices can
react to fluctuating light conditions.

By understanding both the wavelength-dependent sensitivity and latency characteristics,

engineers can effectively select and utilize LDRs for optimized performance in specialized
applications, paving the way for innovative and efficient electronic designs.

Difference Between Photodiode and LDR

Photodiodes give quick responses and are used where needed to detect quick responses on
and off like in optical communication, and optoisolators. The photodiodes are semiconductor
devices and work on PN junctions.

The photodiode works on the principle of converting the light energy into electric energy
while the LDR is resistance, and its resistance decreases with the increase in light intensity.
They are generally used in automatic security lights.

Whereas the LDR, Photocell, a photoelectric, photovoltaic effect, or photoconductivity is

used to generate a current or a voltage when exposed to light or other electromagnetic
radiation. They are generally used in burglar alarms.

Types of LDR or Photoresistors

1. Intrinsic Photoresistor

46
This type of photoresistor is made with pure semiconductors without any doping. This kind
of photoresistor uses pure semiconductors like silicon and germanium. when the incident
light with an adequate amount of energy falls on this, electrons gain that energy and get
excited, and a few of them go to the conduction band.

2. Extrinsic Photoresistor

This type of photoresistor uses a doped semiconductor; this means some impurities are mixed
with the semiconductor such as phosphorus to make this photoresistor.

Extrinsic light-dependent resistors are generally designed for longer wavelengths of light,
with a tendency towards infrared (IR).

Testing LDRs

1. Take a multimeter and set it up in Ohm’s mode.

2. Now connect the positive terminal and negative terminal wires to the two sections of the
LDR
3. Place a glowing torch light or any medium of light onto the surface of the LDR and check
the reading.
4. Now place a hand over the LDR or place the LDR in the dark and check the multimeter
reading.
5. You can see that in 1st case the value of Ω would be lower than in the 2nd case. In the
dark, LDR’s resistance is high as several megaohms, while in the light, it can get reduced
to 100Ω also.

LDR Applications

 The photoresistor is generally used in detecting the presence and intensity of light
 Used in automatic lights that switch on and off according to light
 Simple Smoke Detector Alarm, Clock with automatic light
 Optical circuit design
 Photo proximity switch
 Laser-based security systems

47
 Solar Street Lamps
 Camera light meters
 Clock radios
 Can be used in Dynamic Compressors, some compressors use LDR and LED connected to
the signal source to create changes in signal gain.
By understanding the specifications and applications, engineers and designers can better
harness the potential of LDRs

Advantages and Disadvantages

LDRs are highly valued for several reasons, making them a go-to choice for projects ranging
from simple DIY setups to complex professional systems.

Despite the numerous advantages of Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs), they also come with
a set of limitations that can impact their effectiveness in certain applications.

Understanding both the strengths and weaknesses of LDRs is crucial for selecting the
appropriate sensor for your specific needs, ensuring optimal performance and reliability in
your applications.

4.3 Servo Motors

Servo motors are rotary actuators used for precise angular positioning of the solar panel. The
system employs:

 Torque of 1.5 kg-cm or higher.

 Operating voltage: 4.8V to 6V.
 Angular range: 0° to 180°.

Servo implies an error sensing feedback control which is utilized to correct the performance
of a system. It also requires a generally sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module
designed particularly for use with servomotors. Servo motors are DC motors that allow for
precise control of the angular position. They are DC motors whose speed is slowly lowered
by the gears. The servo motors usually have a revolution cut off from 90° to 180°. A few
servo motors also have a revolution cutoff of 360° or more. But servo motors do not rotate
constantly. Their rotation is limited between the fixed angles.

The servo motor is an assembly of four things: a normal DC motor, a gear reduction unit, a
position-sensing device, and a control circuit. The DC motor is connected with a gear

48
mechanism that provides feedback to a position sensor which is mostly a potentiometer. From
the gearbox, the output of the motor is delivered via servo spline to the servo arm. For
standard servo motors, the gear is normally made up of plastic whereas, for high power
servos, the gear is made up of metal.

A servo motor consists of three wires- a black wire connected to the ground, a white/yellow
wire connected to the control unit, and a red wire connected to the power supply.

The function of the servo motor is to receive a control signal that represents a desired output
position of the servo shaft and apply power to its DC motor until its shaft turns to that
position.

It uses the position-sensing device to figure out the rotational position of the shaft, so it
knows which way the motor must turn to move the shaft to the instructed position. The shaft
commonly does not rotate freely around similar to a DC motor, however rather can just turn
200 degrees.

Servo Motor
From the position of the rotor, a rotating magnetic field is created to efficiently generate
toque. Current flows in the winding to create a rotating magnetic field. The shaft transmits
the motor output power. The load is driven through the transfer mechanism. High-function
rare earth or other permanent magnet is positioned externally to the shaft. The optical encoder
always watches the number of rotations and the position of the shaft.

49
Working of a Servo Motor

Servo Motor consists of a DC Motor, a Gear system, a position sensor, and a control
circuit. The DC motors get powered from a battery and run at high speed and low torque. The
Gear and shaft assembly connected to the DC motors lower this speed into sufficient speed
and higher torque. The position sensor senses the position of the shaft from its definite
position and feeds the information to the control circuit. The control circuit accordingly
decodes the signals from the position sensor and compares the actual position of the motors
with the desired position and accordingly controls the direction of rotation of the DC motor to
get the required position. Servo Motor generally requires a DC supply of 4.8V to 6 V.
Controlling a Servo Motor

A servo motor is controlled by controlling its position using Pulse Width Modulation
Technique. The width of the pulse applied to the motor is varied and send for a fixed amount
of time.

The pulse width determines the angular position of the servo motor. For example, a pulse
width of 1 ms causes an angular position of 0 degrees, whereas a pulse width of 2 ms causes
an angular width of 180 degrees.

Advantages:

 If a heavy load is placed on the motor, the driver will increase the current to the motor coil
as it attempts to rotate the motor. There is no out-of-step condition.
 High-speed operation is possible.
Disadvantages:

 Since the servomotor tries to rotate according to the command pulses but lags, it is not
suitable for precision control of rotation.
 Higher cost.
 When stopped, the motor’s rotor continues to move back and forth one pulse, so that it is
not suitable if you need to prevent vibration
7 Applications of Servo Motors

Servomotors are used in applications requiring rapid variations in speed without the motor
getting overheated.

 In Industries they are used in machine tools, packaging, factory automation, material
handling, printing converting, assembly lines, and many other demanding applications
robotics, CNC machinery, or automated manufacturing.
 They are also used in radio-controlled airplanes to control the positioning and movement
of elevators.
 They are used in robots because of their smooth switching on and off and accurate
positioning.
 They are also used by the aerospace industry to maintain hydraulic fluid in their hydraulic
systems.
 They are used in many radio controlled toys.
 They are used in electronic devices such as DVDs or Blue-ray Disc players to extend or
replay the disc trays.

50
 They are also being used in automobiles to maintain the speed of vehicles.
Application Circuit of Servo Motor

From the below application circuit: Each motor has three inputs: VCC, ground, and a periodic
square wave signal. The pulse width of the square wave determines the speed and direction of
the servo motors. In our case, we just need to change the direction to allow the device to
move forward, backward, and turn left and right. If the pulse width is under a certain time
frame, the motor will drive in a clockwise direction. If the pulse width exceeds that time
frame, the motor will drive in a counterclockwise direction. The middle time frame can be
adjusted through a built-in potentiometer inside the motor.

3 Differences between Stepper Motor and Servo Motor:

 Stepper Motors have a large number of poles, magnetic pairs generated by a permanent
magnet, or an electric current. Servo motors have very few poles; each pole offers a
natural stopping point for the motor shaft.
 The torque of a stepper motor at low speeds is greater than a servo motor of the same size.
 Stepper motor operation is synchronized by command pulse signals output from the pulse
generator. In contrast, the servomotor operation lags behind the command pulses.

4.4 Power Supply System

The power supply system includes:

 A rechargeable 12V battery for consistent energy.

 Voltage regulators to stabilize power for the Arduino and servos.
 Solar panel specifications: 10W, 12V output.

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 The Arduino Uno can be powered in several ways, including through the USB connection,
the barrel jack, or the VIN pin. The VIN pin accepts a voltage range of 6-24V, while the
barrel jack typically connects to a wall adapter providing 7-12V. The board's internal voltage
regulator will then convert this to 5V for internal use.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

1. USB Power:
 Connecting the Uno to a computer's USB port provides a regulated 5V power supply.
 This is the most common and convenient method for initial testing and development.
 It also allows for uploading code to the board.
 Current from the USB port is usually limited to 500mA, suitable for basic projects.
2. Barrel Jack Power:
 The barrel jack, also called the DC power jack, is designed for external AC-to-DC adapters.
 It supports an input voltage range of 7-20V, but 7-12V is recommended.
 The Uno's internal voltage regulator converts the input to 5V internally.
 This method is useful for projects where a stable, higher voltage source is needed.
3. VIN Pin Power:
 The VIN pin is the main power input for the Arduino.
 It accepts a voltage range of 6-24V.
 The board's internal voltage regulator converts the input to 5V.
 This method is also suitable for powering the Arduino with external batteries or power
supplies.
Power Pin Diagram:
 Vin:
Input voltage pin for an external power supply (7-20V).
 5V:
Outputs a regulated 5V power supply, typically used to power onboard components and
external devices.
 3.3V:
Outputs a regulated 3.3V power supply, mainly for use with sensors and other components
requiring lower voltages.
 GND:
Ground pin, provides a common reference point for all electrical connections.
Important Notes:
 Never connect the 5V or 3.3V pins directly to an unregulated power source, as this can
damage the board.
 If using external devices that draw high current, such as motors, it's recommended to use a
separate power supply for them instead of using the 5V pin.

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 The Arduino will automatically select the active power source (USB or DC jack) if both are
connected.
 For projects requiring portable power, consider using batteries connected through the VIN
pin.

5. Circuit Design and Assembly

The system uses four LDRs placed at different positions on the panel. These sensors detect
the sunlight intensity and send analog signals to the Arduino Uno. Based on these signals, the
microcontroller adjusts the position of servo motors to align the panel towards the sun.

5.1 Circuit Diagram

The schematic includes connections of LDRs to the analog pins, servo motors to PWM pins,
and a power supply to the Arduino board. Resistors are used to create voltage dividers for the
LDRs.

5.2 Assembly Steps

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 1. Mount the LDRs on a frame.
2. Connect the LDRs to the Arduino's analog pins.
3. Attach the solar panel to the servo motor assembly.
4. Connect the servo motors to the Arduino's PWM pins.
5. Ensure stable power connections using voltage regulators.

6. Software Development

The system’s code is developed in the Arduino IDE using C++. Key functionalities include:

1. Reading analog data from the LDRs.

2. Calculating sunlight intensity differences.
3. Controlling servo motors for precise adjustments.
4. Implementing safety checks to prevent over-rotation.

Code Snippet

#include <Servo.h>
Servo horizontal;
Servo vertical;
int ldrTop = A0, ldrBottom = A1, ldrLeft = A2, ldrRight = A3;

void setup() {
horizontal.attach(9);
vertical.attach(10);
pinMode(ldrTop, INPUT);
pinMode(ldrBottom, INPUT);
pinMode(ldrLeft, INPUT);
pinMode(ldrRight, INPUT);
}

void loop() {
int top = analogRead(ldrTop);
int bottom = analogRead(ldrBottom);
int left = analogRead(ldrLeft);
int right = analogRead(ldrRight);

int verticalDiff = top - bottom;

int horizontalDiff = left - right;

if (abs(verticalDiff) > 10) {

int verticalPosition = constrain(vertical.read() + verticalDiff / 10, 0, 180);
vertical.write(verticalPosition);
}

if (abs(horizontalDiff) > 10) {

int horizontalPosition = constrain(horizontal.read() + horizontalDiff / 10, 0, 180);
horizontal.write(horizontalPosition);
}

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 delay(100);
}

7. System Working and Testing

7.1 Working Principle

The system dynamically adjusts the solar panel based on the real-time input from the LDRs.
The servo motors align the panel to the sun’s position, maximizing energy absorption.

7.2 Testing Procedure

1. Test LDR sensitivity to different light intensities.

2. Calibrate servo motor movements.
3. Compare energy output with a static panel under identical conditions.

8. Results and Analysis

8.1 Performance Metrics

 Energy output comparison: Tracking system vs. static panel.

 Angular accuracy of the tracking system.
 Power consumption of the tracking mechanism.

8.2 Observations

The solar tracker demonstrated a significant improvement in energy output, particularly

during sunrise and sunset.

9. Challenges and Limitations

1. Sensitivity to environmental factors like dust and clouds.

2. Limited scalability for large solar farms.
3. Potential wear and tear of servo motors over prolonged use.

10. Applications and Future Scope

10.1 Applications

 Residential solar panel installations.

 Solar-powered irrigation systems.
 Portable solar energy systems.

10.2 Future Scope

 Integration with IoT for remote monitoring.

 Development of self-cleaning mechanisms.
 Use of more efficient actuators like stepper motors.

11. Conclusion

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The solar tracking system designed using Arduino Uno offers a cost-effective solution to
enhance solar panel efficiency. While the system shows promising results, further
optimizations can improve its robustness and scalability for broader applications.

12. References

1. Arduino Official Documentation. (https://www.arduino.cc/)

2. Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. IPCC Report.
3. Kivrak, S. (2013). Design of a low cost sun tracking controller system for
photovoltaic panels. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 5(3), 033119.
4. Kumar,K.,Kiran,S.R.,Ramji,T.,Saravanan,S.,Pandiyan, P.,&Prabaharan, N.
(2020). Performance evaluation of photo voltaic system with quadratic boost
converter employing with MPPT control algorithms [Article]. International
Journal of Renewable Energy Research, 10(3), 1083-1091

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