Lesson - 1

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR : THE CONCEPT, NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF HB, FACTORS AFFECTING HB, LEVELS OF HB, S-O-B MODEL OF HB

The study and understanding of human behaviour (HB) has posed a strong challenge to both the scientific thinkers as well as behaviourists. They have long been interested in finding out the causes of human behaviour. Science has always been involved in the cause and effect phenomenon and the relationship between them as to how a cause causes its effect . Similarly the behaviour scientists want to find out why people behave the way they do. They want to find a common denominator of human behaviour which can be generalized and classified into standard causes which result into identifiable and functionally dependent patterns of behaviour. By discovering and analyzing these causes, the behaviour can be predicted, manipulated and controlled. Human behaviour is concerned with people s thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions in a work setting. Human behaviour, a complex phenomenon as it is, is most difficult to define in absolute terms. It is primarily a combination of responses to external and internal stimuli. These responses would reflect psychological structure of the person and may be a result of a combination of biological and psychological processes. It is a system by which a human being senses external events and influences, interprets them, responds to them in an appropriate manner and learns from the result of these responses.

Psychologist Kourt Levin has conducted considerable research into the human behaviour and its causes. He believes that people are influenced by a number of diversified factors, both genetic and environmental, and the influence of these factors determines the pattern of behaviour. He called his conception of these influences the field theory and suggested that : B = F (P, E)

So that behaviour (B) is a function (F) of the person (P) and environment (E) around him. It is important to recognize the effect of the person and that of environment individually as well as their interaction and dependence upon each other in order to understand the pattern of behaviour. These two factors are highly linked with each other. Anyone of these two factors individually cannot explain fully the behaviour characteristics. An individual s behaviour may change due to a change in the same environment or exposure to a different environment. For example, a person who loses a well paying job may behave differently when he is unemployed. Similarly, just the environment in itself cannot be the cause of or explain a given behaviour. Different people behave differently in the same or similar environment. However, when the situation demands, the environment may change the behaviour of an individual. For example, certain training programs or rehabilitation programs have changed the human attitudes and behaviour. Sometimes a sudden and unexpected turn of events or a shock can also influence significant and permanent changes in the human behaviour. For example, there are a number of stories in the Indian religious scriptures where a known killer or a dacoit came to a temple and his whole personality and outlook changed. Thus the environment can change the individual in his or her behaviour. Similarly, the individuals can also change the environment by setting goals and standards and by determination and motivation. Different Views About Human Behaviour

There are different analysts who are interested in the explanation of human nature and behaviour. Each kind of analyst sees man for a particular perspective. Each has emphasized only a certain aspect of what human beings are. General Scientists : The physicists and chemists assert that a person is a part of matter-energy system of nature and so it is subjected to material transformation like that of rocks, plants, animals and all other existing things. The physical scientists have, however, hold the view that the phenomena of mind in man is different from other living beings and it needs to be considered within the natural science. Human beings have extraordinary adaptive powers. Psychologists : Psychologists explain a man s behaviour in two ways : 1. Some state that the human behaviour is the manifestation of his

psychological, chemicals, grandular and neurological structure. For example, a drop in blood sugar level, not only affects mental efficiently but also causes alternations in mood, increased irrationality and vague feeling of apprehension. When the blood sugar level rises above normal, depressive mental states occur. 2. The other view from the standpoint of his inwardly perceived mental states,

using such concepts as consciousness, attitude, value choice and the like. Both group s cornerstone is the dynamics of mind, but they differ each other in the way of interpreting it. Sociologists : Sociologists see man as a social animal and they describe and try to explain the many patterns of social organisation and transformation that human beings exhibit. The sociologists try to describe the behaviour of a class of people, rather than of an individual person. Further, they depict the outward observed behaviour, not the inner or subjective life of man which is responsible for manifest behaviour.

Economists : Economists describe man as a producer and consumer of material goods and services, with wants that always outrun for the allocation of the limited resources. Political Scientists : Political scientists see man as a seeker after power or influence, and they describe the many ways, such as force, reason, propaganda, threats and promises, and economic and social pressures in which people influence and are influenced by one another. Anthropologists : Anthropologists explains many types of human behaviour in terms of physical character and cultural patterns. They study the varieties of language, customs, beliefs, rituals, laws and forms of social organization which effect human beings and they establish that human beings have certain basic biological and social needs which are satisfied in a great many different ways, according to the circumstances of environment and historical development. Historians : Historians see man as a being living in the time with memory of the past, anticipation of the future and the freedom of a creative present in which both past and future meet. They try to understand the real meaning of past events by imaginatively reconstructing the conscious life of the persons who brought these events to pass. Management Scientists : Since the goals of organizations are accomplished through, with and by people, the study of management should be confined to human behaviour in an organisation. The behavioural science approach to management, in fact, provides a necessary foundation for the study of human behaviour. Although behavioural science draws upon various other disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, economics etc., managerial science does not stand for all that. With all in-depth understanding of those subjects, managerial science rather integrates the knowledge so drawn and

advances it further through the development of its own concepts, principles, tools and techniques. Thus, men of knowledge investigate human behaviour and nature using a variety of methods and for a great many different perspectives. It is the special task of the management scientists to find a comprehensive pattern of the people s behaviour working with them, incorporating and co-ordinating the work of the scholarly specialists with the results of their own reflection. For, it is true that man is a complex-energy system, an intelligent adaptive organism with highly developed neurological mechanisms and the power to perceive, think, act and purpose, a manner of culture, a being who can cope with the natural and social environment, a creative of feeling and a creator of interesting forms of objectifying them, a unique self and a doer and judge of good and evil and right and wrong. It is possible to develop a unique pattern of behaviour in a particular place or industry because of the secret of man s unique adaptability. However, the following are the broad categories which primarily influence the behaviour of the workers in the light of the concept which is discussed above: (i) Psychophysical System and Behaviour A psychophysical system is composed of habits, attitudes, emotional stages, sentiments, motive and beliefs, all of which are psychophysical but have a physical basis in the individuals, neural glandular and general bodily states. As we know that individual behaviour is neither exclusively mental nor exclusively neural (physical). It entails the functioning of both mind and body in some inextricable unity. A worker whose intellectual capacity and skill competence is too high, but he has been thwarted by the inextricable play of the management in attaining his aspiration meets frustration and then make poor adjustment to work. (ii) Social System and Behaviour

The workers and managers together is a sub-system of the social system. They ,carry the value, beliefs and norms of the society to the workplace. These elements ,act upon their outward behaviour in maintaining interpersonal and group relationship, and in that way the work relationship. Pchein while conceiving of Social Man States : (a) People are logically motivated by social needs and obtain their basic sense of identity through relationship with other. (b) People are more responsive to management to the extent that a superior can meet a subordinate s social needs and needs for acceptance. A rank or position is held high in the society. Therefore, a person always seeks to move upward in the hierarchy i.e., he tries to satisfy his self actualization needs. Employees who know they are accepted move towards others, those who are ignored move away from others, and those who are disliked and rejected move against others. Employees who feel welcomed and respected in a group are much more likely to respond in a congenial and friendly spirit than those sense disregard, hostility and criticism. It is the result of social acceptance. The more the person disliked, the more unacceptable his behaviour, and greater the dislike becomes. This culminates in group conflict and a failure to attain the group goal. The social values are shared by the members of the organization through interaction, communication and learning. Causes of human behaviour Both scientific thinkers as well as behaviourists have long been interested in finding out the causes for a particular human behaviour. Science has always been involved in the cause and effect henomenon and the relationship between them as to how a cause causes it effect. Similarly the behaviour scientists want to find out why people behave the way they do. They want to find a common

denominator of human behaviour which can be generalized and classified into standard causes which result in identifiable and functionally dependent patterns of behaviour. By discovering and analyzing these causes, the behaviour can be predicted, manipulated and controlled. The theory of born leaders suggests that some people behave in a certain manner, because they were born that way. The belief is based upon the assumption that certain behavioural characteristics are genetic in nature and are inherited. If we know that a person has certain inherited qualities and limitations, then we may be able to use our control techniques more intelligently. The causes of human behaviour can be classified into two categories. These are : (1) Inherited characteristics, and (2) Learned characteristics. (1) Inherited characteristics Some of the inherited characteristics who mayor may not be changed by external forces-and mayor may not be important determinants of performance are : a) Physical characteristics Some of these characteristics relate to physical height, slim body, vision, dexterity and stamina, and have some bearing on performance. Manual dexterity, for example, results in quality performance in such jobs that require artistic maneuvering. Similarly, tall and slim people are expected to dress well and behave in a sophisticated manner, and fat people are assumed to have a jovial nature. b) Intelligence Intelligence is primarily an inherited trait, even though children of some very intelligent parents have turned out to be less intelligent and vice-versa. It is also known that intelligence can be enhanced by proper environment or by proper

motivation. Einstein was not considered very intelligent during his earlier years. In any case, intelligence as a trait is related to certain behaviours. Intelligent people are e1isy to convince if the point is right and they an be expected to be much more stable and predictable. c) Sex Being a male or female is genetic in nature and can be considered a an inherited characteristic. However, it is highly debatable whether being a male or a female in itself is indicative of any behavioural patterns. Man is expected to be tough while a woman is expected to be gentle. Men never cry and women are highly emotional, are some of the stereotyped assumptions that have no basis in genetic influences. These behaviours are developed, if at all, due to differences in treatment that boys and girls receive in the family environment. Even though some work roles are assumed to be the exclusive domain of woman, such as nurses or airline stewardesses, these roles are being modified to accommodate men in these positions. As far as the administration of the management process is concerned, women in general do not differ from men in their operative behaviours. d) Age Since age is determined by the date of birth, it is a kind of inherited characteristic. The age may affect the behaviour in physiological as well as psychological ways. Psychologically, young people are expected to be more energetic, innovative, risk taking and adventurous, while old people are supposed to be conservative and set in their ways. Physiologically, with age, older people experience waning of some of their faculties such as memory, stamina, coordination etc., and hence the related behaviours change as well. According to Lehman, the peak of creative ability is among people between the ages 30 and 40.

e)

Religion Religion and religiously based cultures play an important role in

determining some aspects of individual behaviour, specially those that concern morals, ethics and a code of conduct. Highly religious people have high moral standards and usually do not tell lies or talk ill of others. They are highly contented and thus strive for the goal of achievement and self fulfillment. Additionally, the religion and culture also determine attitudes towards work and towards financial incentives. 2. Learned Characteristics Some of the behavioural characteristics that account for enormous diversity in human behaviour are a product of our exposure to various situations and stimuli, both within the family and the outside environment. These characteristics are acquired by learning where learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from interactions with the environment. These characteristics involve an individual s attitudes, values and perceptions about the environment around him. They are the result of the parental values and expectations and the values and norms of our cultures and sub-cultures. The children learn the need and values of being honest and truthful and the value of love and affections from the family environment. If the parents are always fighting, if the father is always drunk of if the mother resents the child, it is most likely that the child will grow up lacking the closeness of love and respect. Similarly, a loving family instills certain positive values about life in the minds of the children. The physical environment itself has a profound effect on the individual behaviour. Persons who have come through the rigorous routine of the armed force or students who have been active sportsmen may have learned the spirit of

competition as well as cooperation. Similarly, students who have studied in religious schools and convents may have learned different values about truth and human decency. Since inherited behavioral characteristics are more difficult to change or modify, it is the learned characteristics that the managers want to study, predict and control. Hence these will be discussed in more detail in the following lessons, but a brief familiarity with this factor is necessary here. Some of these learned characteristics are : (a) Perception Perception is the process by which information enters our minds and IS interpreted in order to give some sensible meaning to the world around us. It is the result of a complex interaction of various senses such as feeling, seeing, hearing etc. Sayings and proverbs like things are not what they seem or all that glitters is not gold reflect a sense of perception. One man s meat is another man s poison , is in a psychological sense an indication that different people see and sense the same thing in different ways. Perception plays an important part in human as well as organizational behaviour. For example, if a manager perceives a subordinate s ability as limited, he will give him limited responsibility, even if the subordinate, in fact, is an able person. Similarly, we lose a lot of good friends due to our changed perceptions about them. b) Attitude Attitude is a perception with a frame of reference. It is a way of organizing a perception. In other words, it is more or less a stable tendency to feel, think, perceive and act in a certain manner towards an object or a situation. It is a tendency to act in a certain way, either favourably or unfavourably concerning

objects, people or events. For example, if I say that I like my job, I am expressing my attitude about work. c) Personality When we describe people as quite and passive or loud and aggressive or ambitious, we are portraying an aspect of their personality. Personality is a set of traits and characteristics, habit patterns and conditioned responses to certain stimuli that formulate the impression an individual makes upon others. This personality may come out as warm and friendly, or arrogant and aggressive. Many psychologist contend that personality traits develop in the early childhood years and very few personality changes can be made after the childhood years. Some personality characteristics such as physical build and intelligence are biological in nature, but most traits such as patience, open mindedness, extrovertnes or introvertness, etc. are learned. Some of these personality traits are highly influential in certain organizational operations from human behaviour point of view. for example, people who are open minded seem to work out better in bargaining agreements than people who are narrow minded. Similarly, people who are extroverts and outgoing are more likely to be successful as managers than those who are introverts. d) Values Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or endstate of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. They generally identify a person s moral structure on which the concept of good or bad and right or wrong is based. Values are emotionally charged priorities and are passionately defended. Values and behaviour are highly correlated. The values indicate behaviour pattern and

while they do not necessarily and accurately predict behaviour. When behaviour occurs, it is likely to be in line with the values one holds. Nature of Human Behaviour Human behaviour is emerging as a separate field of study. Therefore, its nature is likely to change over the period of time. However, its present nature can be identified as follows : 1. A filed or study and not a Discipline Human behaviour can be treated as a distinct field of study and not a discipline or even emerging discipline. A discipline is an accepted science with a thoretial foundation that serves as the basis for research and analysis. Human behaviour; because of its broad base, recent emergence, and interdisciplinary orientation, is not accepted as science. We have just begun to synthesis principles, concepts, and processes in this field of enquiry. Therefore, it is reasonable to call it a field of study rather than a discipline. 2. Interdisciplinary Approach HB is basically an interdisciplinary approach. An interdisciplinary approach integrates the relevant knowledge drawn from different disciplines for some specific purpose. HB draws heavily from psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Besides, it also takes relevant things from economics, political science, law and history. These disciplines exist separately, but HB integrates the relevant contents of these disciplines to make them applicable for analysis. Thus HB is nothing apart from the integration of knowledge from different disciplines. 3. An Applied Science

The basic objective of HB is to make application of various researches to solve the problems, particularly related to human behaviour aspect. Unlike the pure science which concentrates on fundamental researches, HB concentrates on applied researches. Though many of the researches may be carried on in laboratory situations and controlled conditions, they are meant for general application. Thus human behaviour is both science as well as art. 4. Normative and Value Centred HB is a normative science. A normative science, unlike the positive science which suggests only cause-effect relationships, prescribes how the various findings of the researches can be applied to get organisational results which are acceptable to the society. Thus what is acceptable by the society or individuals engaged in an organization is a matter of values of the society and people concerned. This aspect cannot be explained by positive science. The normative nature of HB is underscored by the proliferation of theories about management styles, ranging from how to prescriptions to polemics about change in basic practices. 5. Humanistic and Optimistic HB focuses the attention on people from humanistic point of view. It is based on the belief that needs and motivation of people are of high concern. There is an acceptance of the value of the individual as a thinking, feeling organism, and without these considerations the organisations may not be fully operational as a social entity. Further, there is optimism about the innate potential of man to be independent, creative, productive, and, capable of contributing positively to the objectives of the organization. The man will actualize these potentials if given proper conditions and environments. 6. Oriented Towards Organisational Objectives

HB, being an applied science and empathizing human aspect of the organization, is oriented towards organisational objectives. Though an

organization may have several objectives and sometimes conflicting with individual objectives, it should not be understood that HB only emphasises the achievement of individual objectives at the cost of organizational objectives. In fact, HB tries to integrate two types of objectives so that both are achieved simultaneously. For this purpose, it suggests various behavioural approaches. Significance of Human Behaviour A study of human behaviour is beneficial in several ways. In the first place, it helps an individual understand himself and others better. This will improve interpersonal relations considerably. Of particular significance are topics like attitude, perception, leadership, communication, TA and conflict, an

understanding of which will change the very style of talking and functioning of an individual. It is no exaggeration that a BBA graduate always remembers with satisfaction, human behaviour among all the subjects of his course, even after his graduation. Secondly, a manager in a business establishment is concerned with getting things done through others. He will be successful in his job when he can motivate his subordinates to work for better results. Human behaviour will help the manager understand the basis of motivation and what he should do to motivate his subordinates. Thirdly, the field of human behaviour will be useful to maintain cordial industrial relations. If employee is slow in his work, or if his productivity is steadily declining it is not always because of denial of promotion or poor work environment. Similarly, if the union of workers gives a strike call, the basic issue may not be a demand for more wages, higher bonus, a better canteen or for three pairs of uniform in the place of only two. Often the indifferent attitude of the boss

makes the worker lazy. Similarly reflectance of the management to talk to union leaders about issues might provoke them to give a strike call. In other words relations between management and employees are quite often strained for reasons which are personal but not technical. Human problems need to be tackled humanly. Human behaviour will be very useful in this context. It helps understand the cause for the problem, predict its course of action and control its consequences. It is also a human tool for human benefit. The field of behaviour serves as the basis for modem human resources management. Fourthly, the subject of human behaviour is useful in the field of marketing. In the dynamic mechanisms of the flow of goods and services from producer to consumer, the awareness of nature of individual and social process has an immediate or long range contribution to the success or failure of the enterprise. Consumer choice behaviour is often a critical condition, the nature of influence and the channels involved represent leading topics for behaviour research in this area. Innovation and the diffusion of new products, creativity and the learning of responses are equally important social and individual phenomena that contribute to the total marketing process. Fifthly, the most popular reason for studying human behaviour is that the reader is interested in pursuing a career in management and wants to learn how to predict behaviour and apply it in some meaningful way to make organisations more effective. Having good people skills which include the ability to

understand one s employees and to use this knowledge to make them work efficiently and effectively is a vital requirement if a person is going to succeed as a manager. Finally, thanks to the new economic policy relentlessly pursued by the Central Government, our economy has been thoroughly rejuvenated. In order to sustain the momentum the economy has picked up, effective management of all

sectors particularly the industrial field, assumes significance. Effective management does not mean competent utilization of technical or financial resources alone. Rather it implies efficient management of human resources. This is where human behaviour comes into the picture. Human behaviour is a discipline which enables a manager to motivate his subordinates towards higher productivity and better results. Levels of Human Behaviour For shaping human behaviour in definite direction for achieving certain predetermined objectives, managers must know how the people in the organisation behave. Thus, human behaviour can be studied at the individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-group level as discussed below : (i) Individual Behaviour : The behaviour of human beings as a social man is

the first issue in behavioural science. It tries to analyse why and how an individual behaves in a particular way. Human behaviour is affected by a number of psychological, social and cultural factors and integrates these factors to understand individual behaviour. (ii) Inter-personal Behaviour : Inter-personal interaction takes place because

of individual s natural desire of socialization. Behavioural sciences provide means for understanding the interpersonal relations in the organization. By studying the behavioural sciences, an individual can understand himself and others better. This will help him to improve interpersonal relations considerably. Understanding of inter-personal behaviour is facilitated by the study of attitude, perception, role analysis, transactional analysis, etc. (iii) Group Behaviour : An individual behaves differently as an individual and

as a member of the group. His behaviour is often modified by group norms. Therefore, study of group dynamics has assumed greater importance in human

behaviour. It helps in knowing how groups are formed, why people join groups and how groups exert pressures on the individuals, groups and management. Management can use group dynamics for better communication, effective leadership and building high morale. S O B Model The behaviour is caused by certain reasons. The reasons may be internal feeling (motivation) and external environment (stimulus). A stimulus is an agent, such as heat, light, piece of information, etc., that directly influences the activity of an organism (person). Without the stimulus, there is no information to be handled by the internal processes prior to action by the person. It implies that his behaviour is determined by the situation. Inherent in the situation are the environmental forces that shape and determine his behaviour at any given moment. The entire situation has been traditionally described as stimulus response (S-R) process. This S-R model, however, does not give the total concept of caused nature of behaviour specially when the person concerned plays an important role in behaviour because behaviour is shaped by his internal feelings also. Thus combination of stimulus-response situation and human being will give a more comprehensive model of human behaviour denoting that the situation interacting with the human being preceedes and causes behaviour. This gives S O model of human behaviour. S O B model is closely related with S-O-R model which is achieved by B

inserting O (organism) in the classical S-R model. The S-O-R model is based upon the stimulus proceed by the organism and followed by a behaviour. This O is not passive and immobile as assumed in S-R model. Rather the O is viewed as a mediating, maintenance and adjustive function between S and R. As a mediating function the O is constantly active, scanning its surroundings, monitoring its own actions, seeking certain conditions and avoiding others. As a maintenance

function, organs of O are responsible for its health and growth. There are three categories of maintenance organs receptors (sense organs), connectors (nervous

organs) and effectors (muscles and glands). The adjustment function of the O monitors the person s activities so that he can overcome obstacles and satisfy his needs. Though the insertion of O in S-R model gives some recognition to the importance to the human variables, it still remains a relatively mechanistic and simplistic approach. S O B model incorporates a more complex mechanism of

human behaviour which modifies and extends S-O-R model. In S-O-B model, S stands for the situation and incorporates all aspects of the environment-immediate stimulus, physical environment, and socio-cultural environment. O is the organism, but it does not only represent the Organism

Stimulus Input

Sensation ception Infonnation Receiving

Per-

Core Cog-

. Decision ACtiOI taIqng output Purpose

nitive making Process

Central Infonnation

Processing Feedback

physiological being as in the S-O model, but also the psychological being which is more complex. The double-headed arrows between S and O present interaction

between the situation and the organism. This interaction is not a simple phenomenon specially when both physiological and psychological characteristics of human organism are considered. This interaction causes behaviour. The S O B model can be presented as follows : There are two broad elements of this model - input or information and information, processing. The functioning of the model depends on the input that is introduced. However, not all the information received by the sense organs is meant for processing. Rather, the organism plays an active part in selecting the information. This aspect has been discussed in perception as how the individual censors the various stimuli and perceives the things in certain ways. Another element in the model is the information processing which is referred to by the more encompassing term cognition which means that all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. Information processing is one of person s most significant activities. His senses are continuously besieged with stimuli, and complex mechanisms exist to interpret sensory information. This information processing may be at three stages : (i) perception - the way of viewing a state of affair; (ii) core cognitive process - thinking, reasoning, and problem solving; and (iii) decision making - selecting an alternative. Information processing is affected by a number of variables in individual - his personality, learning, motivation, attitudes, value systems, socio-cultural factors, interpersonal and group interaction and organisational variables. After this process, organism takes action. This may be either in terms of over response - behaviour, or along with this, a feedback for selection of stimulus for further processing. Even action resulting into response to particular stimulus may also affect the stimulus itself providing feedback for selecting a particular input for processing. Do yourself :

1.

What is human behaviour? Discuss the causes of human behaviour in terms of inherited and learned characteristics.

2. 3.

Define human behaviour? Discuss its nature and significance. Human behaviour is caused, motivated, and goal-directed . Examine this statement and show how model of behaviour incorporates the role of organism in shaping human behaviour.

Lesson - 2
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR : INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, PERSONALITY AND THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Organisations are synoptically a collection of individual human beings who have united to accomplish certain specific goals and objectives. Hence organisational behaviour is behaviour of individuals at work. The basic building blocks of an organisation are individuals, who tend to behave either in a group or individually. In this chapter, we are confining to individual-describing and comparing personalities through various theories of personality. The study of individual behaviour draws heavily on the discipline of psychology and explains why individuals behave and react as they do in response to different situations. Theories of learning, motivation and leadership have been developed to explain the behaviour of individuals. Also socio-psychological theories have tried to explain how attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and values are inculcated and influence individual behaviour. Thus, individuals will behave differently depending upon their motivation, learning, values, and perception they have. Differences in individuals may be reflected in different types of behaviour

on their part. Such differences range from desirable to undesirable in terms of factors. Thus, if both individual and environmental, variables are considered, there can be (a) differences in behaviour in an individual over time (intra-individual differences) and (b) differences in behaviour among individuals given the same set of stimuli (inter-individual differences). INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR Individual behaviour means some concrete action by a person. For instance, how a teacher behaves in the class reflects his behaviour. The behaviour of an individual is influenced by various factors. Some of the factors lie within himself, e.g., his instincts, personality traits, internal feelings, etc., while some lie outside him comprising the external environment of which he is a part, e.g., weather conditions, events conveying some information and other peoples behaviour that directly influence his behaviour. The environment acts as a stimulus and the person responds to it. The process of human behaviour may thus be regarded as a stimulus-response process. The teacher is affected by students behaviour and in turn affects their behaviour. This takes place through interaction between them, and is subject to the environment in which they interact. Thus, individual behaviour is not a self-induced phenomenon, but is affected by a larger, system e.g., group, family, and the society within which one functions. Individuals behave differently to different stimuli because of a multitude of factors. These include an individual s age, sex, education, intelligence, personality, physical characteristics, experience, values, and family and cultural background. For instance, a young bank clerk world behave differently from one who is more experienced and mature. Situational variables affecting individual behaviour include organisational and social variables, e.g., type of organisation, nature of supervision, and physical and job variables like method of work, design of work, and physical work environment.

Factors Influencing Individual Behaviour The important factors which influence the behaviour of individuals are explained below : 1. Personality : Personality refers to personal traits such as dominance,

aggressiveness, persistence and other qualities reflected through a person s behaviour. An individual s personality determines the type of activities that he or she is suited for, and the likelihood that the person would be able to perform the task effectively. Thus, personality factors must be taken into account in determining the suitability of an individual for a position/task in an organisation. 2. Ability : Ability refers to the actual skills and capabilities that a person

possesses and are required for the effective performance of activities. Banks need to ensure that its employees possess the necessary abilities to engage in the behaviour required for effective performance. This, is accomplished either by careful selection of people or by a combination of selection and training. 3. Perception : Perception is the viewpoint by which one interprets a

situation. For instance, a railway booking clerk facing a well-dressed person perceives him to be of a high status and talks to him nicely, whereas he may tend to ignore an ill-dressed person, or make him wait, though both the passengers want first class tickets. In an organisational setting, messages that the organisation sends to its members regarding the kind of behaviour and activities expected of them are significant. The messages are communicated in a variety of ways such as job descriptions, policies, procedures and discussion with supervisors, etc. A key factor is that an individual s behaviour is influenced not by the organisation s actual expectation of him, but by how these are perceived by the person. 4. Motivation : Motivation refers to all the forces operating within a person to

cause him or her to engage in certain kinds of behaviour rather than others. Even if

all the factors are present to facilitate effective individual behaviour on a particular job, these factors would amount to nothing unless the person is motivated to perform well. Motivation may be internal, e.g., a person s skill, ability, and intelligence; or external, e.g., incentives, training, etc. Further, a person s motivation is influenced by his or her attitudes, beliefs, values and goals. 5. Organisational factors : Individual behaviour is influenced by a wide

variety of organisational system arid resources. Systems such as the organisational structure and hierarchy strongly influence and constrain both what individuals do and how they do. In addition, individual behaviour is influenced by various types of resources provided by the organisation such, as advice and directions from leaders, physical support in terms of facilities and technology. 6. Socio-cultural factors : The social environment of an individual includes

relationship with family members, friends, co-workers, supervisors and subordinates. The behaviour of others (as distinct from the individual s relationship with them) is also a part of an individual s social environment. Similarly, every individual has a cultural background which shapes his values and beliefs. The socio-cultural factors moderate the effect of other factors to determine the behaviour of an individual. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES The nature, of human behaviour is complex and in understanding the behaviour of people, they should be studied in their totality by taking a total man concept. This concept is essentially a combination of all factors affecting human behaviour. It recognizes that any attempt at generalization usually fall is short, of the mark because people are different. A basic assumption on which behavioural science is based is that every person is different from others. Individuals differ in physical characteristics, intelligence, aptitudes, attitudes, personality, skills, etc. Such differences are important because they affect on-the-job behaviour of the

people. Therefore, every person should be selected, trained and treated on the basis of the kind of person he is. Many research studies have established that differences in personal characteristics among workers create differences in their working performances and behaviour. Scientific techniques have been developed to identify and measure individual differences in psychological factors and they can be used in selection and placement of right types of people for various jobs. Nature of Individual Differences Individual differences may be reflected in individual s different types of behaviour conformity, differences in rate of learning and development,

interaction with people having different types of personality characteristics, productivity and any such type of behaviour. Such differences range along a continuum from desirable to undesirable. With respect to work, individuals differ in the following respects : 1. People differ in the importance they attach to intrinsic rewards to the job.

People with different psychological make-ups respond differently to challenging versus routine jobs. Some people prefer challenging jobs that afford the expression of the scope for higher abilities. As against this, there may be people who prefer job security and routine operations in their jobs. Thus, different people attach different degrees of importance to rewards and kinds of job they would like to perform. 2. People differ in the type of compensation plan they want or desire. Some

people like to work under time-wage system while others prefer to work under piece-wage system or incentive involving compensation based on productivity. 3. People differ in the style of supervision. Some people prefer to provide

necessary imputes for important decisions and like to be their own boss to the maximum extent. On the other hand, some people may not like to such working

and may depend mostly on others for decision-making. Similarly, people responded differently to different styles of leadership and supervision. Some may prefer to work under autocratics style while others work more effectively under democratic or laissez-faire style. 4. People differ in their preferred schedules of work hour. Some people awake

early in the morning start their working and go early in the bed. Some people do exactly opposite of this. 5. People, differ in their tolerance for stress and ambiguity. Some people do

better in stressing and ambiguous situations as such situations may bring out their best and they feel the situations as challenging. Others may not bear such stresses for long. Causes of Individual Differences The variability in behaviour is the consequence of a combination of different factors. All these factors affect the human behaviour in one way or the other. Various such factors can be presented in the following figure : Individual Differences 1. Individual variables Situational variables Physiological variables 1. Organisational variables Age Type of organisation Sex Type of supervision Physiological Characteristics Training Heredity Social environment at work Place Psychological variables 2. Physical and job variables Intelligence Methods of work Learning Design of work Personality Condition of work equipment Attitudes Physical work environment Motivation Socio-cultural variables

2.

3.

Value systems Cultural background The behaviour is a result of total effects of several variables individual and situational. The difference in the behaviour of two individuals at a given moment of time can be interpreted in the context of these two factors. If one can measure both the behaviour and specific variables that are associated with it, then it would be possible to quantify the effect of several variables as related to the behaviour. The quantification of such variables may lead to take positive actions so that desirable behaviour results. For example, if situational variables have significant impact on the behaviour, it may be possible to modify these variables in order to create a situation that is conducive to more acceptable behaviour. Similarly, many of the individual factors may be modified to achieve more desirable behaviour in a given situation. No doubt, psychologists agree that both these factors are important. However, a disagreement revolves around the comparative importance of each of them. Thus to understand the complexity of human behaviour and to develop an appropriate and meaningful model, both the factors should be taken into account. Thus the human behaviour model should show these two variables as integrating components rather than as separate entities. 1. Individual Variables An individual is affected by the physiological, psychological and sociocultural variables. Therefore, in order to identify the individual differences, these three variables must be identified. (i) Physiological variables : The human being posses certain biological

endowments which are vital to his behaviour. Various physiological characteristics of heredity, sensory organs, physical build-up, nervous system determine the outcome of his behaviour. However a person is not merely a conglomeration of

organs, nerves, bones, muscles, and brain but a much more complex. As such, these factors are essential to his maintenance and adjustment but playa relatively minor role in shaping his behaviour. (ii) Psychological variables : Psychological factors are more important in

shaping the behaviour of a person. From the moment of birth, psychological processes - perception, learning; and motivation - become integral part. These processes do not operate as isolated, separate entities any more than do the biological mechanisms of the body. Various psychological processes, taken as a whole, are included in the concept of personality and this plays a very important role in shaping human behaviour. (iii) Socio-cultural variables : Socio-cultural variables affect human behaviour

as he learns many behaviours from his society and cultural institutions. Since individuals may come from different society and cultural background, they may reflect different types of behaviours. All these variables - physiological, psychological, socio-cultural taken together will make particular individual unique and distinct as compared to others and, therefore, his behaviour is likely to be different than others. 2. Situational Variables Besides individual variables, -situational variables also affect human behaviour. In an organisation context, such variables may be various types of organisational practices like nature of organisation, supervision, training, incentives, and social environment at work place; or physical and job variables like methods of work, design of work, condition of work, equipment, and physical environment of work. These variables may act either as facilitating factors or restraining factors and consequently an individual is likely to depict a behaviour

accordingly. The situational variables may be important as the same individual-is likely to behave differently in different situations. PERSONALITY The concept of personality is quite complex; even today psychologists and social scientists do not agree to anyone definition. The term personality is derived from the Latin word per sonnare which means to speak through . The Latin- term was used to denote the masks of actors used in ancient Rome and Greece. Thus Personality traditionally referred to how people influenced others through their external appearances (actions). In psychology, the term personality is interpreted in different ways by different theorists. For example, Carl Rogers views personality in terms of self, an organised, permanent, subjectively perceived entity which is at the very heart of all our experiences. Gordon Allport defines personality as what an individual really is, as an internal something that guides and directs all human activities. Still another conception is that of Freud, who describes the structure of personality as composed of three elements-the id, ego, and super ego. Inspite of numerous definitions of personality and differences among the behavioural scientist, it would be worth focusing our attention on the following definition which is still a widely accepted one : Personality may be defined as the characteristic and distinctive trait of an individual, the stable and shifting pattern of relationship between these traits and the ways the traits interact to help or hinder the adjustment of a person to other people and situations. What is not meant by Personality ? Personality is not something that different people have more or less. One may refer to a lean and thin shabby person as having no personality at all or to a

handsome, tall, dominant,

magnetic

sort of person as having

loads of

personality . This wage of term may be used by us only in our everyday conversation but not in the study of personality . Both types of persons have equal amounts of personality, as the term is technically used; they are simply different personalities. Personality is not something which is good or bad, desirable or undesirable. The term personality is not an evaluative one. It is true that according to commonly accepted values, some kinds of personality are more desirable than others. Personality is also not something mysterious when we use the term. Many people somehow resist the notion that personality can be studied. They prefer to think of it as something too mysteriously wonderful to be described. But one should remember that personality is subject to orderly laws and principles which can be known. What is meant by Personality ? There are no settled answers, rather, there are many and varied views on personality. Indeed, no other area of psychology has such super abundance of theories and controversial views as personality. However, one should not forget as to what personality means, when merely he refers to the term personality . The following are included in personality : 1. Both Common and Unique Factors in Each Personality Personality is something which is unique to each individual. It is easy, however to exaggerate the matter of uniqueness. One should realize that uniqueness occurs only within certain limits. There are many aspects of personality which are standard equipment in one society and other aspects of personality which are standard in another society.

Further, there are some things which all personalities have in common, just as all mammals or all human finger prints have some thing in common. Even then, it remains true that no set of finger prints can ever be duplicated by anyone- not perfectly, even by identical twins. So each personality can never be duplicated. Personality, in all its individual complexity, is unique. 2. Personality Refers Particularly to persistent Qualities of the Individual :

By and large most of us are rather predictable. Personality refers to this predictable aspects of individuals behaviour. It refers to something relatively persistent, to characteristics which tend to endure. 3. Personality Represents a Dynamic Orientation of Organism to

Environment : Personality is very closely related with motives and attitudes. It results from the things we do. It has to be acquired or learned rather than being already there at birth. We create personalities for ourselves through crossing hurdles and learning not only from our own experiences but also by noticing and responding to other people to whom we meet ~n our everyday routine. 4. Personality is Integrating and Organizing Agent : Personality exists as an

integrating or organising process in human behaviour. Stimulus is not responded into action or behaviour of an individual unless his physiology (human body) moves in accordance with the direction given by his psychology (human thinking). Physiology and psychology are integrated into action by the personality. Implicit in the above points are certain characteristics concerning the nature of human personality. They are as : 1. Man is unique among the species. His unique human characteristics are

particularly important for the study of personality. Compared to members of other species, man is less dependent on sociological or biological factors and is more dependent on psychological factors. He is less .dependent than members of other

species on primary sources of motivation such as food, hunger and thirst. Man s considerable ability for conceptual thinking and language means that he can symbolise, communicate and transmit learned patterns of behaviour (culture) to a degree of being unique among the species. This ability to symbolise also means that man has a lengthened perspective of past and future time and, therefore, need not be bound by immediate stimuli. Furthermore, this ability to symbolize means that he can reflect back upon himself-as a person (subject) he can consider himself as an object; that is, as a person he can both experience and reflect upon his self. Finally man show a slower rate of maturation than members of other species. 2. Human behaviour is complex. An understanding of personality must

include an appreciation of complexity of human behaviour. Often there are multiple determinants for anyone piece of behaviour, and these vary from person to person. Another way of stating is that the same events may be constructed differently by individuals, and the same behaviour may have many different roots in different individuals. Complexity also exists because behaviour arises not only from personalities but hi relation to situations. 3. Behaviour is not always what it appears to be. This means that there is no

fixed relationship between a piece of behaviour and its causes. This follows from the statement above, since there may be different causes for the same behaviour manifested by two individuals at one time or the same individual at different times. In order to understand the significance or meaning of an act for the individual, we must know something about him and the situation in which the act occurred. 4. We are not always aware of or in control of the factors determining our

behaviour. Essentially his statement follows from the notion of the unconscious, although it is not necessary to accept all aspects of the Freudian view of the unconscious to agree to it. It simply suggests that at times people cannot explain

why they have acted or will act in a way that is contrary to their own expressed wishes. Whether these acts are significant or minor, frequent or infrequent, they occur and remain to be accounted for in one way or the other. PERSONALITY THEORIES Many personality theorists, not only from the field of psychology but even from other fields dealing with human behaviour -also, have carried on researches to find answers to the question : What is personality? What does personality constitute? How is behaviour governed by personality? The various theorists, however, could not give the answers on which consensus could be reached; rather these have resulted into a number of theories of personality. Just as everyone has his own definition of personality, practically everyone has his own theory of personality. Thus grouping the various theories and labelling the various categories becomes a difficult task. Each theorist cannot really be grouped with another, even though he may have operated from similar positions. However, the most local grouping of personality theories seems to be into psychoanalytic, sociopsychological, trait factor, and self theories. 1. Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud propounded psychoanalytic theory of personality which is based on the notion that man is motivated more by unseen forces than by conscious and rational thought. Freud noted that his clients behaviour could not always be consciously explained. This clinical finding led him to conclude that major motivating force in man is unconscious framework. This framework contains three aspects, though interrelated but often conflicting. These are id, ego and super ego. Their brief description is as follows: (i) The Id. : The id is the source of psychic energy and seeks immediate

gratification for biological or instinctual needs. Freud believed that instincts could

be classified under life-instincts and death-instincts. Life-instincts are hunger, thirst, and sex; the energy involved in these is the libido. The id would proceed unchecked to satisfy motives, particularly the sexual relations and pleasures, were it riot for the channeling activity into acceptable ways by the ego. As an individual matures, he learns to control the id. But even then, it remains a driving force throughout life and an important source of thinking and behaving. (ii) The Ego. : The ego is the conscious and logical part of the human

personality and is associated with the reality principle. While id represents the unconscious part, ego is conscious about the realities of the external environment. The ego keeps the id in check through intellect and reason. (iii) The Super Ego. : The super ego represents societal and personal norms

and serves as an ethical constraint on behaviour. It can best be desirable as the conscience. The super ego provides norms to ego to determine what is wrong or right. However, a person is not aware of the working of the super ego, and conscience is developed by absorption of cultural values and norms of the society. Freud theorized that there are four universal stages of psychosexual development which are decisive in the formation of personality. These stages are: oral, anal, phallic and genital. The first three stages of development extend from birth to five years and are called pregenital stages since the genital zones of the body have not attained a dominant role in personality development. The Oral Stage : It extends throughout the first year of life. The mouth is the body zone through which biological drives are sought to be satisfied, e.g., thumb sucking by an infant or biting when teeth erupt. The Anal Stage : During the second and third years of life, the focus of libidal energy shifts from mouth to the anal region. In other words, the anal becomes the body zone for sexual gratification. Young children derive considerable pleasure

from both retention and expulsion of faces. Toilet training given to the child by its parents will have its influence on adulthood. If the mother is too harsh and repressive, the child withholds faces, and if this becomes excessive, the child develops an anal-retentive personality. When grown up, such personality exhibits traits of obstinacy, stinginess, orderliness, punctuality, and extreme cleanliness or extreme messiness. Alternatively, if the mother pleads with her child to have regular bowel movements and showers him with praise when he does, the child will develop an anal-aggressive structure. A person fixated at this level would show traits of cruelty, destructiveness, disorderliness and hostility. The Phallic Stage : At about four years of age, focus on sexual gratification shifts to another erogenous body zone, the sex organs. During this state children can be observed obtaining gratification by examining and fondling their genitalia, masturbating and expressing interest in matters of birth and sex. Between the ages of six or seven and the onset of adolescence, there is the latency period. During this period, the child loses interest in sexual matters and seeks gratification of the libido from the external world, curiosity, knowledge and so on. It is a period of social development under which the child acquires knowledge and skills to get along with the world. The Genital Stage : The genital stage occurs during adolescence to adulthood. There is a revival of sexual and, aggressive impulses coupled with an increased awareness of an interest in the opposite sex. The individual experiences satisfaction through heterosexual love. Discharge of libido through mature sexual relations with an opposite sex partner paves the way for genuine concern for one s fellow. Freud believed that in order for people to attain the ideal genital character, they must relinquish the passivity of early childhood days when love, security, physical comfort-indeed all gratifications were freely given and nothing was

expected in return. They must learn to work, postpone gratification, become responsible, and above all assume a more active role in dealing with life s problems. The psychoanalytic theory of Freud is based on a theoretical conception, rather than a measurable item for scientific verification. The theory does not give a total picture of behaviour emerging from the personality. That is why this theory is not very relevant from behavioural science point of view. However, this theory gives an important insight into personality structure and the idea of unconscious motivation which can be used by behavioural scientists. 2. Socio-psychological Theory Socio-psychological personality theory recognises the interdependence of the individual and society. The individual strives to meet the needs of the society, while society helps the individual to attain his goal. Out of this interaction, the personality of an individual is determined. Thus the theory is not exclusively sociological but rather a combination of the two. The names associated with this theory are Adler, Homey, Fromm, and Sullivan. Socio-psychological theory differs from psychoanalytic theory in two respects. First, social variables, and not the biological instincts, are the important determinants in shaping personality. Second, behavioural motivation is conscious; man knows his needs and wants and his behaviour is directed to meet these needs. The theorists accept that socio-psychological factors determine personality; however; there is no general agreement as to the relative importance of social variables. For example, Fromm emphasised the importance of social context, while Sullivan and Homey stressed inter-personal behaviour, and Adler employed different variables. Homey s model suggests that human behaviour results from three predominant interpersonal orientations-compliant, aggressive, and detached.

Complaint people are dependent on other people and move towards others. Aggressive people are motivated by the need for power and move against others. Detached people are self-sufficient and move away from others. Sociopsychological theory offers, to a very great extent, the answer to the problems of emergence of psychology, particularly in terms of the influence of social factors in shaping personality. The managers in the organisations can take clue from this theory in shaping the behaviour of their employees. However, they cannot get a total picture of human behaviour as determined by personality. 3. The Trait Theory Each and every personality is unique. A person cannot be unique without differing from others. A person may be similar to other persons in some respects, but considering his whole pattern of characteristics, he is different from all others. Even two persons may have similar courage, but then the degree of courage may differ from each other. This individual difference is the key to personality, that is, an individual s personality is his unique pattern of traits. Thus a trait is any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which 011e individual differs from others. Two most widely trait theories come from the work of Allport and Cattell. Allport bases his theory on the distinction between common traits and personal dispositions. Common traits are used to compare people. He has unidentified six categories of values : religious, social, economic, political aesthetic, and theoretical for comparative purpose. Besides the common traits, there are personal dispositions which are completely unique. These are cardinal (most pervasive), central (unique and limited in number) or secondary (peripheral). This uniqueness emphasises the psychology of the individual that Allport has developed. Cattell has developed a similar set of traits through the construction of tests and the determination of factors or trait families which may emerge from these

psychological measures. However, he has taken a different approach from Allport. He has identified two categories of traits surface traits and source traits. He determined thirty-five surface traits by finding cluster of traits that are correlated. For example, wise-foolish, affectionate-cold, sociable-seclusive, honest-dishonest, and so on. Such traits lie on the surface of the personality and are largely determined by the underlying sources traits. He unidentified twelve source traits. Examples of such traits are affectothymia (good nature and trustfulness) versus sizothymia (critical and suspicions); ego strength (maturity and realism) versus emotionality and neuroticism (immaturity and evasiveness); dominance versus submissiveness : surgency (cheerfulness and energy) versus desurgency (depressed and subdued feelings). Trait factor theory gives recognition to the continuity of personality. This theory is based on personality research. In this research typical study attempts to find a relationship between set of personality variables and assorted behaviour. This contributes personality tests to the behavioural science. However, this theory is very descriptive rather than analytical, and is a long way from being comprehensive theory of personality. 4. Self Theory Roger s approach to personality is described as phenomenological. Phenomenology is the study of the individual s subjective experience, feelings, and private concepts as well as his views of world and self. For Rogers, behaviour is utterly dependent upon how one perceives the world, that is, behaviour is the result pf immediate events as they are actually perceived and interpreted by the individual. Such an approach to personality emphasises the self and its characteristics. Indeed, his theory is often, referred to as self theory of personality because the best vantage point for understanding behaviour is from the internal frame of reference of the individual himself.

Rogers ideas of human nature, like Freud s, grew out of his experiences in working with emotionally disturbed people. On the basis of his clinical experience, Rogers has concluded that the inner most nature of human nature is essentially purposive, forward moving, constructive, realistic, and quite trustworthy. He regards the person as an active force of energy oriented towards future goals and self-directed purposes rather than a creature pushed and pulled by forces beyond his control. Freud presented us with a portrait of the person with an id and unconscious which, if permitted expression, manifests itself in incest, homicide, thievery, rape and other horrendous acts. As per this view, humanity is basically irrational, unsocialised, self and destructive of self and others. Rogers agrees that people occasionally express all kinds of bitter and murderous feelings, abnormal impulses, bizarre and antisocial actions, but he argues that at such times they are not behaving in concert with their inner natures. Thus, when people are functioning as fully human beings, when they are free to experience and to satisfy their inner nature, they show themselves to be positive and rational creatures who can be trusted to live in harmony with themselves arid others. Thus, Rogers has a profound (almost religious) sense of respect for human nature. He posits that human organism has a natural tendency to move in the direction of differentiation, self-responsibility, co-operation, and maturity. The expression of this basic nature allows for the continuation and enhancement of the individual and the species. Thus, basic to Roger s personality theory are two concepts; self and selfactualisation. The self consists of all the ideas, perceptions and values that characterise I or me ; it includes the awareness of what I am and what I can do . The self-concept denotes the individual s conception of persons he has. The

self-concept is one s image of oneself. This perceived self (self concept) influence both the person s perception of the world and his behaviour. Self actualisation, according to Rogers, is the basic motivating force representing the inherent tendency of the organism to develop all its capabilities in ways which serve to maintain or enhance the person. Thus, the primary motive in people s lives is to actualize, maintain, or enhance themselves-to become the best that their inherited natures will allow them to be. Determinants of Personality Often the question arises, What are the determinants of individual

personality? Out of the numerous questions remaining unanswered in the study of human behaviour, this question is the most difficult because people are enormously complex, their abilities and interests and attitudes aloe diverse. However, the major determinants of personality can be studied under three broad categories - Biological, Environmental, and Social and Family. 1. Biological Factors The biological factors affecting the personality can be studied under three heads namely (i) Heredity, (ii) Brain or Nervous System and (iii) Body Chemistry. (a) Heredity : The role of heredity is unquestionable in the development of

personality. This refers to those factors which were determined at conception and are known as DNA factors. This is the very determinant which remains constant. The heredity approach emphasizes that the ultimate explanation of an individual personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. At conception each parent contributes 23 chromosomes, which contains thousand of genes. Even two children of same parents do not have identical genetic make-up. Only identical twins, who develop from the single fertilised ovum, posses the same pattern of genes.

Certain characteristics primarily physical in nature-stature, muscle composition and reflexes, biological rhythms, facial attractiveness, skin texture and colour, etc., are generally considered to be imported either completely or substantially by ones parents. Researches on animals have confirmed that both physical and psychological characteristics are transmitted through heredity. However, in case of human beings, who cannot be subjected to the necessary controls, the evidences is much less conclusive. Synoptically the following characteristics is said to inherited by all human beings : 1. Physical structure (how tall or short one is, whether one has a long or short nose, large or small feet-briefly, how one is put together). 2. Reflexes (direct responses to stimuli, such as withdrawing from a pain prick, blinking when something approaches-the eye). 3. Innate drives (impulses to act based on physiological tensions; but these must be linked through learning with activities which will reduce the tensions). 4. 5. Intelligence (the capacity to learn, to modify responses). Temperament (patterned and recurrent responses associated with basic emotional make-up for sample, phlegmatic, excitable, or lethargic). (b) Brain : Brain is another biological factor that influences personality of an

individual significantly. Though todate, psychologists have not been able to supply precise information on the contribution from this biological variable, as electrical stimulation of brain (ESB) has been conducted largely on animals, work with ESB on humans have recently started, and the research results are, in general, similar to those of animals.

(c)

Body Chemistry : The third biological factor effecting personality is body

chemistry. In ancient period, the difference of temperament were supposed to be due to difference of chemical elements in different man. However, the modern psychologists do not agree with this relation of personality with the proportion of chemical elements in the body. The effect of drugs on personality are sufficient proof in itself to establish a clear relationship of body chemistry with personality. The increase or decrease of the quantity of sugar in the body has a distinct effect on both physical and mental state of the man thus affecting personality. 2. Environmental Factors The environmental factors affect the personality as much as heredity factor. Environment includes culture, society, work group, and the like. At least by behavioural scientists, the culture is usually considered to make a more significant contribution to personality than the biological factors. Culture establishes norms, values and attitude that are passed along from one generation to the next. Anthropologists, to whom the subject culture belongs have clearly demonstrated the dominant role of culture in the development of human personality. A person groomed in a Western culture has a different personality from a person groomed in an Indian culture. Even a person who is biologically of the Indian descent but is brought up in an Indian culture will have an Indian type of personality and vice versa. The expressions of aggression have institutionalized penalties for deviation from these prescribed patterns. The institutionalization of some patterns of behaviour means that most members of a culture will have certain personality characteristics in common. These common characteristics in people, as joint member of a culture, have led to the developments of concepts such as basic personality type, model personality and national character. 3. Social and Family Factors

Though culture prescribes the limit of what a person can be taught, the family and social group teach him to select, interpret and dispense the culture. Therefore, this (actor too has its positive role in affecting the personality of an individual. The role of the family and social group in combination with the culture is referred as the process of socialization. The process of socialization starts as soon as the child is born, between him and his mother. After infancy, other close relatives and even friends play influential role in shaping an individual s personality. Do yourself : 1. Examine the factors that influence the behaviour of individuals in organisations. 2. Explain the concept of Personality. How does it determine the behaviour of an individual? 3. How will you determine the personality of person? Also explain the personality traits that have relevance from the point of view of Organisational Behaviour. 4. What are the various theories of personality? How will you integrated various theories to get a satisfactory theory of personality?

Lesson

PERCEPTION

Perception is a process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impression in order to give meaning to their environment. One of the important cognitive factors of human behaviour is perception. It is essentially psychological process by which people select, organise and interpret sensory stimulations into meaningful information about their work environment. There can be no behaviour without perception; and perception like personality lies at the base of every individual behaviour. Perception is our way of knowing things and people. Defining Perception Human beings are essentially creatures who have the power to give meanings to things and objects they come in contact. Different meanings may be given to a same object by different persons according as they vary in their respective perceptive abilities. Perception is the intellectual process by which a person acquires the information from the environment, organise it and obtain the meaning from it. Perception basically refers to the manner in which a person experiences the world. Perception is the process by which people organise, interpret, experience process and use stimulus materials in the environment so that they satisfy their needs. Perception may be defined as follows : Perception is the process of selecting, organising and interpreting or attaching meaning to events happening in environment . The above definition brings out the following features of perception :

(i)

Perception is the intellectual process through which a person selects the

data from the environment, organises it, and obtains meaning from it. The physical process of obtaining data from environment, known as sensation, is distinct from it. (ii) Perception is the basic cognitive or psychological process. The manner in

which a person perceives the environment affects his behaviour. Thus, people s actions, emotions, thoughts, or feelings are triggered by the perception of their surroundings. (iii) Perception, being an intellectual and psychological process, becomes a

subjective process and different people may perceive the same environmental event differently based on what particular aspects of the situation they choose to absorb, how they organise this information, and the manner in which they interpret it to obtain the grasp of the situation. Thus, the subjectively perceived reality in any given setting may be different for different people. All individuals do not view the world in the same perspective. People see things differently and there are radical differences in which people think and react. For example, consider Fig. 1, how many squares are there?

Fig. 1 : Count these squares The immediate answer by an individual who rushes it quickly will most probably say nine squares. Another person way visualize it having fourteen squares. It is a known fact that persons look at the same thing, yet they perceive it

much differently. The surprising point is that most of the people do not see reality. Most of our acts and behaviours are based on our perception. Differences in perceptions should not, however, lead to the misleading conception that the perceived world is a chaotic one. It is rather an orderly world in which perceiver draws on interpretative meaning from the perceived object. It may be true that the same object may look clear and meaningless to one person, but it may be more meaningful, genuine or real to the one who perceives it to be so. Perception is thus formed in some orderly manner and can be studied systematically by the manager. Elements of Perception The key elements of perception are : 1. The Perceiver : There must be a perceiver. Perceptual stimulus or inputs are first received, then processed by the perceiver. 2. The Perceived : There must be the perceived. The perceived are things, objects, states, events or people about which meaning is formed by the perceiver. 3. Sensing : Sensing is the important elements of perception. Perception is made by using our sense organs such as vision (mind), hearing, touch, smell and taste. 4. Phenomenal Observation : The perceiver describes a thing or object by looking at its properties and inter-relations. The act of examining internal and external properties of a thing or object (i.e. the perceived) is known as phenomenal observation. At times, the properties of the perceived are directly observable which the senses take note of. Very often these properties are not visible. Then the perceiver tries to explain facts by his

belief using his sense organs. In such case, the medium used by the perceiver to evaluate the perceived object affects his perceptual judgment. For example, if one wears a green spectacles, a white object or even everything looks green. 5. Perceptional Selection : The perceiver will not be able to assimilate all he observes, so he engage in selectivity. Selection is the fundamental element in perceptual process. The perceiver collects bits and pieces of information through phenomenal observation, not randomly, but selectively depending on the interests, background, experiences and attitudes of him. 6. Meaning Formation : The perceiver attaches meaning to the perceived thing. Attention, organization and interpretation help him in the formation of meaning to a given thing. 7. Response : The meaning thus formulated becomes the basis of his reaction to the perceived. This is called response which is the output of the perceptual process. The outputs may be feelings, actions, attitudes, sentiments etc. Response reflects his exposure to the situation which he perceives. Perception Process It is a well known fact beyond doubt that outputs are a function of inputs. So it is true in the case of perception. Stimuli (perceptual inputs) are first received, then processed by the perceiver through his perception screen and the resultant output becomes the basis of his behaviour. A simplified model of the perceptual process can be represented by the following diagram as represented in Fig. 2.

Inputs Information, Objects, Events, People, etc. Perceptual Process Organisation Selection Interpretation Outputs Behaviour Actions, Attitudes, Beliefs, Feelings, etc. Fig. 2 : The Simplified Model of Perceptual Process The model has four variables : Inputs : Perceived inputs are the objects, events, statements, people etc. Process : The received inputs are processed through selection, organization and interpretation. Outputs : Through the processing mechanism, the output is derived. These outputs are actions, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, sentiments etc. Behaviour : The perceived outputs are reflected in terms of behaviour of an individual. The perceivers behaviour, in turn generate responses from the perceived and these again give rise to a new set of inputs. Thereby the outputs becomes inputs and the process continues. The three intervening steps selection, organization and interpretation are

together known as sub-process of perceptual process. Because of the variation in

selection, organizations and interpretation, no two persons perceive the same reality in exactly the same way. The three intervening steps are now discussed in detail on the following pages. I. Selection Many things happen in the environment simultaneously, However, one can t pay equal attention to all these things. Only the most basic relevant thing will be selected and given attention. Thus, selection is a basic step in the perceptual process. Individual collects bits and pieces of information, not randomly but selectively depending on the interests, background, experience, attitudes, etc. Two sets factors govern the selection of stimuli : external and internal. External Factors The external factors influencing selection are nature, intensity, size, contrast, repetition, motion, and novelty and familiarity. 1. Nature : By nature we mean, whether the object is visual or auditory, and

whether it involves pictures, people or animals. It is well-known that pictures attract attention more readily than words, that a picture with human beings attracts attention more than a picture of inanimate objects alone, and that a rhyming auditory passage attracts attention more readily than the same passage presented as a narrative. 2. Intensity : The intensity principle of selection states that the more intense

the external stimulus, the more likely it will be perceived. A loud noise, strong odour, or bright light will be noticed more than a soft sound, weak odour, or dim light. Advertisers use intensity to gain the consumers attention. Examples include bright packaging and TV commercials that are slightly louder than the regular programme. Emphasing on a particular point may mean intensity.

3.

Size : The size principle says that people pay more attention to large

objects than to small objects. The maintenance engineer may pay more attention to a big machine than to a smaller one though the smaller one costs as much and is as important to the operation. So also a supervisor with a tall and stout figure may be more attention-getting from the subordinates than a lean and thin small. 4. Contrast : The contrast principle states that external stimulus that contrasts

sharply with its surroundings or which is not what people are expecting will receive their attention. For example, new recruit ants trained in a noisy factory floor, may show a very poor performance when they are placed on the jobs of the same environment. Because the din in which they were given training make programme unsuccessful. Yet subsequent training in the same atmosphere may tender successful, as the new recruitants get themselves accustomed to the environment. 5. Repetition : The repetition principle states that repeated external stimulus

is more attention drawing than a single one. The same advertisement of a product flashed daily on TV is based on the principle of repetition. This principle also explains why supervisors have to give directions to workers over and over again for even simple tasks. 6. Novelty and Familiarity : The novelty and familiarity principle states that

a familiar stimulus in strange surroundings captures our focus. And a novel or unfamiliar object or events in familiar territory grabs our attention. Job rotation is an example of it. Changing workers jobs from time to time will tend to increase the attention they give to task. Introduction of new methods of work is another example. Internal Factors

The selectivity of our perception is influenced by our own internal state, by our motivation, our learning and the psychological elements that make up our personality. The sum total effect of all these upon what one perceives is together known as preparatory set or perceptual set. It implies that even before we encounter a stimulus we are because of our own personality, motivation and past learning set to see certain things and not others, regardless of the properties of the stimulus itself. 1. Learning : Learning is a psychological cognitive factor which have its

bearing on perception and probably plays the biggest role in developing perceptual set. Psychologists have used a number of illustrations to demonstrate the effect of learning on perception. For example, read the phrases in the triangles below in Figs. 3A and 3B.

Fig. 3A

Fig. 3D

It may take you a few seconds to notice that there is something wrong in both the phrases. This is just because of the fact that prior learning creates an expectancy and makes him see what he wants to see. Similarly, try to read the following words slowly : M-A-C-T-A-V-I-S H

M-A-C-D-O-N-A-L-D M-A-C-B-E-T-H M-A-C-H-I- N-E-R-Y

There is a very high degree of possibility that an individual is mot likely to read the last word and pronounce it as Machinery instead of the real

pronunciation Machinery . This is because due to learning the reader is caught in a verbal response set . There are many other numerous illustrations that are commonly employed to demonstrate the effect of learning on perceptual set development. 2. Personality : The personality of an individual is an internal factor which

greatly influences the perceived behaviour. Optimistic people perceive things in favourable terms while pessimistic people perceive in negative terms. Maslow argues that between these .two extremes there exists a category of people who can see things more objectively and accurately. Leavitt reported on a senior executive whose biggest problem with young managers was their tendency to avoid making unpleasant decisions. The young managers paid no heed to disciplining people, to digging through boring and repetitive records, or to writing unpleasant letters. Obviously, the reason was that these unpleasant activities were not compatible with the personalities of those young managers, rather than those older executives because of their personality makeup had made them accustomed, over the years. Similarly, a person who has pleasant personality can strike a better sales deal. Research on the effects of an individual personality on perception has revealed interesting facts. (a) Self-accepting individuals perceive themselves as liked, wanted and accepted by others. (b) (c) Secure individuals tend to perceive others as warm rather than cold. Persons who accept themselves and have faith in their individuality perceive things more favourably than others.

(d)

Thoughtful individuals do not expose themselves by expressing extreme judgments of others.

3.

Motivation : Physiologically needs playa significant role in perceptual

selectivity. Sex and hunger are examples of primary motives which greatly affect internal perceptual selectivity. In traditional Indian society, the sex drive is largely suppressed, with the result being an unfulfilled need for sex. Therefore, any mention of sex or a visual stimulus dealing with sex is spontaneous attention getting to an average Indian. The picture of a scantily clad or naked female immediately attracts the perceptually of the Indian male, in comparison to the males belonging to that culture where the female breasts are always exposed. This is why, nudity is increasingly taking a common place in magazines, television spots, motion pictures and advertisements. Similarly, unreal things often look real because of deprived needs. A thirsty person in the desert gets the illusion of water while seeing sand from a distance. In an experiment people who were deprived of food and kept hungry for a period of time, whey they were shown some pictures and were asked to describe as to what did they see in the picture, most of the reported more food items in such perceptions. Another example is the role of motivation in the perception of the members of an executive committee. One committee member may be self-oriented and perceive the problem being discussed as personally threatening. Another member may be interaction-oriented and perceive the same problem in terms of whether it is discussed in a relaxed, friendly way; the content is not important. A third member of the committee may be task-oriented and solely concerned with the content of the problem and bringing it to an immediate solution and controlling. The different ways, of perception is due to variation in the ways the individual is set of perceive. II. Perceptual Organization

Perceptual selectivity is concerned with the external and internal variables that gain an individual s attention. This section focuses on what takes place in the perceptual process once the information from the stimuli or situation is received. This aspect of perception is commonly known as perceptual organization, which organizes the incoming information into a meaningful whole or pattern to make sense out of it. The dimensions to perceptual organisation are : 1. Figure-Ground Principle : In the field of perception certain factors are

considered significant and give a meaning to the person, and certain others which are whether unimportant for a person or cannot be studied are left as insignificant. The meaningful and significant portion is called the figure and the insignificant or meaningless portion is labelled as ground. For example, during the probationary period, an individual might tend to focus complete attention on his immediate superior, trying to please him and be on his good books, completely ignoring how his colleagues feel about him or his performance. The perceiver thus tends to organise only that information in the environment which seems to be significant to the individual. 2. Perceptual Grouping : It is the tendency to club the information into

meaningful patterns.. For instance, if we perceive people with similar characteristics, we tend to group them together. This helps us to deal with information in an .efficient manner. The principles of grouping include similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity. The principle of similarity is exemplified when objects of similar shape, size, or colour tend to be grouped together. In an organisation, for example, all employees who wear white-collars may be perceived as a common group, when, in reality, each worker is a unique individual. Fig. 4 illustrates the similarity principle. The signs in the figure are perceived as five rows rather than the seven columns, even though the distances between the rows and columns are equal.

+ Fig. 4

The principle of proximity underlines the tendency to perceive stimuli which are near one another as belonging together. For example, several employees in an organisation may be identified as a single group because of physical proximity. Similarly, several workers working on a machine are perceived to be one group and the group as a whole is held responsible for any failure in the machine. Fig. 5 demonstrates the proximity principle. The eight circles in the figure are seen as pairs of two, three, or four, depending on their nearness to one another.

Fig. 5 Principle of proximity The principle of closures states that a person has a tendency to perceive a whole when none exists. The person s perceptual process will close the gaps which are unfilled from sensory inputs. In Fig. 6 the figures are recognised as a square, triangle, and number.

Fig. 6 Principle of closure The principle of continuity assumes that an individual tends to perceive continuous lines or patterns. The individual sees only obvious lines but fails to have creative thinking. A new decision for a product, for example, may be perceived by him as mere lines but the innovative ideas are lost by him. The principle of continuity is closely related to the principle of closure. But there is a difference. Closure supplies missing stimuli, whereas the continuity principle says that a person will tend to perceive continuous lines or patterns. Perceptual Constancy A more sophisticated part of perceptual organization is constancy, our ability to perceive certain characteristics of an object or stimulus remaining static, despite variations in the stimuli or event that provides us with our information. Our ability to perceive constancy depends upon our interpretation of the approaching object with respect to the surroundings. Constancy has wide field of applications in organizational matters e.g. in selecting uniform band of employees; organizational development and change and use of tools. III. Interpretation The third and most important step of the perceptual sub-process is interpretation. Without the interpretation it does not make any sense. Interpretation is subjective and judgemental process. The correctness, reliability and validity of perception depends upon two conditions namely external conditions and internal conditions. In addition to that, there are general categories of problems or errors that creep into perception. These are as follows :

1.

Logical Error : Our lifetime experience and implicit personality theory

make up the cognitive context used to interpret reality; describe, compare and try to understand people. Implicit personality theories also seem to include hypothesis or assumptions about traits to form extensive, consistent impressions of others, often on the basis of limited information. This is termed as logical error. 2. Halo Error : Closely related .to logical error is halo error. It is the process

of using a single trait of individual and drawing a general impression about him. Conversely, halo error involves perceiving people in terms of the concepts of good and bad and ascribing all good qualities to one who is labelled good and all bad

qualities to one who is labelled bad. It has an important implication for evaluating. employees in an organization. Those employees with certain good features are rated high on other characteristics also. But halo error leads to negative results too. 3. Stereotyping : Like the halo error, the stereotyping is well-known. This

term signifies our inclination to attribute to individual traits or qualities according to our aquittance or reference we have from the surroundings. Our tendency to this is so nearly automatic that it seems to influence our very perception of people. If one believes that women are good receptionists, one is prepared to perceive a specific woman as good receptionist. Stereotype can cause one s perception of others to be biased if it disposes the perceiver to ignore information concerning the individual to substantiate the validity or accuracy about it and rely instead upon the already formed stereotype image. 4. Assumed Similarity : One consistent bias in our perceptions of others is a

tendency to see others as more like ourselves than they really are, an effect referred to as assumed similarity. For example, we attribute our own motivations or emotional states to others. This is because we cannot know directly the internal states of others, we draw from the experiences that is available to us internal states. our own

5.

Attribution : When people give cause and effect explanation to their

behaviour, it is known as attribution. Perception is distorted sometimes by the efforts of the perceiver to attribute a casual explanation to an outcome. There is a tendency for the individuals to attribute their own behaviour to situational requirements but explaiI1 the behaviour of others by their personal dispositions. 6. Impression : People often form impression of others on the first sight.

Even before knowing any of their personality traits they start having impressions and assess. This sometimes leads to perceptual distortion. 7. Inference : There is a growing tendency on the part of people to judge

others on limited information. For example an employee might be sitting at his desk throughout the working hours without doing anything but it is inferred that he is hard working. Factors Influencing Perception Perceiving people and events as they really are is important for a manager because behaviour occurs as a result of perception. If a person perceives hostility, he will mould behaviour appropriate to each such threats. If one subconsciously feels inferior to another, he will act in a submissive manner. The factors that influence perception are of two kinds internal factors and external factors. Price

and Ayer term these factors as conditions. According to them internal conditions are : (a) the state of the observer s sense organs i.e., the level of intelligence, maturity etc., and (b) the psychological factors such as the observer s fears, hopes and expectations. External conditions include :

(a)

observer s viewpoint i.e. the relative position of the observer s sense organs and the object perceived, and

(b)

the relative position and nature of stimuli.

Internal Factors The internal factors are the needs and desires of individual, pattern of personality, stress, perceptual defense, perceptual readiness first impression and experience. 1. Needs and Desires : Depending on the needs and desires of an individual,

the perception varies. A person turns to be selective according to his motive states. 2. Pattern of Personality : Individual personality is another internal factor

that has a profound influence on perceived behaviour. For examples persons who accept themselves and have faith in their individuality perceive things favourably and self-accepting individuals perceive themselves as liked, wanted and accepted by others. 3. Stress : Stress is the general term applied to the pressures people feel in

life. An individual s evaluation of a particular problem depends on the stress situation he is experiencing. If he views the world as a dangerous and hostile place, each new stress is evaluated in this context and seen as adding one more element to the burden he is already bearing. If he sees the world as basically friendly and supportive, specific stresses will be viewed in this context. 4. Perceptual Defence : A person may build up a defense against or block or

refuse to recognize stimuli or situational events in the context which are personally or culturally unacceptable or threatening. This is termed as perceptual defense. A perceptual defense may play an influential role in establishing union-management relations.

5.

Perceptual Readiness : Some people are basically prejudiced, thus his

behaviour is guided by the present state of motivational dynamics. This tendency is known as perceptual readiness which greatly influences perception. For instance, a production manager will view every problem in the organisation from the production angle, even the problem of market decline. 6. First Impression : A first impression about a thing or a person gives

indelible impression to the perceiver subsequently, too. Once an impression of an individual s personality being honest has been formed, the individual gains that reputation of being honest unless it is contradicted. 7. Experience : Experience and knowledge have great influence on

perception. Successful experiences enhance and boost the perceptive ability and lead to accuracy in perception of a person whereas failure erodes self-confidence. External Factors Some important external factors which influence perception are culture, family, group pressure, size and status. 1. Culture : The society and culture in which one lives have an indelible

impact on his attitudes, values and way of perceiving the world. An organization operating in a country where individualism is high perceives that decentralised functions to ensure organizational effectiveness. 2. Family : The perception of an individual is influenced considerably by the

family in which he has been brought up. In the family where the child has seen violence as every day order, he will perceive violence as the normal way, of life. 3. Group Pressure : The group value, belief .and norms change the

perception of a member of it. A member has to forego his correct perception to conform with the group.

4.

Size : The bigger the size of the perceived stimulus, the higher is the

probability that it is perceived. Size attracts the attention of an individual. It establishes dominance and enhances perceptual selection. 5. Status : Perception is also influences by the status of the perceiver. High

status people can exert greater influence on perception of an employee than low status people. Developing Perceptual Skills Looking into the need for correct perception, it is imperative that people in the organisation develop skills to perceive correctly. For this purpose, various attempts can be made. Though it cannot be said with certainty that these measures will bring perfectly correct perceptions because these may have their limitations, these can help in increasing the degree of correct perception. Following attempts can be made to have better perception. 1. Perceiving Oneself Accurately. One of the major reasons why people

misperceive others is that they fail to perceive themselves accurately. Therefore, the important thing which a person must do is that he should understand him more accurately. The more accurate he understand himself, the more accurate he can perceive others. 2. Enhancing Self-concept. Self-concept is normally a-function of how

successfully people accomplish the things they attempt to do. When people handle roles where they can exhibit and enhance their competence and be successful, they will develop a basic sense of self-esteem and have positive self-regard. When selfconcept is developed and people have acquired a positive self-regard, they are apt to respect others more and perceive them more accurately. Maslow contends that self-actualising individuals have more accurate perception about themselves than

those who are not self-actualising. This correct perception about oneself will tend to perceive others more correctly. 3. Having Positive Attitudes. Attitudes also affect perception. Unless

managers can take positive attitude to whatever situation they find themselves and see the things from a positive angle, their perceptions are likely to be distorted. Therefore, managers must be aware to their personal biases, make concerted efforts to be as unbiased as possible, make conscious efforts to get rid of any negative feelings they may have of others. All these will put managers in their proper perspective and thus enhance their perceptual skills. 4. Being Empathic. Empathy means being able to see a situation as it is

experimented by others. This is putting your feet in another s shoes. A person can understand the problem in true perspective when he looks at it from others point of view also. This may help the person to understand other side of the problem and hence more clear perception of the problem. This may occur only when the people can be sensitive to the needs of others and perceive situations from their point of view as well before making final decisions. 5. Communicating More Openly. Lot of misperception arises in the

organisation because of lack of adequate communication, undue reliance on oneway communication. Therefore, managers should take steps for making communication effective so as to ensure that right message reaches at the right place at right time. This may help hot only the managers to understand the organisational situations in much better perspective but employees can also look at the situations in much better way and any misperceptions may be dispelled. 6. Avoiding Common Perceptual Distortions. As discussed, there are some

factors which affect perception adversely like hallo effect, stereotyping, attribution, first impression, etc. In order to have better perception of the situation, people in the organisation should guard themselves specially against these

common biases. This may be possible if they put continuous efforts and make the decisions only after careful analysis of the situation. Do yourself : 1. 2. Define perception. Explain the steps in the perceptual process. The intervening steps selection, organization and interpretation are

together known as sub-process of perceptual process . Explain. 3. Discuss the factors influencing perception. What are the errors that creep into perception? 4. Discuss the measures for improving perceptual skills.

Lesson - 4
LEARNING AND HEHA VIOUR REINFORCEMENT; CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING You are proceeding on a road and a dog follows. You give the dog something to eat a loaf of bread. Now whenever you happen to traverse that

road, the dog follows you. A little child is taken to a doctor. The doctor examines him and prepares a syringe to give injection. The child looks on with curiosity or interest or indifferently, depending upon his nature. The doctor pricks the needle in the child s thigh and the child feels the pinch of pain. Now, when the child is taken to the doctor next time, his indifference is not noticed but as soon as the

doctor picks up the syringe, the child starts screaming. Naturally, the question is why is this change in behaviour? Why did the child not react in the same manner as he did on the first occasion? The answer is : the child learnt by experience that injections are painful. The learning caused a change in child s behaviour. Learning and Behaviour Reinforcement Learning is considered to be one of the fundamental basis of human behaviour. It is a most important source of information for those who wish to understand the modification mechanism. Humans and infrahumans learn in either simple or complex fashion, from the very first opportunity to react to sensory stimuli. Learning is the process by which skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviour are formed and developed. It takes place as the result of education, training, socialisation and experience. Learning also occurs as the result of conditioning and restriction, whereby the individual is persuaded to adopt, and ultimately accept, guidance, regulation, conformity and compliance in particular situations. Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in actual behaviour or potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience. There are two primary elements in this definition that must be present in order to identify the process of learning. First is the element that the change must be relatively permanent. This means that after learning, our behaviour must be different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this experience of learning. For example, if you have taken a course in web programming and you have learned how to use a computer to do web programming then this change is long lasting as long as you continue to exhibit this changed behaviour which means that you continue to use the computer for this purpose. Similarly, you learn to drive a car or learn to use chop sticks for your Chinese food which you did not know before learning.

The second aspect of the definition is that this change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not caused by biological maturation. For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural biological phenomenon because the child gains strength as he grows older. Similarly, we do not learn to eat or drink. Accordingly, learning must be because of some interaction with the environment and some feedback from such environment which affects behaviour. This experience does not have to be direct experience such as a secretary enrolling for a typing course and increasing her typing speed. It can also be due to indirect experience of observing behaviour changes in others. For example, if you find out that your co-workers who come late to work are severely reprimanded by their supervisors, you would tend to come to work in time. This is an indirect experience. Some incidents do not change the behaviour but only the behaviour potential. For example, if someone is thinking of using drugs, but has not actually used them and he finds out that a friend of his died because of drugs, he will not get involved with drugs. This experience has changed his behaviour potential. It must be understood that the learning itself is not observable, but only the change in behaviour is observable which is the direct result of the process of learning. This change in behaviour must be differentiated from changes in behaviour from the causes. The causes of such changes include aging, such as being stronger or improvement in memory in the early formative years, instinctive response tendencies such as a timid person being brave at the time of a crisis and such temporary factors as fatigue or use of drugs. Accordingly, as a unique determinant of behaviour, learning cannot take place unless the learner actually experiences what has to be learned. On the basis of above, it can be said that the process of learning involves the following implications :

(a)

Learning involves a change, though not necessarily improvement, in behaviour. Learning may be good or bad from organisation s point of view. For example, bad habits, prejudice, stereotypes and work restrictions may be learnt by an individual.

(b)

Change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to represent any learning. Changes by fatigue or temporary adaptations are not covered in learning.

(c)

The change in behaviour should occur as a result of experience practice, or training. The change may not be evident until a situation arises. In which the new behaviour can occur.

(d)

The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement does not company the practice or experience, the behaviour will eventually disappear.

(e)

Learning is reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual s thought process or attitudes, not accompanied by behaviour, is not learning.

Factors of Learning There are certain vital factors without which it becomes rather impossible to say that process of learning takes place. These fundamental factors effect so greatly that no discussion on learning can be conducted without mentioning them. 1. Motivation This is a basic factor because it precedes consideration of other factors in learning. Without motivation learning does not take place or, at least, is not discernible. You cannot make a horse drink water unless he has a thirst

(motivation). A college student must have the need and drive to accomplish a task and reach a specific goal. 2. Set or Learning to Learn The term set implies as a predisposition or a tendency to respond. The relation to learning the concept of set goes beyond mere discussion on motivation. It has mechanical aspects which influence the course of learning. H. Harlow calls it learning to learn . According to him, set changes the organism from one that adapts by trial and error to one that seems to develop hypothesis and insight. In an actual training situation, learning how to do similar but easier tasks in prior practice will make learning less difficult in the actual learning session. When in one training session the trainer asked trainees to describe their plan of learning ahead of time, the trainees learned faster and made few errors in the learning session. 3. Knowledge of Results The knowledge regarding one s own performance is an essential condition for learning. This feedback of performance enables the learner to know where he stands and to initiate corrective action if any deviation from the expect goals has taken place. In practice a trainee without information will usually try to generate his own knowledge of results, that is select a goal he thinks is correct and adjust his performance accordingly. 4. Reinforcement Reinforcement is a fundamental condition of learning. Without

reinforcement, no measurable modification in behaviour takes place. The term reinforcement is very closely related to the psycological process of motivation. However, motivation is a basic psychological process and therefore is broader and more complex than is implied by the learning principle of reinforcement.

Reinforcement may be defined as environmental events affecting the probability of occurrence of responses with which they are associated. The role of reinforcement in learning has been as follows : Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to recur : those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort (negative reinforcement or punishment) will be less likely to occur. THEORIES OF LEARNING Four theories have been offered to explain the process of learning. They are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive and social learning. Conditioning is based of the principle of learning, viz., association. The normal stimulus for a flow of saliva is the taste of food. But often the mouth waters at the mere sight of a luscious peach, on hearing it described or even thinking about it. This happens because the sight of sound or thought of the peach has occurred together in the past with its actual taste. Thus, one situation is substituted for another to elicit behaviour. This is called conditioning. 1. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning, the association of one event with another desired event resulting in a. behaviour, is one of the most easy to understand the processes of learning. When we think of the classical conditioning, the first name that comes to our mind is that of Ivan Pavlov, the Russian psychologist who won the Nobel Prize for his early experiments on the subject. Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and tried to relate the dog s salivation and the ringing of a bell. A simple surgical procedure allowed him to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by the dog. When Pavlov presented the dog with apiece of meat, the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in

salivation. He termed the food an unconditioned stimulus (food automatically cause salivation) and the salivation an unconditioned response. When the dog saw the meat, it salivated. During the second stage, Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no food was offered. In effect, the dog has learn to respond (salivate) to the bell. From the description given above, certain key concepts of classical conditioning can now be introduced. Salivation in response to food is a natural, unlearned response-in short, a reflex. This response was called the unconditioned reflex. The food, because it elicited the unconditioned reflex automatically, was called the unconditioned stimulus. When Pavlov s repeated presentation of the bell followed by food led the dog to salivate in response to the bell alone, this salivation was designed as conditioned reflex, which emphasised the arousal of the reflex was dependent upon a stimulus other than the natural one. Similarly, Pavlov referred to the bell, previously a neutral stimulus, as the conditional stimulus. Thus, the concepts central to classical conditioning are un-conditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR). The relationship among these components of classical conditioning is shown in Figure 1. The essential feature of this process is that a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a certain response, which is then called a conditioned response. BEFORE CONDITIONING CS ~ NO

(BELL) RESPONSE

US (SALIVATION) US (FOOD)

DURING CONDITIONING CS (BELLS) CS US CS .. CR

AFTER CONDITIONING

UR~R (SALIVATION) ..>.

(BELL) CR (SALIV A TION) US (FOOD) Fig. 1 Diagram of Classification Conditioning In an organisational setting we can see classical conditioning operating. For example, at one manufacturing plant, every time the top executives from the head office would make a visit, the plant management would clean up the administrative offices and wash the windows. This went on for years. Eventually, employees would turn on their best behaviour and look prim and proper whenever the windows were cleaned even in those occasions when the cleaning was not paired with the visit from the top brass. People had learnt to associate the cleaning of the windows with the visit from the head office. Despite the theoretical possibility of the widespread applicability of classical conditioning, most modem theorists agree that it represents only a very

small part of total human learning. Skinner, in particular, felt that classical conditioning explains only respondent (reflexing) behaviours. These are the involuntary responses that are elicited by a stimulus. So it has a limited value in the study of Organisationa1 Behaviour. In the words of S. P. Robbins, Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific or particular way. It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event and as such it explains simple and reflexible behaviour. But behaviour of people in organizations is emitted rather than elicited, and it is voluntary rather than reflexive. The learning of complex behaviours can be better understood by looking at operant conditioning . 2. Operant Conditioning Operant is defined as behaviour that produces effects. Operant conditioning suggests that people emit responses that are rewarded and will not emit responses that are either not rewarded or punished. Operant conditioning implies that behaviour is voluntary and it is determined, maintained and controlled by its consequences. It presupposes that human beings explore their environment and act upon it. The basic principles of learning new behaviour (operant or also called instrumental) involve the relationships between three elements: (i) stimulus situation (important events in the situation), (ii) behavioural response to the situation, and (iii) consequence of the response to the person. A simple example of the operant behaviour is the application of brake by a vehicle driver to avoid accident. Here, the possibility of accident without application of brake is stimulus situation, application of brake is the behaviour and avoidance of accident is the consequence of behaviour. Through this process, human beings learn what behaviours will be rewarding and they engage in those behaviours. The major differences between classical and operant conditioning can be summarised as follows :

1.

In classical conditioning, behaviour is the result of stimulus either of first

order or higher order. In operant conditioning many possible behaviours can result in a particular stimulus situation. Thus, in the former case, there may be direct relationship between stimulus and response, while no such relationship is necessary in operant conditioning. 2. In classical conditioning, a change in the stimulus (unconditioned stimulus

to conditioned stimulus) will elicit a particular response. In operant conditioning, one particular response out of many possible ones occurs in a given stimulus situation. In this case, stimulus does not elicit response but serves as a cue for a person to emit the response. The emitting of response depends upon the outcome of the response so emitted. 3. In classical conditioning, the stimulus, conditioned or unconditioned,

serving as a reward, is presented every time for response to occur. In operant conditioning, the reward is presented only if the organism gives the correct response. Thus, response is instrumental in receiving the reward. 3. Cognitive learning While both the classical conditioning and operant conditioning result in a Stimulus Response (S-R) situation which is primarily cause and effect phenomenon, cognitive learning deviates from this model in that learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the problem or situation both intuitively and based upon known facts and responding in an objective and goal oriented manner. Cognition, in fact, is the act of knowing an item of information and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person so that the information provides cognitive cues towards the expected goal. The theory of cognitive learning is based upon experiments conducted by Tolman. Using rats in his laboratory, he showed that they learned to run through a

complicated maze towards their goal of food. It was observe that rats developed expectations at every choice point in the maze. Thus they learned to expect that certain cognitive cues related to the choice point could ultimately lead to food. The learning took place when the relationship between the cues and expectancy was strengthened because the cues led to expected goals. In an organizational setting, based upon Tolman s ideas, some training programs were designed to strengthen the relationship between cognitive cues such as supervision, job procedures and worker expectations such as monetary and other rewards. It was believed that the worker would learn to be more productive by building a relationship between following directions and procedures and expectancy of monetary rewards for these efforts. 4. Social Learning Social learning integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It recognizes that learning does not take place only because of environment stimuli (classical and operant conditioning) or of individual determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of both views. It also emphasizes that people acquire new behaviours by observing or imitating others in a social setting. In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline and self control and an inner desire to acquire knowledge or skills irrespective of the external rewards or consequences. This process of self-control is also partially a reflection of societal and cultural influences on the development and growth of human beings. Learning by observing others is also known as vicarious learning or modeling, in which another person acts as a role model, whose behaviour we tend to imitate. For example, subordinates may observe their managers in their efforts and attitudes and may try to learn from them and be like them.

In addition to observing others as role models, human beings have the capacity of self regulation. By simply thinking about their behaviour, they can change their behaviour towards betterment and in accordance with the norms of social and organizational living. This process of self thinking can be reinforced by the help of a friend whom you trust or by organized psychiatric evaluation and assistance. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement is the single most important principle of learning. Reinforcement may be understood as anything that both increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behaviour that preceded the reinforcement. Distinction is made between motivation and reinforcement. Motivation is a basic psychological process and is broader and more complex than is implied by the learning principle of reinforcement. Besides, the needs that lead to motivation are cognitive and are, therefore, unobservable. Reinforcement, on the other hand, is environmentally based. Reinforces are external environmental events that follow a response. In general terms, motivation is an internal explanation of behaviour, and reinforcement is an external explanation of behaviour. Thus, the perspectives and explanation of behaviour as being due to motivation and reinforcement are quite different. Distinction is also made between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases behaviour by the presentation of desirable consequences. The reinforcement (event) consists of a positive experience for the individual. In more general terms, we often say that positive reinforcement consists of reward for the individual and, when presented contingent upon behaviour tends to increase the probability that the behaviour will occur again. For example, if an employee does something well and is complemented for it by the boss, the probability that the employee shall repeat the behaviour will strengthen.

In negative reinforcement the individual exhibits the desired behaviour to avoid something unpleasant. An example might be an employee who does something to avoid incurring a reprimand from his or her boss. If an employee has the habit of coming late to work, he or she may learn that this increases the probability of reprimand, assuming this as an unpleasant experience, the employee may begin coming on time to avoid the criticism. Thus, the effect of negative reinforcement is avoidance learning. Are negative reinforcement and punishment synonymous? No, the two are different. In fact, the two have opposite effect on behaviour. Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases behaviour, while punishment weakens and decreases behaviour. Punishment, in the meanwhile, is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behaviour. Distinction is also made between primary and secondary reinforces. Primary reinforcers are considered to be innate or unlearned such as food for a hungry person and water for a thirsty person. Secondary reinforces are those that have been learned (as by conditioning) to have some positive value to individuals. In job learning situations most reinforcers are secondary such as money, praise, attention and prestige. Whatever the type, some type of reinforcement is necessary to produce meaningful behaviour. Administering Reinforcement As it has been established that reinforcements is necessary for learning, a manager must administer it in such way that it has its maximum effects. If reinforcement is administered properly, it will increase the strength of desired organisational behaviour and the probability of its being repeated. The nature of

reinforcement which is very important in its administering process is summarised as follows: 1. Some type of reinforcement (reward or knowledge of successful performance) is necessary to produce change. 2. Some types of rewards are more effective for use in the organisation than others. 3. The speed with which learning takes place and also h9W lasting its effects will be is determined by the timing of reinforcement. Following aspects must be taken into account in administering the reinforcement. 1. Selection of Reinforcement : The first step in the successful application of

reinforcement procedure is to select reinforcers that are sufficiently powerful to maintain responsiveness while complex patterns of behaviour are being established and strengthened. Reinforcers, particularly conditioned ones, depend upon individuals. Thus what is rewarding to one person may not be rewarding .to another. Thus managers should look for a reward system which has maximum reinforcing consequences to the group they are supervising. 2. Contingent Designing of Reinforcement : Reinforcers should be designed

in such a way that reinforcing events are made contingent upon the desired behaviour. Rewards must result from performance, and greater the degree of performance of employee, greater should be his reward. Unless a manager discriminates between employees based on their performance, the effectiveness of his power over the employees is nil. It is important that reward administered be equal to performance input of the employee. Romans labels this as the rule of distributive justice and states that this reciprocal norm applies in both formal and informal relationships.

3.

Reinforcement Scheduling : The reinforcement should be designed in

such a way that a reliable procedure for eliciting or including the desired response pattern is established. If the behaviour that manager wishes to strengthen is already present, and occurs with some frequency, then reinforcement applications can, from the outset, increase and maintain the desired performance patterns at a high level. The effectiveness of reinforcement varies as a function of the schedule of its administration. Thus understanding of reinforcement administration schedule is important for managers. Do yourself : 1. Explain the concept of learning and briefly examine the various theories of learning. 2. Discuss the nature of learning. How does classical conditioning help in learning the desired behaviour? 3. What is operant conditioning? How is it different from classical conditioning? 4. Reinforcement theory of learning is at the root of behaviour modification . Examine this statement. 5. Explain with examples the concepts of cognitive and social learning. What is the relevance of social learning in a modern organisation?

Lesson - 5
INTERPERSONAL DIMENSIONS OF BEHAVIOUR Introduction Human interaction is the crux of our life and society. The basis of our relationships, our loves, hates, commitments and duties make us what we are. These human bonds complex, universal and so much a part of our daily existence, whether on a personal or sociopolitical level, are largely responsible for the quality of our lives and thoughts, and not the least, our mental health. Schools, colleges and other learning institutions enlighten us on a variety of subjects and equip us to face life economically, socially and intellectually. However, there is no school which educates us about ourselves and the ways in which to conduct ourselves in the multitude of relationships that we are called upon to engage in from day to day: child and parent, brother and sister, student and teacher, employee and boss, servant and master to mention a few. Each one of us learns this independently, through trial and error and eventually develops certain typical ways of coping with people and situations. In the course of our routine interactions, we have all had the experience, some time or the other of facing conflict. Even in our daily interactions with parents, friends, strangers and relatives, we are often faced with the dilemma of either expressing our feelings honestly and directly, thereby running the risk of hurting them and losing their affection and thoughts, and thereby creating uncomfortable undercurrents of hostility and resentment in the relationship. Is it all right to express anger, when one s personal rights are violated, or should one simply keep quiet? How does one express anger without breaking off a relationship? Does one protest when cheated or manipulated, or overlook it? How

does one handle an insolent clerk at the Post Office? How does one handle continual nagging at home, or sugar coated putdown outside, and the endless number of irritant that we encounter in our relationships without completely hassled or fazed? These are some of the interpersonal dimensions, which have been attempted in this lesson. Section I of this lesson will focus on the dynamics of human interpersonal behaviour i.e. the different ways in which we cope with people and situations. The concepts of Fight and Flight, Non Assertiveness, Assertiveness and Aggressiveness will be discussed, followed by manipulative coping. There will be a brief discussion on the role of anger and the difference between anger and aggression. Section II will define Assertive Behavior and examine in a little detail the components of assertiveness and some techniques of assertive behaviour. And finally Section III will look at assertiveness at a glance. THE DYNAMICS OF HUMAN INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOUR One of the causes of stress is the inability to cope with conflict in interpersonal relations. Almost all of us, at some time or the other has experienced the feeling of being stumped for words , (tongue tied) not being able to say the right thing at the right time , or blowing our top when our emotions overcome us. At these times, we are out of control of ourselves. When this feeling of being out of control persists for a long time, it manifests itself in bodily complaints such as headaches, general fatigue, stomach disturbances, rashes and asthma. The Fight and Flight Response How do people generally react, when faced with a conflict? Surprisingly, not very different from animals! Have you ever seen a cat when cornered? Its whole body becomes stiff, eyes dilate, tail stands on edge, hairs stand up, and it starts emitting strange sounds. This is called fight response, and may also be termed as instinctive , survival , or protective . Although slightly modified in present day civilised person, this response is still very much visible in for example

the irate, defensive mother-in-low who wants to vindicate herself before her son, or to take more common example the bus conductor, who in a loud aggressive voice states that he does not have change. On the other hand, individuals (and so also animals) may opt for the flight response, wherein the organism simply takes to its heels . Again its manifestation in modem person is seen in the individual who procrastinates, avoids taking stands, and is constantly eluding or running away from trying or problematic situations, for example, avoiding a friend whom you had promised something, by taking the easy way out: just not being available. The fight and flight responses are built into our systems and are automatically triggered off, in certain situations. They are usually associated with the emotions of fear, anger/frustration, and they were of immense value to our ancestors (e.g. to run as fast as possible, on seeing some danger in the form of a predatory animal) because you didn t have to think. It just happened. The very emotion of fear/rage, by reflex action, aroused the survival instincts, preparing them for fight or flight as the case may be. However the main difference human being and animals is that while the latter have only two sets of responses-Fight and Flight, humans have a third option, that is, verbal problem solving ability. But, the Fight and Flight responses when carried to an extreme, prevent us from exercising our third option of verbal problem solving. How does this happen? Manuel J. Smith explains Most of our conflicts and problems come from other people and

in dealing with other people, our primitive response are insignificant, in comparison with our uniquely human coping ability of verbal assertive problem solving. Anger-fight and fear-flight actually interferes with this verbal coping ability. When you become angry or afraid, your primitive lower brain centres shut down much to the operation of your new human brain. The blood supply is automatically rerouted away from your brain and gut to your skeletal muscles to prepare them for physical action. Your human problem solving brain is inhibited, from processing information. When you get angry or afraid, you just don t think

clearly or efficiently. (emphasis added). To an angry or frightened man, 2+2 no longer add up to 4. Non Assertive, Assertive, and Aggressive Behaviour There are three possible broad approaches to the conduct of interpersonal relations. The first is to consider one self only and ride roughshod over others ... The second... is always to put others before one s self The third approach is the

golden mean. The individual places himself first, but takes others into account. - Joseph Wolpe Robert Alberti and Michael Emmons distinguish between three types of coping behaviours: Non Assertive, Assertive and Aggressive Non-Assertiveness An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last. - Sir Winston Churchill Non-Assertive behaviour is somewhat similar to the flight response, in that fear stimulating situations; automatically generate inhibited behaviour in the individual concerned. The non-assertive person will not stand up for his own rights, even where it is justified. They are usually at a loss for words, hesitate to express their opinions, thoughts, or needs clearly and allow others to decide for them. They become anxious, and are always giving in to requests - even obviously unreasonable ones - are without confidence when criticised though they take half hearted attempt to defend themselves, and on the whole they are not very happy or satisfied people, because they are always going out of their way to please others, at the cost of self. The individual who cannot refuse requests, or say No without feeling guilty, hesitates to displease others, to express opinions which differ from

others, is easily persuaded by girl salespersons into buying things which they do not need or want; the employee who is afraid to assert horse lf before her bullying husband, are all examples of non assertive behaviour. Alberti and Emmons distinguish between general non-assertiveness and situational non-assertiveness. The generally non-assertive person is one with very low self-esteem. He has a deep feeling of inadequacy, lack of acknowledgement of self worth, and usually suffers from actual physical discomforts brought on by extreme anxiety. The situationally non assertive person is on the whole able to cope with people and situations, but certain situations generate mush anxiety in them: the student who can get along well with classmates and people in general, but shivers when they have to face authority figures, like the principal. Aggressiveness I am the inferior to any man whose rights trample underfoot. - Horace Greeley There is another class of people, who respond to conflict by becoming aggressive - a fight response. They usually try to subdue other people by shouting in a loud manner, frowning and grimacing, etc. to frighten the other person - they put themselves up by putting others down. We often meet such people. The village goonda , or the neighbourhood bully is typical examples of aggressive

behaviour. Another common Indian scene, involving aggressive behaviour, is the case of the woman who refuses to allow anyone near the community tap, till her pots and pans are filled. Aggressive behaviour is easily recognisable. The whole stance of the individual undergoes a transformation. Their body becomes erect and stiff, and slightly bent towards the other individual (they may even take two steps forward and forward and catch hold of the other person s collar), eyes, become big, voice is raised... and soon. On the surface, these people usually appear to have level of self- confidence, to be in command of every situation and to be strong and

able to cope with life on their terms. But in reality, the aggressive personality covers up an insecure ego. In order to cover up this insecurity, they compensate by becoming overly aggressive, and apparently in command of every situation. Aggressiveness also can be either general or situational. The generally aggressive individual has learned early in life that in order to get what you want, it is okay if you ride roughshod over other people s feelings, rights, etc., whereas the situationally aggressive individual responds with aggression only under certain situations. Aggressiveness can also be expressed indirectly or passively. On the surface these individuals appear to be very mild and sweet, but in order to get what they want, they will use indirect means - manipulation, trickery, wiles, etc. And if they get angry, they are likely to use sneaky ways to get revenge. They can be so indirect that the person whom they anger was about. Because of the reaction accorded to the aggressive woman and the misery experienced by the passive woman, many women develop the ability to get they want by indirect means, for instance, the woman who will bang the pots and pans in the kitchen to express her anger (when her manipulations do not work out) instead of directly saying what is bothering her. This brings us to the question, Is anger the same as aggression? No! Anger is not the same as aggression. Anger is a natural emotion, also healthy. But aggression is the destructive or inappropriate expression of anger and is unhealthy. You can reason with an angry person, but not with an aggressive person. Assertiveness Assertiveness is the golden mean between non-assertiveness and aggression. The assertive individual has a high self-esteem, values self and others, while the non-assertive individual values others but not self, and the aggressive individual values only self but not others. The assertive individuals, when faced with a conflict are the one who will make use of our third human option of verbal coping ability. Instead of passively giving in to people s demands, on the one

extreme, or completely ignoring them on the other extreme, the assertive individual will assess the situation, and take into consideration both points of view. Assertiveness is a characteristic that in both person and situation specific. For example, if someone makes an unreasonable request - unreasonable for the individual concerned - the assertive person will very simply refuse the request, while acknowledging the other person s feelings. I know you will be unhappy, but I don t feel like . . . (whatever) . The assertive individual takes responsibility for his responses: I think , I feel , and I like . I will not . On the other hand, if the assertive individual is at fault, in that situation, he/she will acknowledge his/her fault or mistake, instead of being defensive and denying it. Manipulative Coping In modem society, especially in the upper classes, people are not openly non assertive, or aggressive. We wear masks and use indirect means to get our way. We are taught, for example, not to be aggressive, it creates bad impressions. So on the surface, we are very sweet, but underneath we are calculating furiously in our minds, the ways in which to bring the person round , get even with so and so , get rid of those guests (why did they come today?), turn down a request (which we have no intention of complying with ), etc. It is like a verbal game and the winner is the one who deftly manages to escape, keeping his image intact! Manipulative coping usually leaves you frustrated, irritated and anxious, and these feelings are eventually expressed by you in verbal fighting or running away. As a result of this unresolved internal conflict between our natural wants and our childhood beliefs, we are left with some really dismal choices : 1. We can do what someone else wants, be frustrated very often, get depressed, withdraw from people and lose our self respect;

2.

We can do what we want angrily, alienate other people and lose our self respect;

3.

We can avoid conflict by running away from it and the people who cause it, and lose their self-respect.

Role of Anger and the Difference Between Anger and Aggression Anger is a feeling, an emotion just like fear, joy, sorrow, grief, etc. Everyone feels anger, sometime or the other, but the ways in which we show our anger are different. For example, let us say you re walking on the road, and you accidentally brush someone as you pass by. Now, the other person can react in, either one of the following ways : 1. Direct put down and verbal aggression : Damn it, can t you watch where you re going! You fool..! 2. Indirect put down : Can t you see without your glasses on? or Oh, have you forgotten to wear your glasses today? 3. 4. Non-verbal put-down : a dirty look. Saying nothing. Some people claim that they never get angry. Do not believe them. They do get angry, but they have learned to control it, so as not to openly show it. Such controlled individuals typically suffer from migraine headaches, asthma, ulcer, and skin rashes. Anger and its expression is a healthy thing - if used constructively. Simple direct verbal expression of your anger is much better than bottling it up or using indirect means taunting, making snide remarks, or even non verbal putdowns like, making faces, refusing to talk, sulking, etc. - to take revenge on the person who angered you. Even saying simply and forcefully, I am very angry

with you is preferable to calling names or abusing or physical exertion like banging doors, and throwing things. People often appreciate it when you directly confront them with your anger, rather than do something nasty, or sly to hurt the person concerned. A classic example of this is that of newly weds. After the honeymoon is over, the new discovers many objectionable habits in her husband. Not wishing to directly confront him, as she is afraid to spoil their relationship (or so she thinks), she finds another way out to vent her feelings. When husband goes to work, she rings up her mother and given vent to her hostile feelings. Worse, when all the family gathers together, she berates him in front of everyone the case of washing your dirty linen in public Little does she realise that this

mode of expressing anger is much more harmful to their marriage then talking it over with her husband in private. This way only serves to embitter her husband and make him lose his love and respect for her. If on the other hand, she had chosen to courageously assert herself by directly telling him of her feelings, it would have boded much better for their marriage. Very often people confuse angry feelings with aggressive behaviour. According to Alberti and Emmons aggression is not the same thing as anger! Anger is a perfectly natural, healthy human, which may be expressed in a number of ways, including aggressively, non-assertively, assertively or not at all. Anger is a feeling, an emotion we all feel at times. Aggression is a behavioural style of expression. Dealing with your Anger : A healthy approach to dealing with anger is to : 1. Recognise and allow yourself to believe that anger is a natural healthy, non-evil human feeling. Everyone feels it, we just don t all express it. You needn t fear your anger. 2. Remember that you are responsible for your own feelings. You got angry at what happened, the other person didn t make you angry.

3.

Remember that anger and aggression is not the same thing. Anger can be expressed assertively.

4.

Learn to relax. If you have developed the skill of relaxing, learn to apply this response, when your anger is triggered.

5.

Develop assertive methods for expressing your anger : be spontaneous, don t wait and let it build up resentment; state it directly; avoid sarcasm and innuendo; use honest, expressive language; avoid name-calling; put downs, and physical attacks.

6.

Keep your life clear. Deal with issues when they arise, when you feel the feeling - not after hours/days/weeks of stewing about it. Go ahead! Get angry! But develop a positive, assertive style for expressing

it. You and those around you will appreciate it. According to the Vedanitc tradition, there are three ways of expressing anger : 1. Sathvic : when a person without any attachment to the feeling of anger and without caring for the result for himself, but for the good of the person, to correct him and to offer the whole process to the Divinity in the self or outside and not feeling the responsibility of the doer. 2. Rajasic : where a person wants to correct the evil in the other as well as for the appreciation and does not surrender the process to God. When successful, he claims the success, but when he fails, he blames God. 3. Tamasic : unconscious intervention into the personal problems without being invited to correct them and imposing your own ideas of good and bad and trying to correct them in good faith that you believe you are doing the ultimate good (you are unaware of your own desires).

Dealing with another s anger : When confronted with a direct verbal putdown, the following four steps are valuable 1. 2. 3. 4. admit it when you are wrong, even in the face of insult. acknowledge the person s feelings. assert yourself about the way he or she is reacting. give a short statement to bring the encounter to an end. For example, I apologize for brushing against you. I did not do it

intentionally. you re obviously upset, but I do not like you calling me names or yelling at me. I can get your point without that. The best way to handle an indirect put-down is to first ask for more information : What are you saying? , What do you mean? And in case of a non-verbal put-down, it is best to attempt to get the person to use words instead of gestures. WHAT IS ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR Have you ever wondered how some people manage to be in perfect control of their lives? Their feelings, relationship, in fact their whole Personality seems to be in perfect concord. They lead a full, interesting, free life, make their own decision, command the respect of others, and reflect an inner glow of contentment and self-worth. This is not to say that they are the models of perfection, or that they do not undergo any stress whatsoever, but invariably these individuals will have evolved some assertive ways of coping with people and situations without getting unduly anxious. They manage to do this, because they respect themselves, and value their personal judgements, opinions, wishes and needs and more important they recognise these rights in others as well.

1.

Behaviour which enables a person to act in his or her own best interest, to stand up for herself or himself, without undue anxiety, to express honest feeling comfortably, or to exercise personal rights without denying the rights of others, we call Assertive Behaviour. Let us discuss the elements of that complex sentence in greater detail.

2.

To act in one s own best interest: refers to the capacity to make life decisions (career, relationship, life style, time activities), to take initiative (start conversations, organize activities), to trust one s own judgement, to set goals and work to achieve them, to ask for help from others, to comfortably participate socially.

3.

To stand up for oneself: includes such behaviours as saying No , setting limits on one s time and energy, responding to criticism, or putdowns or anger, expressing or supporting or defending one s opinions.

4.

To express honest feelings comfortably: means the ability to disagree, show anger, to show affection or friendship, to admit fear or anxiety, to express agreement, or support, to be spontaneous, all without painful anxiety.

5.

To exercise personal rights: relates to one s competency (as a citizen, or consumer, as a member of an organisation or school or work group, as a participant in public events) to express opinions, to work for change, to respond to violation of one s own rights, or those of others.

6.

To not deny the rights of other: is to accomplish the above personal expressions, without unfair criticism of others, without hurtful behaviour towards others, without name-calling, without intimidation, without manipulation, without controlling others.

Thus, assertive behaviour is a positive self-affirmation, which also values the other persons in your life. Barriers to Assertiveness What are some of the barriers to asserting oneself? Alberti and Emmons say, .We have found while helping thousands of people to learn to express

themselves more effectively, that there are three significant barriers to self assertiveness : 1. 2. 3. Many people do not believe that they have right to be assertive. Many people are highly anxious/fearful about being assertive. Many people lack the social skills for effective self-expression. However, research had shown that learning to make assertive responses would inhabit or weaken the anxiety previously experienced in specific interpersonal relations. Assertive Behaviour at a Glance Every one is born with unique potential and Free Will - to decide for themselves, to judge for themselves, make mistakes and learn from them, refuse requests, and say I don t understand or change one s mind. As children we had no doubt about these things. Most children are assertive - they know what their rights are and do not hesitate to express them - sometimes from child to adult, we rob ourselves and allow others (due to childhood training and fa1se notions) to rob us of our rights. As a first step towards becoming assertive, we should become aware of our being assertive individual. The following table illustrates Assertive Behaviour at a Glance. For those who believe that they do not have the right to lead a free, independent life, and still enjoy lasting and good interpersonal relationships, they

would be advised to consider the following bill. Most individuals become very disillusioned about people and life in general, or their inability to have close and meaningful relationships and at the same time, retain their identity. The following table will help you to reaffirm your SELF as being of the greatest value! Table : Assertive Behaviour at a Glance 1. 2. 3. 4. You have the right to be treated with respect and dignity. You have the right to have and express your own feelings and opinions. You have the right to be listened to and taken seriously. You have the right to judge your own behaviour, thoughts and emotions, and to undertake the responsibility for their initiation, and consequences upon yourself. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. You have the right to make mistakes and be responsible for them. You have the right to say: I don t know . You have the right to say: I don t understand. Yon have the right to ask for information (including from professionals). You have the right to change your mind. You have the right to be independent to the goodwill of others before coping with them. 11. 12. 13. You have the right to get what you pay for. You have the right to choose your profession. You have the right to practise your own religion.

14.

You have the right to ask for what you want (realising that the other person has the right to say no ).

15. 16. 17.

You have the right to acquire knowledge. You have the right to say No without feeling guilty. Finally, You have the right to do anything so long as it does not violate the rights of others.

Components of Assertive Behaviour Very often, besides knowing the right words to say, how we act, and how we say something has an even greater impact. You Body : Developing an assertive body image. Your body does communicate.

Your style of emotional expression, posture, facial expressions and voice quality are all tremendously important to you in becoming assertive. How does one develop on assertive body image to make your body as well as your words communicate assertively? Your Inventory of Body image Components. Methodically check yourself from head to the, measuring yourself on a scale of Assertiveness. 1. Eye Contact : While addressing another person, where do you look? If you look directly at the person is you speak, it helps to communicate you sincerity and to increase the directness of your message. But if you look down or away much of the time, you present a lack of confidence. Women often have a problem of making eye contact with another person, because many of us have been taught that it is more feminine to look away or look down. In some cultures, like in India, it is considered disrespectful for women to make direct eye contact with menorauthority figures. However,

making relaxed eye contact is essential when you want to appear assertive and interested and shows respect for the other person. This does not mean staring continuously till the other person becomes uncomfortable. Look at their eyes, then perhaps look away for a few seconds, or drop your gaze slightly so that you are focusing on their mouth, as they speak to you. Practise making good eye contact and be aware of any differences in the quality of your communication. Are you listening better? Are you conveying more interest and receiving more interest in what you are saying? 2. Facial Expressions : Ever see someone trying to express anger while smiling or laughing? It just doesn t come across. Effective assertion requires an expression that agrees with the message. Let your face say the same thing your words are saying. With a greater awareness of the feeling in your face, you can begin to more consciously control your facial expression to become more natural. 3. Body Posture : A significant increase in personalising the conversation, occurs from a slight turn of the torso, say 30 to 45 degrees towards the other person. Relative power may be noticed in an encounter. An obvious example of this is seen in the relationship between a fall adult and a small child; the adult who is thoughtful enough .to bend to the child s height will find a considerable difference in the quality of communication. In a situation where you are called upon to stand up for yourself, it is useful to do just that - stand up! An active and erect posture lends additional assertiveness to your message, whereas a slumped, passive stance gives the other person an immediate advantage as does any tendency on your part to lean back or move away.

4.

Gestures : A relaxed use of gestures can add depth or power to your message, and can suggest openness, self confidence and spontaneity on the part of the speaker. However, gesturing must not be erratic or nervous.

5.

Voice, Tone, Inflection and Volume : The way we use our voices is a vital element in our communication. Consider at least three dimensions of your voice : Tone : is it raspy, whiny, soft, angry? Inflection : do you speak in a monotone, or with sing-song effect, or emphasize certain syllables? Volume : do you try to gain attention with a whisper, or overpower others with loudness, or is it very difficult for you to shout, even when you want to?

6.

Contents : What you say is of course important, but honesty and spontaneity of expression is much more important. This means saying, for example, I am very angry with you rather than calling names or abusing people. People, who hesitate because they don t know what to say, should make a practice of saying something, to express their honest feelings at the time. It makes a great difference and adds to your assertiveness. Some other components such as fluency, timing, listening,

distance/physical contact; even weight and physical appearance, are considered as factors in developing assertiveness. Techniques of Assertiveness God grant me the confidence to accept the things I cannot change, courage to change those I can, and wisdom to know the difference.

- Anon 1. Broken Record : or Persistence. One of the most important aspects of being verbally assertive is to be persistent and keep saying what you want over and over again without getting angry, irritated or loud. By practising to speak as if we were a broken record, we learn to be persistent and stick to the point of the discussion, to keep saying what we want to say, and to ignore all side issues brought up by the person we assert ourselves to. In using broken record, you are not deterred by anything the other person may say but keep saying in a calm, repetitive voice what you want to say until the other person accedes to your request or agrees to a compromise. 2. Free Information : In order to become an assertive communicator, in social setting, you must master two skills. First you have to practice listening to the clues other people give you about themselves. This free information give you something to talk about besides the weather, and avoids those awkward silences, when you ask yourself, What do I say now? In addition, it makes it easier for people to talk about themselves, when you show an interest in things important to them. The second skill is self-disclosure. It involves disclosing information about yourself - how you think, feel and react to other person s free information. It allows the social communication to flow both ways. Eye contact is of great value here. 3. Fogging : This is a skill that teaches acceptance of manipulative criticism by calmly acknowledging to your critic the probability that there may be some truth in what he says, yet allow you to remain your own judge of what you do. It is a very effective skill for desensitising you to criticism and actually reducing the frequency of criticism from others. It rapidly sets up a psychological distance, boundary lines between you and the person you

fog. But fogging should be used with negative inquiry. In negative inquiry, you do not respond to your critic s statements with denial, defensiveness, or counter manipulative criticism of your own. Instead, you break the manipulative cycle by actively prompting more information form the critical person in a low-key, unemotional manner. 4. Negative Assertion : A skill that teaches acceptance of your errors, and faults without having to apologise by agreeing with hostile or constructive criticism of your negative qualities. It allows you to look more comfortably at negatives in your own behaviour or personality without feeling defensive and anxious or resorting to denial of real error, while at the same time reducing your critic s anger or hostility. 5. Workable Compromise : In using your verbal assertive skills, it is sometimes practical (when you feel that self-respect is not in question) to offer a workable compromise to the other person, or to cooperate when offered one. Interpersonal Behaviour at a Glance For the sake of the summary understanding of interpersonal dimensions of behaviour the following points are worth-remember : Defensive Behaviour Concerned to defend self against actual or perceived attack, be it verbal, circumstantial or physical. May result in desire to escape or flee the attack. May result in aggressive or non-assertive behaviour. Aggressive Behaviour

 Standing up for own rights, while violating rights of other people. Ignoring or dismissing needs, wants, opinions, feelings, or beliefs of others. Expressing own needs, wants or opinions, which may be honest or dishonest, in inappropriate ways. Assertive Behaviour Standing up for own rights in such a way that other people s rights are not violated. Expressing needs, wants, opinions, feelings and beliefs in direct, honest and appropriate ways. Assertiveness is based on beliefs that in any situation individuals have needs to be met, other have needs to be met, individual has rights, others have rights, individual has something to contribute, so do others. Aim of assertive behaviour - satisfy needs or wants of both parties. Non-assertive behaviour Failing to stand up for own rights. Standing up for own rights in away, which can be disregarded. Expressing own needs, wants, opinions, feelings and beliefs in an apologetic, diffident, or self-effacing way. Failing to express honestly needs, wants, opinions, feelings and beliefs. Aim of non-assertion : avoid conflict and please others. Reference Assertiveness

Interpersonal skills are essential, if we are going to be effective in handling our : Colleagues Subordinates Superiors Clients When dealing with other people, we must avoid being: Aggressive or Submissive Aggression leads to conflict. We get trapped in a vicious spiral and effective communication breaks down. Submissiveness means that we never tell the other person what we intend, and what they need to know, if they are to understand our viewpoint properly.

Aggressive

Assertive

Submissive

Aggressive and submissive are the two extremes of the spectrum. We must seek to be assertive. To let people know exactly how we feel about something without allowing emotions to impair the message. When you want to be assertive :

 Tell the other person exactly what you feel. Do not use any judgemental or emotional language to describe their behaviour. Explain clearly the effect which their behaviour is having on you. Maintain good eye contact. Keep your voice firm. Do not raise your voice. Avoid becoming emotional. Preventing/reducing defensive behaviour? Objective - Break circle of defensive/aggressive behaviour : Recognise situation. Accept at least 50 per cent responsibility for resolving situation. Avoid responding impulsively or emotionally. Pause, think, How would I like to be told? easiest to receive the information? Be calm. Lower voice, speak clearly and distinctly. Ask questions without implying judgement. Use playback techniques - reflect the other person s concerns and fears. In what form would I find it

 Allow the other person freedom to develop his/her views, even though you may disagree. Do not interrupt. Listen, before putting your own views. Be assertive, not aggressive. Avoid responding to angry, hurtful comments. Ensure that yours is the right behaviour to generate a positive response from the other person. Is it supportive? Persevere! Reject Win/Lose Aim for Win/Win Exercise Questions 1. What is interpersonal behaviour? Discuss the important dimensions of inter personal behaviour with examples. 2. 3. There are some essentials of an assertive personality . Discuss. Write short note on : a) Defensive behaviour b) Aggersive behaviour c) Non-assertive behaviour 4. 5. Define behaviour. What are the techniques of an assertive behaviour? Discuss the role of anger and the difference between anger and aggression.

6.

Human interaction is the crux of our life and society . Discuss the statement with reference to dynamics of interpersonal behaviour.

Selected References 1. Prasad, L. M., Orgnisational Behaviour 2. Luthans. R., Organisational Behaviour 3. Thomas Cummings, Edition 4. Dorothy Marcie, Organizational Behavior: Experience and Cases Fifth Edition 5. John Martin, Organizational Behaviour 6. Richard L. Daft, Organizational Theory and Design Sixth Edition. Organization Development and Change Sixth

Lesson - 6
GROUP BEHAVIOUR : TYPES, FUNCTIONS, DETERMINANTS OF GROUP BEHAVIOUR, INTER GROUP PROBLEMS INTRODUCTION A group may be defined as any number of persons who interact with each other in such a manner that the behaviour of one is influenced by the behaviour of other persons. It seems from this definition that group involves interactions among

two or more people. It may be added that these interactions should be accompanied by psychological awareness of one another, and interacting people should perceive themselves as a group. Another aspect of group that emerges from definition is that behaviour of group members is influenced by each other. In fact, behaviour of group members is influenced not so much by each other as by group norms that develop through continuous interactions among members. So a more comprehensive definition of a group is any number of people who interact with one another, are psychologically aware of one another, perceive themselves to be a group, share some common values and are affected in their behaviour and performance by group norms . FUNCTIONS OF GROUPS Groups owe their existence to their ability to satisfy member needs. These needs fall into two categories : (i) personality needs, and (ii) goal-related needs. Personality needs relate to social, psychological and ego needs that members seek to satisfy through their group membership. Goal-related needs relate to facilitation of work performance. These needs inc1ude1he followings : 1. Affiliation Needs : One of the basic human needs is to belong to others, have others belong to oneself, and emotionally relate oneself to others. Workers employed in large organizations suffer from a sense of anomie rootlessness. They seek satisfaction of their social needs of love, friendship arid belongingness through their group membership. 2. Needs for Establishing a Sense of Identity and Enhancing Selfesteem : These are ego needs. In large organizations, worker loses his sense of identity in the lonely crowd . A worker is not much more than a punch card number or a lathe operator. Group membership enables him to establish his identity as an unique individual and gratify his self-esteem need by providing him status and position.

3.

Security Need : Individual employee, working in a highly dependent relationship with management, feels a sense of helplessness and insecurity. Group enhances his sense of security through its solidarity and ability to take unified action to protect member and group interests.

4.

Need for Help in Solving Work Problems : Many a times employees need one another s help in performing their tasks. A busy supervisor of a job shop faced with a rush order, may need help of another supervisor who is not so much rushed as he is. He may also seek another supervisor s expertise and help in making his work-related decisions.

5.

Need to Get Information : This is yet another reason why people get embedded in groups. They seek knowledge about their environment relating to changes, if any, in work schedule, company policies, incentive system, etc. By pooling their information, group members find themselves more fully informed about situations and events that impinge on them.

6.

Need for Support for Individual Innovation and Originality : Group provides a supportive environment to its members to experiment their ideas, share their job knowledge with each other and explore alternative ways of doing things. The approval of fellow-workers becomes important in supporting innovations and new ideas.

TYPES OF GROUPS Groups can be classified on the basis of various factors : group goals, human relations, extent of structuring, legal organization, and so on. Some of them are: i) ii) iii) Formal and Informal groups; Membership and Reference Groups; In-groups and Out-groups;

iv) v) vi) (i)

Primary Groups arid Secondary Groups; T -Groups and Peer Groups; and Command Group and Task Group. Formal and Informal Groups Formal groups are those groups which are formally designed and organised

with specific predetermined objectives, goals and purposes. It means that groups which are established under legal and formal authority to achieve specifically defined results or to undertake delegated tasks can be called formal groups. A clear delineation of duties and relationships among the various members or officebearers is evident in formal groups. The groups which are not deliberately constructed called informal groups. Informal groups are a common feature of work life. There are many needs and desires of individuals which cannot be satisfied without their association and affiliation with the respective groups. In fact informal groups are part and parcel of human life and endeavour. They may come into existence as a result of more subtle factors such as fulfillment of specific needs of a group of individuals . Physical proximity facilitates interaction among the individuals, who come closer to make groups informally. People who work in the same section or the same shift may have greater possibility to join together. Similarly, principles, values, interests or attitudes held in common, or similarity in perceptions and approaches can facilitate formation of informal groups. Both formal and informal groups are important in the context of an organization. Departments, management committees, consultative committees, problem solving committees, work groups, etc. are formal groups. Horizontal group, vertical groups and random group are informal groups. Members who operate at the same level within the same area may make horizontal groups, while the vertical groups encompass individuals from different levels within a given area

or department. Vertical groups consist of superior subordinate relationships. Some superior executives usually make groups of their subordinates for various reasons. Random groups consist of members of various areas or departments. There are four major areas where the formal and informal groups differ. These are : interpersonal relations, leadership, behavioural control, and dependency. While interpersonal relationships are prescribed in formal groups, such relations emerge as per needs in informal groups. Similarly, leaders are generally developed, assigned and composed in formal organizations, while they emerge themselves or are chosen in the informal groups. In the formal groups, members behaviour is controlled through direction, carrot and stick; while need fulfillment of the members would regulate their activities in the informal groups. Subordinates are dependent on the leader by virtue of formal power and authority in the formal group, while member s need satisfaction, ideology, personal relation or commitment to a particular leader may motivate dependence in the informal groups. Formal groups are essential for the formal functioning of the organization. Every formal group including the work groups facilitate effective delegation, accountability, decision-making, scheduling, effective operation and so on. (ii) Membership Groups and Reference Groups Those groups to which the individual actually belongs are known as membership groups. Reference group, on the other hand, is the one which the individual identifies for reference purposes. He may like to belong to the reference group also. While the individuals are already members of certain groups, the attractiveness of the reference group makes the norms of that groups more attractive to the individuals who aspire to join it. Norms of such groups would seem to be more attractive, and as such reference group norms can influence the behaviour. However, a discrepancy in norms and values between the two groups

can be a source of conflict for the individual and for those with whom he interacts. A worker, who is member of a workgroup in a factory having less concern for workers welfare, can possibly be attracted to a reference group like a militant trade union. (iii) In-Groups and Out-Groups That cluster of individuals holding prevailing values in a society are called in-groups. It can be a majority group or it may represent the power structure with its patterns of behaviour considered desirable. The out-groups are the conglomerates looked upon as subordinate or marginal in the culture; they are usually referred to as the minority groups even though they may, in certain instances, represent a numerical majority. This breakdown between in-groups and out-groups represents a source of so chi I conflict. (iv) Primary Groups and Secondary Groups Primary groups consist of people in a close and face to face relationship over a period of extensive time period. On the other hand, it can be considered as an intimate group. As matter of fact, intimate interactions take place in a family, neighbourhood or work group. When the interrelationships are remote and general, such groups can be called secondary groups. In a strife-torn industrial society, primary group can provide activation of interpersonal relationships. Industrial enterprises can make use of primary group formation methods to maintain cohesiveness in their organization. (v) T-Group As a part of organization development, sensitivity training and T-Group formation are widely used. On the basis of the sensitivity training various training groups are formed. Members of T-Group reveal considerable amount of

cohesiveness among them. Training groups have regards and respects for their trainers, whom they consider group leaders. Two training methods are recently introduced by the Institute for Applied Behavioural Sciences. The Marathon group which may meet for an entire weekend without breaking even for sleep. The second approaching a combination of spaced and massed approaches, in which the initial session may begin with a live, in weekend, continue with weekly meetings, and then conclude with a final live-in weekend. These training methods facilitate to create better awareness, better sensitivity, cohesiveness, better identification skill, increased competence, mutual influence and coordination, etc. Generally a T-group turns to be a reference group which helps the individual to get acquainted with new norms regarding the most desirable, helpful, and authentic behaviours, attitudes, and practices, so that the individuals get opportunity to gain adaptability and adjustability. (vi) Peer-Groups Peer-groups are common in work environment or in organizations. Peergroup members may have a sense of belonging with other members, irrespective of their attitude toward their superior. High peer-group loyalty is not necessarily associated with high productivity. Work groups with identical nature can become peer-groups. Mayo s Western Electric study has certainly revealed many relevant aspects of peer groups. Many work, groups with high peer-group loyalty and common goals appear to be effective in achieving the group goals. Such high peergroup loyalty would reveal more favourable attitudes and approaches on the one hand and less anxiety on matters related to job on the other. High peer-group loyalty results in mutual co-operation and help, resulting in greater solidarity and achievement. Peer-groups are groups of people performing identical nature of work or having any other identical characteristic. They perform three key functions : (i)

Most peer-groups transmit the wider culture; beliefs, values, and patterns of behaviour. (ii) Peer-groups serve as a reality check (When a teacher teaches a wrong thing, he would have a proper correction at the hands of the classmates; (iii) The peer-groups help to achieve emotional independence. In fact, peer-groups generate a desire in the individuals for togetherness, and hence low absenteeism, strong commitment, favourable attitudes, etc., take place. (vii) Command Group and Task Group A command group comprises of a superior and the immediate subordinates. Its membership and structure are formally determined and depicted on the organization chart. Formal authority is vested with the superior over the other members of the command group, i.e., the superior would be in a commanding position. At the same time, the task group is formally formulated to work on a specific project or a given job. The interaction, structure and task of such groups are pre-determined for accomplishment. Committees are the best examples of task groups. DETERMINANTS OF GROUP BEHAVIOUR The factors which determine group behaviour and make them effective are: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) good human relations; mutual trust and faith among the members; shared goals and objectives; cohesion and cooperation; effective utilization of resources; shared leadership;

vii) viii) ix) x) (i)

self-control and subjecting to control; effective communication; periodical evaluation; and morale and job satisfaction Good Human Relations A group which closely knits itself and functions as a cohesive group has a

great scope to make excellent results. Such a group has cordial human relations among its members. Every member has a concern for every other member, while the leader has selfless attitude to every member of the group. Human relation, which binds all the members together, has a common thread of human values. Policies, strategies, attitudes, approaches, actions, reactions and so on must work for the welfare and need satisfaction of its members, while the leader in particular and the group in general strives to overcome the weaknesses of every member. Every member contributes to the common purposes and goals, which are of prime importance before him, while everybody cares for the other. The group functions as a team in a football match, no members of which must have the desire to project himself or his image. Every member has a personal interest and cordial relation with every other member in the group. (ii) Mutual Trust and Faith In such a group, mutual trust and faith are spontaneous. It means that everybody is trustworthy. No spite, no hatred, no malice and no envy, can there be in a cohesive group. It does not mean that there does not arise any disagreement between the members. Disagreements are bound to occur. The ability to recognize conflict & disagreement and seek to resolve it through negotiations, discussions and amicable settlements, must be developed. There must be a give-and-take

approach on every such occasion, while every member or the whole group must give the priority to the aggrieved and his problem. It means that the group, particularly work group, must take cognisance of the emotional problems and grudge situations of every individual member of the group and help him to overcome his problems. Interpersonal competence must be ensured for which interpersonal problems must be solved. Tremendous amount of adjustment between members is necessary, for which every member must be helped by the group to overcome his emotional and interpersonal problems. The positive qualities, potentialities and capabilities of a member must be projected even when his weak spots are dealt with. These aspects are necessary to create a feeling of mutual trust and faith among the members of a group. No conflict must be retained unresolved for long time; if possible efforts must be made to resolve the conflict as soon as it occurs. (iii) Shared Goals and Objectives Common goals of the group are shared by all the members, i.e., all the members must commit themselves to the goals of the group. This is not just a common understanding of the role of the group (work group) in the whole organization. On the other hand, every group in the organization must have its own goals and objectives in consonance with the goals of the whole organization, and every group is committed to the organizational goals. Shared goals enable the members of the group to have good human relations among them. Hence, goals sharing becomes a determinant of human relations. (iv) Cohesion and Cooperation Group cohesiveness and cooperation among the group members lead to better understanding and human relations and vice versa. Cohesion is the perception of individuals unifying adherence to group norms. It is the influence a group exerts upon its members for the adherence to its principles, practices, and

norms. Greater the cohesiveness, the greater will be the group s influence on the individual and greater will be his identification with the group. Cohesiveness is a rather intangible characteristic of the group, associated with feelings of common purpose, attraction of group members to each other, the importance of the group s activities and goals to the individual members, and the competence and success of the group. It is gauged by not only the members identification with the group, but also their desire to remain in the group. Conditions that promote group cohesiveness include agreed upon goals, clear-cut objectives, an effective group organization in which members have confidence in each other to do what is required, and successful past achievement by the group. Cohesiveness also appears to develop from (and lead to) group traditions, symbols, ceremonial, and sometimes a special jargon. Shared experiences like crises, recreational activities or everyday routine further tend to strengthen the ties between group members. Large groups with complicated organizational structure and few opportunities for personal contact tend to be much lower in cohesiveness, unlike smaller groups. The personal loyalty of members to a group and cohesiveness have a positive relationship. (v) Effective Use of Resources Effective use of resources (human resources, monetary resources and material resources) is an important determinant of group behaviour. Wherever there is team spirit existing, such a group is bound to be efficient in utilizing the resources prudently. From among all the resources, utilization of human resource is the most pivotal. Efficient utilization of human resources will lead to economic and efficient use of all other resources. Hence, the actual task of the organization is to make efficient use of human resources, which determines effective group behaviour. (vi) Shared Leadership

Every group that works under the direction of one leader is able to function effectively. It means that the members share one leader resulting in team building. The task functions, leadership functions and the maintenance functions make the group one. Task functions may include discussions and actions initiating, clarifying issues and goals, summarizing points, testing for consensus or agreement, and seeking or giving information. Task leadership facilitates to establish the group direction and assists the group in moving toward its predetermined goals. Maintenance functions include sensing and expressing group feelings, encouraging involvement and participation, harmonizing and facilitating reconciliation of disagreements, gate keeping (bringing people into discussions), and setting standards for the group. These leadership functions are got done by a group, since it may be difficult for one leader to perform all. This facilitates team work, team spirit, and team building. (vii) Self-control and Subject to Control A group that works together as a team must be able to control the activities, views, passions and prides of its individual members to adapt themselves to the group goals and group philosophy. Every member of a group must conform to the group procedures, policies, strategies and practices so that a team spirit can exist in the group activities. It is in this context that a thread of control is required to be active in a group. An effective group leader is able to exercise such a control. It is however, always appropriate for the leader to motivate the members so that they will have self-control, i.e., control ensured as an effect of motivation. This type of control has a greater and long standing effect on a group s team activity. (viii) Effective Communication

Effective communication is another important determinant of group activity and team work. It is not only necessary for team building, but for the effective functioning and existence of a group. (ix) Periodical Evaluation Periodical evaluation of the group process, effects and results may determine the effectiveness of the group. It enables the group to understand whether the purpose is actually served; and whether the group deserves to exist at all. It is necessary for every group to evaluate its performance at very regular intervals, before it moves for further task accomplishment. Effective selfevaluation is one of the most critical factors leading to the development, existence and continuance of the group. (x) Morale and Job Satisfaction Morale and job satisfaction of the group members can be considered as another important determinant of group behaviour. Morale can be defined as the possession of a feeling on the part of an employee or a group of employees of being accepted and belonging to the work group and the organization for the achievement of common goals, and it reflects the individual s sense of containment, appreciation, confidence and desirability of his carrying out the task assigned to him in the most effective way possible. In case, morale is considered as a group concept, it is applicable under three general conditions viz. : (a) The extent to which the members of a group nave a common goal : (b) The extent to which the goal is regarded as worthwhile; and (c) The extent to which the members feel that the goal can be achieved. Katz has stressed two aspects which accommodate these three conditions. According to him, morale involves two factors viz. : (1) The presence of a common goal among

the group members; and (2) The acceptance of socially recognized pathways towards that goal. High morale of individuals associated with a group goes a long way in efficiently accomplishing the group goals. It means that high mora1e enables the individuals to make commitment to common goals. High morale can be characterized by : (a) team spirit; (b) staying quality; (c) zest or enthusiasm; and (d) general resistance to frustration. Obviously, groups with high morale accomplish things with a minimum of. bickering, and that they do things because they want to do them. It is then apparent that people with high morale would have better human relations, higher achievement motivation, and better job satisfaction. INTER-GROUP PROBLEMS In recent past, organizational conflicts have gone to unprecedented proportions, resulting in organizational strife, interpersonal problems, and uncordial relations. Conflict is a breakdown in the standard mechanisms of decision-making so that an individual or group experiences difficulty in selecting an action alternative. It can be a hostility between individuals or groups in the organization on account of disagreement, or it can be viewed as the perception of disagreement between the individuals or groups, or a conflict due to the inability to resolve problems arising from human relationships. One may come across the occasions of group conflicts as well as the individual-group conflicts and individual-individual conflicts. There can also be role conflicts and conflicts of motives. Any organization would consist of many groups which seek to maintain or enlarge their own functional autonomy. Working class may not like to have close supervision, while supervisors may reveal a resentment against the punctuality condition, and the production executive cannot

tolerate the curbing of his functional autonomy. At the same time, trade unions can appreciate only their free reign. Thus, there are many areas of conflict in every organization. The individual conflicts as well as group conflicts are important in the context of organizational behaviour. Intergroup conflicts arise on account of differences in goals or perceptions. During conflict, certain interesting effects may take place within the group. Within each competing group better cohesiveness, loyalty, tolerance of authoritarian directives, better structure, etc., have been noticed. The group climate also changed from an informal to a task-oriented one. Hostility between the opposition groups or individuals may exist, while interaction between them can be unfavourable and stereotype. Either from individual conflicts or group conflicts, the organization may suffer. Hence, timely conflict management is necessary on the part of management. Human relations in organizations are considerably influenced by intergroup behaviour also. It has become a matter of concern for organizational theorists. This is especially so in the context of the group dynamics movement, which has led to increased awareness and understanding of problems connected to intergroup behaviour and relationship. Intergroup behaviour is manifested by both cooperation and conflict. The following intergroup relationship factors have been suggested by Blake and Mouton : i) Each group becomes more closely knit and elicits greater loyalty from its members, and bury their differences. ii) iii) iv) Group climate changes from informal group to work and task groups. The group becomes structured and organised. The group gains tolerance even to tolerate autocratic leadership.

v) vi) vii) viii)

Loyalty and conformity are demanded and commanded by the group. Group competitions take place resulting in the growth of efficiency. Certain groups consider their competitors as their enemies. Group may begin to experience distortions of perception, i.e., each group would perceive the stimuli favourable to it; while the groups perceive their strengths, weaknesses tend to be neglected.

ix) x)

Intergroup conflict may arise. Group cohesion would develop, especially winning group commands better cohesion.

xi)

Winning group may encourage intra-group co-operation while its members may become complacent.

xii) xiii)

Loser may be in low morale, and find out excuses for failure. Winner may attract the members of the losing group and thereby inter group rivalry may be generated.

xiv)

Loser will have to work hard to gain ground and obviously competition between the winner and the loser takes place.

xv)

Loser may struggle hard to re-establish separate identity and prominence while intra-group co-operation may reduce, since the group may tend to reduce its concentration on its member.

Resolve Intergroup Problems

An executive is generally faced with the situation of conflict among two or more groups working under his supervision. The managerial strategy for resolving group problem suggested by Schein involves the following steps : (a) Identifying a Common Enemy : Competing groups can be helped to resolve their conflicts if they are helped to perceive a common enemy. For example, two conflicting groups may be helped to perceive that their conflict will undermine production to such an extent, or their disagreement over introduction of change in technology will so undermine the company s competitive strength that it will lose its position to a competing company. In this case, if the competing company is perceived as the common enemy, the conflicting groups may find it more strategic to collaborate with management in strengthening the company s competitive strength against its competitor. (b) Inventing a Negotiating Strategy Which Brings Subgroups of the Competing Groups into Interaction with Each Other : This strategy assigns the mediating role of a negotiator to the manager. He should bring together sub-groups of competing groups into a situation of discussing their respective position and problems. This will restore interaction and comri1unication among conflicting groups and may lead to conflict resolution. (c) Locating a Superordinate Goal : This implies that the manager may identify a goal which is equally valuable to the competing groups. For example, the goal may be to establish a new record of production and win the company s recognition as its best department. (d) Laboratory Training Method : Blake and Mouton have suggested the use of laboratory training method for resolving group conflict. It involves the following steps: (i) competing groups are brought in a training situation

with specifically stated objective of exploring their mutual perceptions and relations; (ii) each group separately discusses its perception toward itself and the other group; as well as the nature of its relations with the other group. It also focuses on identifying the cause of prevailing conflict; (iii) leader of each group, in the presence of both the groups, shares perceptions of his group toward itself and toward the other group; (iv) without any discussion on these stated perceptions, each group returns to a private session to analyze what it has heard from group leaders and reexamine its perception toward itself and the other group; (v) the groups again return to the joint session and, working through their leaders, share the discrepancies they have discovered in their respective perceptions and attitudes toward each other; (vi) in this last stage, groups further explore the causes of conflict and explore the basis of cooperation in future. (e) Split the Group : If a manager, despite his genuine efforts, finds it impossible to secure group cooperation, and if the group continues to undermine management goals, he may adopt, as the very last resort, the strategy of splitting the, group. This can be done by transferring the key members, adopting, individual supervision focusing, on assignment of tasks to individual, dealing with individuals in problem solving, and rewarding or punishing individual performance. Any attempt by the manager to undermine the group cohesiveness or split the group is likely to be met with counteraction, but he will have to deal with it with patience, courage and, tact. SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 1. 2. Define Group . What are the functions performed by groups? Discuss in detail the different determinants of group behaviour.

3. 4.

Describe the different types of groups. Write a detailed note on Inter group behaviour .

SUGGESTED READINGS 1. 2. 3. 4. Human Resources Management and Human Relations by V.P. Michael. Organization and Management by R.D. Agarwal. Organizational Behaviour and Managerial Effectiveness by V.P. Michael. Introduction to Organizational Behaviour by Peter Weissenberg.

Lesson - 7
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS : IMPLICATIONS OF TA Individual s behaviour is guided by various psychological factors such as perception, learning, personality, and motivation. The interpersonal behaviour can be studied further in terms of primarily in dyad or two persons relationships, or in terms of group having more than two persons. In each such case, the individual s behaviour affects and is affected by the behaviour of others. Such effect is reflected by change in perception; learning, personality, motivation. Whether people interact in assertive or non-assertive ways, there is a social transaction in which one person responds to another. The study of there social transactions between people is called Transactional Analysis (TA).

Transactional analysis (TA) offers a mode of personality and the dynamics of self and its relationship to others that makes possible, a clear and meaningful description of behaviour. TA a method of analysing and understanding interpersonal behaviour. When people interact, there is social transaction in which one person responds to another. The study of these transactions between people is called Transactional Analysis. Eric Berne developed TA for psychotherapy in 1950. Later the applications of TA to ordinary interactions was popularised by Berne, Harrs, and Jongeward. TA involves analysis of Awareness, Structural analysis (ego states), Analysis of transactions, Script Analysis, and game analysis. 1. LEVELS OF SELF AWARENESS The dyadic (between low persons) relationship can be assumed to be composed of interself. Self is the core of personality pattern, which provides integration. Such a concept is cognitive. It describes the self in terms of image, both conscious and unconscious. Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham have developed a diagram that gives to look atwhat one is conscious in one s social exchanges and what one is not. Their Johari window diagram (named by combining the first few letters of their names) looks like this. Information Known to self Information Known to Others Information not known to self

Exhibit I : Johari Window

This model is made up of four different quadrants that together represent total person in relation to others on the basis of awareness of behaviour, feeling, and motivation. Each quadrant is defined as follow : a) The open Self. The open quadrant refers to states about individual himself.

Such as behaviours, feelings, and motivations that he knows and is willing to share with others. Sometimes in a relationship the individual is straight forward, open, and sharing. It is clear to both what he is doing, how he is felling, and what his motivations are :b) The Blind Self :- The blind quadrant refers to states about as individual

known to others but not known to him. Other people know what is happening to him but he is not aware of it. c) The Hidden Self :- The hidden quadrant refers to states about the individual

known to him but not known to others. This is private and only the person concerned knows what is happening. The hidden self is within the vision of the individual but he does not want to share with others. People learn to hide many feelings and ideas right from their childhood. d) The Unknown Self :- The Unknown quadrant refers to states that neither

the individual nor other people know about him. The unknown self is mysterious. Many times, motivations and feelings go very deep and no one, including the person concerned, knows about these. People often experience these parts of life in dreams or in deep-rooted fears or compulsions. These acts, feelings, and motivations remain vague and unclear to people until they allow them to surface. II. CHANGE IN AWARENESS The awareness about self is dynamic because, it changes continuously. As awareness changes, quadrant to which the psychological state is assigned also changes. Jogeward identified eleven principles of such change.

1. 2.

A change in anyone quadrant will affect all other quadrants. It takes energy to hide, deny, or be blind to behavior which is involved in interaction.

3.

Threat tends to decrease; awareness; mutual trust tends to increase awareness.

4. 5.

Forced awareness (exposure) is undesirable and usually ineffective. Interpersonal learning means a change has taken place so that quadrant 1 is larger, and one more of other quadrants has grown smaller.

6.

Working with others is facilitated by a large enough area of free activity. If means more of the resources and skills of the persons involved can be applied to the task at hand.

7. 8.

The smaller the first quadrant, the poorer the communication. There is universal curiosity about the unknown area, but is held in check by custom, social training, and diverse fears.

9.

Sensitivity means appreciating the covert aspects of behaviour, in quadrants 2, 3,and 4, and respecting the desire of others to keep them so.

10.

Learning about group processes, as they are being experienced, helps to increase awareness (enlarging quadrant 1) for the group as a whole as well as for individual members.

11.

The value system of a group and its members may be observed in the way the group deals with unknowns in the life of the group itself.

In addition to image, there is a structure associated with the interself. This consists of those elements of each personality in the interperson which affect directly its processes of interaction. The interself of the organisational interperson is then derived from the fact that two selves, two personalities, come together in an instrumental relationship. In addition to its structural dimensions, a second aspect, as discussed earlier, is the image of the relationship in minds of the participants. This affects the type of interpersonal behaviour. III. EGO STATES Two people interact with each from one of the three psychological positions, or behavioural patterns, known as ego states. Ego states are a person s way of thinking, feeling, and behaving at arty time. These ego states are: parent, adult and child. According to Berne, two people interact with each other from one of three psychological positions, known as ego states. These ago states are called parent, Adult and Child, and a person can operate (communicate or act) from anyone of the three. People Whose Parent ego state is in control may be protective, controlling, nurturing, critical, or instructive. They may dogmatically refer to policies and standards with such comments as You know the rule, Angelo. Now follow it. The adult Ego State will appear as rational, calculating, factual, and unemotional behavior. It tries to upgrade decisions by seeking facts, processing data, estimating probabilities, and holding factual discussions. The child Ego State reflects the emotions developed in response to childhood experiences. It may be spontaneous, dependent, creative, or rebellious. Like an actual child, the Child Ego State desires approval from others and prefers immediate rewards. It can be identified by its emotional tone, as when an employee comments to the supervisor, You re always picking on me!

Three conclusions about-ego stand out. First, conversations often are a mixture of reactions from Parent, Adult, and Child. Second, each ago state has both positive and negative features-it can add to or subtract from another person s feeling of satisfaction. Third, we can detect the ego state that is in control by carefully observing not only the words used but also a person s tone, posture, gestures, and facial expression. Ego states are more apparent in two-person transactions but become more difficult to identify in-group conversations. IV. LIFE POSITONS: Each person tends to exhibit one of four life positions. Very early in Childhood a person develops a dominant way of relating to people. That philosophy tends to remain with the person for a lifetime unless major experiences occur to change it; hence it is called a life position. Although one life position tends to dominate a person s transactions, other positions may be exhibited from time to time in specific transactions. That is, a life position dominates, but it is not the only position ever taken. Life positions stem from a .combination of two viewpoints, as shown in Exhibit 2. First, how do people view themselves? Second, how do they view other people in general? The combination of either a positive response (OK) or a negative response (not OK) to each question results in four possible life positions: I m not OK- You re OK. I m not OK-You re not OK. I m OK-You re not OK. I m OK-You re OK.

The desirable position and the one that involves the greatest likelihood of Adult-to Adult transactions is I m OK-You re OK. It shows healthy acceptance of self and respect for others. It is not likely to lead to constructive communications; productive conflict, and mutually satisfying confrontations. The other three life positions are less psychologically mature and less effective. The important point is that, regardless of one s present life position, the I m OKYou re OK position can, be learned. There in lies society s hope for improved interpersonal transactions. Positive I m okYou re not OK Negative I m not okYou re not OK Negative Attitude toward others Exhibit 2 TRANSACTIONS When people interact, they involve in a transaction with others. Thus when a stimulus (verbal or non-verbal) from a person is being responded by another person, a transaction is said to occur. The transaction is routed from ego states. Depending on the ego states of persons, involved in transactions, there may be three types of transactions - 1. Complementary, 2. qrossed 3. Ulterior. COMPLEMENTARY TRANSACTIONS A transaction is complementary when the stimulus and response patterns from one Ego State to another are parallel. Thus the message by a person gets the I m okYou re OK I m not okYou re OK Positive

predicted response from other person. In all, there can be nine complementary transactions. These are adult-adult, parent-child, child-parent, etc. The transaction is Complementary because both are acting in the perceived and expected ego states. Usually in such a case, both persons are satisfied and communication is complete. Their complementary transactions are elaborated as follows. 1. Adult-Adult Transactions. The manager in the adult ego state tries to reason

out issues, clarifies and informs employees of issues, and has concern for facts and figures, and human needs. His life position is the I am O.K. you are O.K. This is an ideal transaction. Complementary transactions in these ego states are very effective because both persons are acting in a rational manner. Data is processed, decisions are made, and both parties are working for the solutions. Satisfaction achieved by both persons from the solution rather than one person (superior) having other person (subordinate) a dutiful employee or the subordinate only trying to please his superior. However, there are some inherent disadvantages to the adult-adult transactions. The eliminating of the child ego can make the transactions dull due to the lack of stimulation that child can provide. Sometimes adult-adult level may affect decisions being reached due to rational dataprocessing procedures and the deadline may emerge. In such a case, the superior may have to take the decision with his parent ego state. In general, however, this is .the best type of transactions for organizational functioning. Adult-Adult transactions may De presented in the following figure. P P

Adult-Adult Transaction

2.

Adult-Parent Transaction. In adult-parent transaction, while the manager

attempts to use the information he has processed the employee in the parent ego prefers to use cliches and rules of the Past. The employee tries to control and dominate the manager by using the, parent ego. This transaction style can be effective only on a temporary basis. It can help a new manager understand the rules and guidance under which the employee operates. There are many problems in this transaction style. An employee in the parent ego may create hostile feelings towards managers with adult ego, particularly in the long run. The employee may create other problem when other employees are working with their child ego and recognizing his parent ego because he may have better interaction with other employees. P P

Adult-Parent Transaction 3. Adult-Child Transaction. Adult-child interactions can be effective when the

manager is aware of the Ego State of the employee. In such a case, the manager can allow the employee in the child ego to be creative. But there may be problem in this interaction when the employee acts irrationally because of his child ego. Another problem in this context may be in the form of assumption of employee s ego that may be taken in adult ego but this assumption may not hold good. This creates a situation that may be frustrating to the manager and the employee.

4.

Parent-Parent Transaction. The manager in the parent ego uses I am O.K.

Your are not O.K. Life position. He will be a source of admonitions, rewards; rules, criticisms, and praise. This parent-parent transaction can be beneficial in cases whose employee joins forces with the manager and supports him. There are certain disadvantages of this type of situation. This may lead to unnecessary competition between the manager and the employee because the latter will promote his own idea rather than those of the manager.

s 5. Parent-Adult Transaction. In this type of transaction, the manager may be

frustrated because the employee will not perform as directed. At the same time, the employee may also feel frustration because of the manager s failures to act as adult. Due to frustration, such a relationship may not last long. .G 0. 1 .l. 0 0

6.

Parent-Child Transaction. This may be the ideal situation if the Manager is

interacting with parent ego and the employee is acting in child ego. The employee finds this transaction advantageous in that eliminates much responsibility and pressure. The child prevents much conflict and provides for ease operation. However, this situation may not be advantageous in the long run. This depends on the feeling that employees are not capable of doing anything. The employee suffers from this interaction because he has to surrender his adult ego. He may feel frustration because he feels his personality is not developed. ,, 0 0 7. Child-parent Transaction. The manager in the child ego May Contribute G

very little to the effectiveness of management. This is so that, though creativity is one of the characteristics of child, the role of a manager goes beyond this creativity. In the child-parent transaction, the employee controls the manager in the child ego. The parent will be strong and bearing on the child, and the manager will yield to the employee. The employee may hold threats of punishment to the manager in the form of ridicule, loss of popularity, or even in demotion. G s

8.

Child-Adult transaction. In this transaction, the adult employee will control

child manager. The employee may become discouraged particularly when the manager makes decisions on the basis of whims. Fancies; and emotions, which

pose problems to employee who want to, interact on the basis of rationality. A major disadvantage of this transaction is that the organization may lose many good employees, particularly those who act on rational basis. G S s G

9.

Child-Child Transaction. The manager interacting in Child Child ego is not capable of leading his employee successfully and proves to

be a liability to the organization. This transaction may be lasting because the organization will review performance. Both manager and employee are acting on whim and fancy, consequently jeopardizing the organizational performance. G G , J 0 S Although these are the possible complementary transactions in the organization because the line of communication is parallel, not all these are ideal for the organization or for the people concerned. From this point of view, only adult-adult transaction is good. In some circumstances, as discussed earlier, parent-child complementary transactions may be good. 10. Non-Complementary Transactions. Non-complementary or crossed 0

transactions may occur when stimulus-response lines are not parallel. This

happens when the person who initiates transaction expecting a certain response does not get it. The position has been shown in the following figure. G D D

In this case; the manager tries to deal with the employee on adult to-adult basis but the employee responds on child-to parent basis and the communication is blocked. Crossed transaction is not satisfactory because the line of communication is blocked and the further transaction does not take place. In such a case, the manager might refuse to play parent-child game and may try again for an adult communication. Another alternative for the manager may be to move parent child start in order to resume communication with the employee. 11. Ulterior Transaction. Ulterior transaction is the most complex because the

communication has double meaning. When an ulterior message is sent, it is often disguised in a socially acceptable way. On the surface level, the communication has a clear adult message, whereas it carries a hidden message on the psychological level. Ulterior transactions, like blocked transactions are undesirable. STROKING People seek stroking in their interactions with others. Stroking is defined as any act of recognition for another. It applies to all types of recognition, such as physical, verbal, and nonverbal contact between people. In most jobs the primary method of stroking is verbal, such as Pradeep, you had an excellent sales record

last month Examples of physical strokes are a pat on the back and a firm handshake. Strokes may be either positive, negative or mixed. Positive strokes feel good when they are received, and they contribute to the recipient s sense of being OK. Negative strokes hurt physically or emotionally and make the recipient feel less OK about her-or himself. An example of a mixed stroke is this supervisor s comment : Suresh, that s a good advertising layout, considering the small amount of experience you have in this field. In this instance the supervisor is

communicating in a judgmental Parent-to-child pattern, and perhaps the negative stroke about lack of experience is included to show superiority or to retaliate for an earlier negative stroke given by the employee. The supervisor normally secures a better result by avoiding the punishing Parent-to-Child approach and initiating an Adult-to Adult communication. Using this approach with a tardy employee, the supervisor might say, Good morning, Ramesh. Did you have some problem getting to work this morning that I can help you with? The discussion might then develop into an Adult problem-solving conversation ( I m OK-You re OK ) that will reduce the probability of ft:lture tardiness. BENEFITS OF STUDY OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS Organizations that have used TA report that it has been moderately successful. Training in TA can give employees fresh insights into their own personalities; it also can help them understand why others sometimes respond as they do. A major benefits improved interpersonal communication. Employees can sense when crossed communication, preferably in the adult-to-Adult pattern. The result is a general improvement in interpersonal transactions. TA is especially useful in sales and other areas where success depends on customer relations.

1.

Developing Positive Thinking TA brings positive actions in people because it brings positive approach

towards life. TA brings a clear change from negative feelings-confusion, defeat fear, frustration, loneliness, pessimism, and suppression-to positive feelings clear thinking, victory, achievement, courage, gratification; decision, friendship, optimism, and fulfillment. Some of the specific areas for developing positive thinking through TA are stroking, positive reinforcement, inner dialogue as related to decision-making, active listening, and time-structuring. 2. Interpersonal Effectiveness TA improves interpersonal relationship by providing understanding of ego states of persons involved in interaction. The managers may be able to identify the ego states from which both parties are interacting. A better understanding of themselves and of other persons will make them more comfortable, confident, and effective. The improved interpersonal relations will being effectiveness to the organization. 3. Motivation TA can be applied in motivation where it helps in satisfying human needs through complementary transactions and positive strokes. Manager can enrich jobs for people by helping them to engage in kinds of activities that give them more positive strokes. TA helps in changing the managerial styles more suitable to the emergent situation. 4. Organization Development TA can help in organization development process: Jongeward has identified the rare of TA in six areas of organization development : to maintain adult-adult transactions, to give an Ok to the natural child, to identify quickly crossed

transactions, to minimise destructive game playing, to maximize encounters (intimacy), and to develop supportive systems, policies, and work environment. 19 manager acts from child ego state, the 9-9 manager acts from adult ego and effectively makes use of parent and child ego states. In the managerial grid, 9-9 style is the most desirable which corresponds with adult-adult transaction, which is best according to TA. 5. Conflict resolution There are several natural connections between TA and the approaches to resolving conflict that are discussed earlier in this chapter. The parent Ego State may lead to the use of a forcing strategy, while the Child State may smooth over conflicts or try to avoid them. The I m OK-You re OK person is more likely to seek a win-win outcome, applying the Adult ego state and a confrontational strategy. Once more, the relationship among a number of behavioral ideas and actions is apparent. REFERENCES : 1. 2. 3. Organizational Behaviour by John W. New Strom. Organizational Behaviour by R.S. Diwedi. Organizational Behaviour by L.M. Prasad.

QUESTIONS: 1. What is transactional analysis? Describe its applications in business organisations. 2. What do you understand by levels of self-awareness? Briefly describe the application of Johari window for self-awareness.

3. 4.

Briefly describe the ego states, with examples of each of the state. Describe various types of transactions accruing in interpersonal

relationships.